Introduction

This note aims to provide students with guidance on essay writing and in particular on the standards expected from their essays. It is addressed primarily at undergraduates though the advice will also be relevant to postgraduates. The advice is of a general kind and is not intended to replace the more detailed advice given by individual supervisors. It has been produced by the Teaching Committee. Many different types of essays are set in the Department of Land Economy - ranging from those that require solutions to problems to those involving discussion of some matter of controversy. They include both short supervision assignments and long essays and dissertations. The points made here tend to focus on the most common type of supervision essay assignment, where you are asked to provide a reasoned answer to a particular question. However, guidance is also given for special kinds of essay. It is hoped that you will find the advice useful. Top

The Mechanics of Writing an Essay

Time to prepare

i) Perhaps the most important piece of advice that can be given is to allow yourself adequate time to prepare your essay. If you start early and work steadily towards an early deadline you will enjoy the task more and have time for the reflective thought and careful revision which will improve the finished article. Thinking about the subject and taking notes

ii) Before doing any reading and setting pen to paper, think about what you already know about the subject. Make sure you fully appreciate the meaning and point of the question that has been set (though it may be open to different interpretations, in which case you will need to choose which you are going to use and be able to justify your choice). The question should provide purpose to your reading and note-taking. Find the relevant texts and articles. Use a number of different sources where possible, not a single book or article. On the other hand, researching the background to a topic can uncover an overwhelming multitude of sources, all of which may seem relevant. Much published work on a topic simply reworks old ideas and themes, adding a nuance here and there which is not of major relevance. Recognise also that there will be a lot of published material that is out of date - make sure yours is not. Each student will have their favourite way of taking notes. However, almost inevitably copying out word for word what seemed highly relevant at the time will turn out with hindsight to be a waste of time. It is probably better to read a section then try to summarise major points and concepts in your own words. Recognise that the author may well have had a different aim (probably a different question) in mind when writing to the one you are having to address - he or she may well have been looking at the subject from a different angle than the one your essay requires. On the other hand, also bear in mind that you may later on want to use your notes for other purposes e.g. for exam revision of the topic area.

Essay planning iii) You will find it useful to write an essay plan, outlining and ordering the key points of your argument, though bearing in mind that it will be revised. A typical, well rehearsed structure for a piece of written work is:
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introduction of the topic, including a brief statement of your understanding/ interpretation of and approach to the question (including the issues you propose to cover and the line of argument). It is often useful to highlight your aims by saying what you are not attempting to do and to set the question against a wider background. A brief definition of any key terms may be included if otherwise there would be confusion. developing the argument, justifying it and backing it up with the material assembled (ideas, models, evidence, facts, examples) conclusion, very briefly summarising the argument, bringing together the main points, linking back to the question and pointing out its main conclusions, implications etc.

Using sub-headings for the key aspects of the argument you want to develop will help you to see what you are doing and keep you on track. It also signals the main points you want to cover and whether you have them in a logical progression. Critical analysis iv) The kinds of questions you are likely to be asked typically require analytical answers, that is they require you to put a case and explore explanations of why things happen (causes) and how (processes, mechanisms). They do not ask you simply to describe facts or summarise what others have said. Facts and what others have said are important but both are part of the raw materials you use in an answer, not usually the answer itself. In addition, many questions do not have a straightforward black and white answer - indeed there will often be no particular right or wrong solution - so reflect this in your analysis if appropriate. Be open about the values you bring to bear. Evaluate the data and evidence, say what it can and cannot show. Consider how reliable it is and certainly do not over generalise. Is there other information which would be useful? Be careful about attributing cause and effect in the social sciences. v) Be thoughtful and reflective as you write. Some useful questions you can be asking yourself are: why am I writing this paragraph, why is this important, am I going into too much detail, will this be understood, is this true, could it be said more succinctly or directly, what is the main point and where is it, should I change the order, what is the structure and will the reader know this? Checking and rereading vi) It is good practice to reread an essay after a reasonable interval and revise it if necessary (and you have the time) prior to submission. Writing is rarely a straightforward process of planning, gathering material and then putting pen to paper; indeed, the very act of writing is likely to be a way in which you become more aware of what you want to say and how to say it. Reshaping and polishing are therefore almost inevitable. Clarity of writing style vii) Go for clarity and simplