GROUP BEHAVIOUR AT WORK

What are Groups? A group is of two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular common objectives.

Group Behaviour Group behaviour refers to a situation where people interact with each other as part of a small or large group - how they react to discussions, arguments that take place in a group of which they are members. Group behaviour emanates from the causes that contribute to the groups effectiveness. The well structured, well defined role and status hierarchy, able leadership, well developed norms and strong cohesiveness a group has, the greater is the groupthink. Groupthink is defined as the deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgement in the interest of group solidarity. As groups function and interact with other groups, they develop their own unique set of characteristics including structure, cohesiveness, roles, norms and processes. As a result, groups may cooperate or compete with other groups, and intergroup competition can lead to conflict.

What are the group functions? May be divided into two types and a balance of both is required: Task functions required to achieve the groups purpose and objectives and include: Formulating objectives and setting targets Seeking opinions and exchanging information to facilitate task achievement Reinforcing, confirming and clarifying information Assessing brainstormed ideas and selecting ideal solutions

Maintenance functions of the viability of the group by establishing norms, and a sense of purpose. Conflict resolution and ensuring harmonious relationships Creating opportunities for participation and member contribution Assessing group effectiveness and initiating any required remedial action

Classifying groups Groups can be either formal or informal. 1. Formal groupsthose defined by the organizations structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks a. The behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. b. An airline flight crew is an example of a formal group. 2. Informal groupsalliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined a. Natural formations in the work environment in response to the need for social contact b. Three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together is an informal group. 3. It is possible to sub-classify groups as command, task, interest, or friendship groups. a. Command groups are dictated by the formal organization. i. The organization chart determines a command group. ii. Composed of direct reports to a given manager b. Task groupsorganizationally determinedrepresent those working together to complete a job task. i. A task groups boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships.

ii. For instance, if a college student is accused of a campus crime, it may require communication and coordination among the dean of academic affairs, the dean of students, the registrar, the director of security, and the students advisor. iii. All command groups are also task groups, but the reverse need not be true. c. An interest group. People who affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. i. Employees who band together to have their vacation schedules altered ii. Friendship groups often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics. iii. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age or ethnic heritage. d. Informal groups satisfy their members social needs. i. These types of interactions among individuals, even though informal, deeply affect their behavior and performance. ii. There is no single reason why individuals join groups. iii. Exhibit 8-1 summarizes the most popular reasons people have for joining groups.

WHY DO PEOPLE WORK IN GROUPS?

Security: By joining a group, individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats when they are part of a group. Status: Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others provides recognition and status for its members. Self-Esteem: Groups can provide people with feelings of self-worth. That is, in addition to conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves.

Power: What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action. There is power in numbers. Goal Achievement: There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task; there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to complete a job.

Group Conflict Group conflict is where behaviour of individuals that form a group causes conflict, argument, anger, distrust within a group. This conflict is due to variance of opinion over the issues in the group-caused due to differences in social norms, education, values, culture and religion. Misunderstandings in a group are common because of the ways many people use language - use of jargon, by-passing people and their ideas, use of offensive words or using words to conceal the truth. Both constructive and destructive conflicts occur in a group. Constructive conflicts can lead to new solution and creative ideas and destructive conflicts must be dealt with immediately as they create hostility between the members and can even break a group. Discussions, counselling can be used to find alternative solutions so that the group moves forward. However, individual creativity, uniqueness and independent thinking should not be lost in the pursuit of group unity.

Techniques for Effective Participation In Group

A discussion is a process of integrating ideas in order to construct a solution to a problem. It is an informal exchange of ideas among members of a group. For any discussion to be fruitful and constructive, participation of each member of the group is essential. The criteria for effective participation springs directly from the purpose of group discussion. Since the group has assembled for a special purpose, the potential of this group can be achieved only if all members work together. and perform certain duties.

Attitude plays an important part in effective participation and certain attitudes are necessary for success :-

1. Respect for each individual : The basic democratic attitude is to make discussion free and democratic for everyone in the group. Each member must get a chance to express his ideas. This, of course, does not mean that you accept or approve all the acts or ideas of others. 2. Open-mindedness towards ideas : Do not ignore contrary evidence produced by other members. Old ideas can be modified and improved. Do not be too critical. 3. Contribute : A member's first duty is to contribute as much and as often as can to the progress of the discussion. Sitting quietly because other people talk too much or try to dominate or because you are shy and not sure of yourself cannot be justified. A person cannot contribute by complete silence. Always come prepared for the discussion. Participants often hesitate to take initiative and start the topic - 'Can we come to the topic of business?' a simple question like this can create the lead for discussion. 4. Listen to the remarks of others : Fruitful discussion and integration can take place only if group members pay attention to the contribution of others and make sure they understand what is being said. There is no rigid order in which a participant gets his turn - each member must join in without disrupting the speaker's flow of thought. However, if a member deviates too much from the topic, he can be reminded of the time or the topic. 5. Oral Communication : Skills of oral communication are an important part of effective participation. These skills include :1. The use of voice and articulation : Make yourself understood. Discuss in a warm friendly manner, be informal but not personal, and use enough force to carry the ideas to all members of the group but do not be bombastic. 2. Language should flow well enough to carry the listener along. Fluency in the use of language can be achieved if one is well prepared and clear about the ideas he is expressing. Learn how to use language. Language should be grammatically correct, use natural and simple words, avoid difficult complicated and ambiguous words, long phrases. Words used should indicate the exact meaning. 3. It is important to understand the make up of group before you decide what you say does the group consist of seniors, peers or subordinates. This will help a member not only to decide what to say but also how to say it.

4. Members can and should bring to the discussion any material that will assist the discussion including books, charts, films or use modern technical aids like a projector or power point presentation. 5. 'Ideas won't keep, something must be done about them' Alfred N. Whitehead.

During discussion, one member must note down the key points and a plan of action of 'What do we do next?' must be detailed. There must be a clear 'To Do' list of what, to do and when. 1. What has to be done first, second and third? Procedure and Priority of work flow. 2. Who is responsible for what? Allocation of jobs. 3. How will you know your job is complete? The criterion of success.

GROUP DYNAMICS: Dynamics of Group Behaviour Dynamics of Group Behaviour refers to study of the behaviour of people as a part of a group. People gather in groups for various reasons and as a group process develops - the group goes through several stages. Human beings exhibit some characteristic behavior patterns in groups. People involved in managing groups and group members themselves can benefit from studying theories and doing practical exercises which help them to better understand people's behaviour in groups and group dynamics. When group patterns are combined with study of individual development, then group dynamics can also be applied to education and therapy (as is often the case in experiential, outdoor and adventure education). People may underestimate the importance of society and group memberships on their lives. Whilst people sometimes undertake solo journeys ut by and large much of our experiences of life involve being engaged with others and groups. The nature of these groups can be quite varied, from a family going for a walk, to the crowd at a football game, to an internet discussion group, to a group of fellow workers.

GROUP FORMATION A group is able to share experiences, to provide feedback, to pool ideas, to generate insights, and provide an arena for analysis of experiences. The group provides a measure of support and reassurance. Moreover, as a group, learners may also plan collectively for change action. Group discussion is a very effective learning method. i Participation Participation is a fundamental process within a group, because many of the other processes depend upon participation of the various members. Levels and degrees of participation vary. Some members are active participants while others are more withdrawn and passive. In essence, participation means involvement, concern for the task, and direct or indirect contribution to the group goal. If members do not participate, the group ceases to exist. Factors which affect members participation The content or task of the group- is it of interest, importance and relevance? The physical atmosphere - is it comfortable physically, socially and psychologically? The psychological atmosphere - is it accepting, non-threatening? Members personal preoccupations - are there any distracting thoughts in their mind? The level of interaction and discussions - is adequate information provided for everyone to understand? - is it at a level everyone understands? Familiarity - between group members- do members know each other from before?

ii Communication Communication within a group deals with the spoken and the unspoken, the verbal and the nonverbal, the explicit and the implied messages that are conveyed and exchanged relating to information and ideas, and feelings. Two-way communication implies a situation where not only the two parties talk to each other, but that they are listening to each other as well. It helps in

- Clarification of doubts, confusions and misconceptions - Both parties understanding each other - Receiving and giving of feedback

It indicates the degree of respect between the two parties Helpful hints for effective communication 1. Have a circular seating arrangement so that everyone can see and interact with everyone else 2. If there are two facilitators, they should sit apart so that communication flow is not in one direction 3. Respect individuals- let everyone call everyone else by name respectfully 4. Encourage and support the quiet members to voice their opinions 5. Try and persuade the people who speak too much to give others a chance 6. Ensure that only one person speaks at a time or no one else will be heard 7. Discourage sub groups from indulging in side talk iii Problem solving Most groups find themselves unable to solve problems because they address the problem at a superficial level. After that they find themselves blocked because they cannot figure out why the problem occurred and how they can tackle it. Therefore an effective problem solving procedure would be to: 1. Clearly define the problem: Is it what appears on the surface or are there deep hidden aspects? 2. Try to thoroughly explore and understand the causes behind the problem 3. Collect additional information, from elsewhere if necessary, and analyze it to understand the problem further

4. The group should suspend criticism and judgment for a while and try to combine each other's ideas or add on improvements. The objectives should be to generate as many ideas and suggestions as possible. This is called "brainstorming" in a group, when individuals try lateral thinking. iv Leadership Leadership involves focussing the efforts of the people towards a common goal and to enable them to work together as one. In general we designate one individual as a leader. This individual may be chosen from within or appointed from outside. Thus, one member may provide leadership with respect to achieving the goal while a different individual may be providing leadership in maintaining the group as a group. These roles can switch and change. B. DEVELOPMENT OF GROUPS STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

The Five-Stage Model

Forming The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertain. Personal relations are characterized by dependence. Group members rely on safe, patterned behavior and look to the group leader for guidance and direction. Group members have a desire for acceptance by the group and a need to be known that the group is safe. They set about gathering impressions and data about the similarities and differences among them and forming preferences for future sub grouping. Rules of behavior seem to be to keep things simple and to avoid controversy. Serious topics and feelings are avoided. The major task functions also concern orientation. Members attempt to become oriented to the tasks as well as to one another. Discussion centers around defining the scope of the task, how to approach it, and similar concerns. To grow from this stage to the next, each member must relinquish the comfort of non-threatening topics and risk the possibility of conflict.

Storming

The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict. The next stage, called Storming, is characterized by competition and conflict in the personal relations dimension an organization in the task-functions dimension. As the group members attempt to organize for the task, conflict inevitably results in their personal relations. Individuals have to bend and mold their feelings, ideas, attitudes, and beliefs to suit the group organization. Because of "fear of exposure" or "fear of failure," there will be an increased desire for structural clarification and commitment. Although conflicts may or may not surface as group issues, they do exist. Questions will arise about who is going to be responsible for what, what the rules are, what the reward system is, and what criteria for evaluation are. These reflect conflicts over leadership, structure, power, and authority. There may be wide swings in members behavior based on emerging issues of competition and hostilities. Because of the discomfort generated during this stage, some members may remain completely silent while others attempt to dominate.

Norming The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness. In the Norming stage, interpersonal relations are characterized by cohesion. Group members are engaged in active acknowledgment of all members contributions, community building and maintenance, and solving of group issues. Members are willing to change their preconceived ideas or opinions on the basis of facts presented by other members, and they actively ask questions of one another. Leadership is shared, and cliques dissolve. When members begin to know-and identify with-one another, the level of trust in their personal relations contributes to the development of group cohesion. It is during this stage of development (assuming the group gets this far) that people begin to experience a sense of group belonging and a feeling of relief as a result of resolving interpersonal conflicts. The major task function of stage three is the data flow between group members: They share feelings and ideas, solicit and give feedback to one another, and explore actions related to the task. Creativity is high. If this stage of data flow and cohesion is attained by the group members, their interactions are characterized by openness and sharing of information on both a personal and task level. They feel good about being part of an effective group.

Performing

The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. The Performing stage is not reached by all groups. If group members are able to evolve to stage four, their capacity, range, and depth of personal relations expand to true interdependence. In this stage, people can work independently, in subgroups, or as a total unit with equal facility. Their roles and authorities dynamically adjust to the changing needs of the group and individuals. Stage four is marked by interdependence in personal relations and problem solving in the realm of task functions. By now, the group should be most productive. Individual members have become self-assuring, and the need for group approval is past. Members are both highly task oriented and highly people oriented. There is unity: group identity is complete, group morale is high, and group loyalty is intense. The task function becomes genuine problem solving, leading toward optimal solutions and optimum group development. There is support for experimentation in solving problems and an emphasis on achievement. The overall goal is productivity through problem solving and work.

Adjourning The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. The final stage, adjourning, involves the termination of task behaviors and disengagement from relationships. A planned conclusion usually includes recognition for participation and achievement and an opportunity for members to say personal goodbyes. Concluding a group can create some apprehension - in effect, a minor crisis. The termination of the group is a regressive movement from giving up control to giving up inclusion in the group. The most effective interventions in this stage are those that facilitate task termination and the disengagement process.

Towards explaining Work Group Behaviour

GROUP BEHAVIOUR MODEL External conditions imposed on the group An organizations overall strategy, typically put into place by top management, outlines the organizations goals and the means for attaining these goals. The strategy will influence the power of various work groups which will determine the resources that the organizations top management is willing to allocate to it for performing its tasks. Organizations have authority structures that define who reports to whom, who makes decisions, and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to make. Organizations create rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions, and other forms of formal regulations to standardize employee behavior. The more formal regulations that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more the behavior of work group members will be consistent and predictable.

Group Member Resources Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities: Part of a groups performance can be predicted by assessing the knowledge, skills, and abilities of its individual members. A groups performance is not merely the summation of its individual members abilities, but these abilities set parameters for what members can do and how effectively they will perform in a group. A review of the evidence has found that interpersonal skills consistently emerge as important for high work group performance. These include: conflict management and resolution, collaborative

problem solving, and communication. The presence or absence of resources such as money, time, raw materials, and equipmentwhich are allocated to the group by the organizationhave a large bearing on the groups behavior.

The performance evaluation and reward system. Group members behavior will be influenced by how the organization evaluates performance and what behaviors are rewarded.

Every organization has an unwritten culture that defines standards of acceptable and unacceptable behavior for employees. Members of work groups have to accept the standards implied in the organizations dominant culture if they are to remain in good standing.

The physical work setting creates both barriers and opportunities for work group interaction.

Personality Characteristics There has been a great deal of research on the relationship between personality traits and group attitudes and behavior.

Attributes that have a positive connotation in our culture tend to be positively related to group productivity, morale, and cohesiveness.

These include: sociability, initiative, openness, and flexibility. Negatively evaluated characteristics such as authoritarianism, dominance, and unconventionality tend to be negatively related to the dependent variables.

No one personality characteristic is a good predictor of group behavior.

Group Properties Work groups have properties that shape the behaviour of members and make it possible to explain and predict a large portion of individual behaviour within the group as well as the performance of the group as well as the performance of the group itself. Some of these properties are roles, norms, status, group size, and the degree of group cohesiveness.

Roles

All group members are actors, each playing a role.

A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.

We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. Many of these roles are compatible; some create conflicts.

Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.

a. Role identity There are certain attitudes and actual behaviors consistent with a role, and they create the role identity. People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the situation and its demands clearly require major changes.

b. Role perception Ones view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception. We get these perceptions from stimuli all around usfriends, books, movies, television. The primary reason that apprenticeship programs exist is to allow beginners to watch an expert, so that they can learn to act as they are supposed to.

c. Role expectations How others believe you should act in a given situation How you behave is determined to a large extent by the role defined in the context in which you are acting. When role expectations are concentrated into generalized categories, we have role stereotypes. The psychological contract is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer. It sets out mutual expectationswhat management expects from workers, and vice versa.

It defines the behavioral expectations that go with every role. If role expectations as implied are not met, expect negative repercussions from the offended party.

d. Role conflict: When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations It exists when compliance with one role requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another. All of us have faced and will continue to face role conflicts. The critical issue is how conflicts imposed by divergent expectations impact on behavior. They increase internal tension and frustration

NORMS
All groups have normsacceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the groups members. Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. A work groups norms are unique, yet there are still some common classes of norms.

Performance norms are probably the most common class of norms. a. Explicit cues on how hard they should work, how to get the job done, their level of output, appropriate levels of tardiness, and the like b. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employees performance.

Appearance norms include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organization, when to look busy, and when it is acceptable to goof off.

Social arrangement norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social interactions within the group.

Allocation of resources norms can originate in the group or in the organization.

Conformity

There is considerable evidence that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups standard.

Individuals conform to the important groups to which they belong or hope to belong. However, all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members. Important groups are referred to as reference groups.

The reference group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others; the person defines himself or herself as a member, or would like to be a member; and the person feels that the group members are significant to him/her.

The pressure that group exerts for conformity was demonstrated by Solomon Asch. Groups of seven or eight people were asked to compare two cards held by the experimenter. One card had one line, the other had three lines of varying length. Under ordinary conditions, subjects made fewer than one percent errors.

Deviant Workplace Behavior:

This term covers a full range of antisocial actions by

organizational members that intentionally violate established norms and that result in negative consequences for the organization, its members, or both.

Rudeness is on the rise and 12 percent of those who experienced it actually quit their jobs.

When deviant workplace behavior occurs it can affect employee commitment, cooperation, and motivation. This could lead to performance issues and a lack of job satisfaction.

STATUS
Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. We live in a class-structured society despite all attempts to make it more egalitarian. Status and norms:

High-status members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than other group members.

High-status people also are better able to resist conformity pressures. The previous findings explain why many star athletes, famous actors, top-performing salespeople, and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or social norms.

Status equity:

When inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior. The trappings of formal positions are also important elements in maintaining equity. Employees expect what an individual has and receives to be congruent with his/her status. For example: pay, office space, etc.

Groups generally agree within themselves on status criteria. Individuals can find themselves in a conflict situation when they move between groups whose status criteria are different or when they join groups whose members have heterogeneous backgrounds.

Status and culture:

Cultural differences affect status. For example, the French are highly status conscious. Countries differ on the criteria that create status: a. Status for Latin Americans and Asians tends to be derived from family position and formal roles held in organizations. b. In the United States and Australia, it tends to be bestowed more on accomplishments.

Make sure you understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from a different culture than your own.

SIZE
1. The size of a group affects the groups overall behavior, but the effect depends on the dependent variables:

Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones.

If the group is engaged in problem solving, large groups consistently do better. Large groupsa dozen or more membersare good for gaining diverse input. Smaller groupsseven membersare better at doing something productive with that input.

2. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. A common stereotype about groups is that team spirit spurs individual effort and enhances overall productivity. In the late 1920s, a German psychologist named Max Ringelmann compared the results of individual and group performance on a rope-pulling task. Ringelmanns results showed that groups of three people exerted a force only two-and-ahalf times the average individual performance. Groups of eight collectively achieved less than four times the solo rate. Increases in group size are inversely related to individual performance. Replications of Ringelmanns research generally support his findings.

3. Causes of social loafing:

A belief that others in the group are not carrying their fair share. The dispersion of responsibility and the relationship between an individuals input and the groups output is clouded.

There will be a reduction in efficiency where individuals think that their contribution cannot be measured.

4. Implications for OB:

Where managers utilize collective work situations to enhance morale and teamwork, they must also provide means by which individual efforts can be identified.

It is not consistent with collective societies where individuals are motivated by in-group goals. The Chinese and Israelis actually performed better in a group than when working alone.

COHESIVENESS
1. Groups differ in their cohesiveness, the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. 2. Cohesiveness is important because it has been found to be related to the groups productivity. 3. The relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the group:

If performance-related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive. If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low.

4. How to encourage group cohesiveness:

Make the group smaller. Encourage agreement with group goals. Increase the time members spend together.

Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group.

Stimulate competition with other groups. Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members. Physically isolate the group.

GROUP PROCESSES Synergy is a term used in biology that refers to an action of two or more substances that results in an effect that is different from the individual summation of the substances.

1.

2. Synergy is contrasted with social loafing, which represents negative synergy. The whole is less than the sum of its parts.

3. Research teams draw on the diverse skills of various individuals to produce more meaningful research as a group than could be generated by all of the researchers working independently. They produce positive synergy.

4.

Social facilitation effect refers to this tendency for performance to improve or decline in response to the presence of others.

While this effect is not entirely a group phenomenon, the group situation is more likely to provide the conditions for social facilitation to occur.

The research on social facilitation tells us that the performance of simple, routine tasks tends to be sped up and made more accurate by the presence of others.

Where the work is more complex, requiring closer attention, the presence of others is likely to have a negative effect on performance.

The implications relate to learning and training. People seem to perform better on a task in the presence of others if that task is very well learned, but poorer if it is not well learned.

GROUP TASKS 1. The size-performance relationship is moderated by the groups task requirements.

Factors effecting group effectiveness when performing tasks:

The impact of group processes on the groups performance and member satisfaction is also moderated by the tasks that the group is doing.

The evidence indicates that the complexity and interdependence of tasks influence the groups effectiveness.

Tasks can be generalized as either simple or complex. Complex tasks are ones that tend to be novel or non-routine.

The more complex the task, the more the group will benefit from discussion of alternatives.

If there is a high degree of interdependence among the tasks that group members must perform, they will need to interact more.

For simple tasks that are routine and standardized, group members can rely on standardized operating procedures for doing the job.

Tasks that have higher uncertaintythose that are complex and interdependentrequire more information processing.

GROUP DECISION MODEL

1. Strengths of group decision-making:

Groups generate more complete information and knowledge. They offer increased diversity of views. This opens up the opportunity for more approaches and alternatives to be considered. The evidence indicates that a group will almost always outperform even the best individual.

Groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution.

2. Weaknesses of group decision-making:

They are time consuming. There is conformity pressures in groups. Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. Group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility.

3. Effectiveness and efficiency:

Whether groups are more effective than individuals depends on the criteria you use. In terms of accuracy, group decisions will tend to be more accurate. On the average, groups make better-quality decisions than individuals. If decision effectiveness is defined in terms of speed, individuals are superior. If creativity is important, groups tend to be more effective than individuals.

If effectiveness means the degree of acceptance the final solution achieves, groups are better.

4. In terms of efficiency, groups almost always stack up as a poor second to the individual decision maker. The exceptions tend to be those instances where, to achieve comparable quantities of diverse input, the single decision maker must spend a great deal of time reviewing files and talking to people . 5. Summary:

Groups offer an excellent vehicle for performing many of the steps in the decisionmaking process.

They are a source of both breadth and depth of input for information gathering. When the final solution is agreed upon, there are more people in a group decision to support and implement it.

Group decisions consume time, create internal conflicts, and generate pressures toward conformity.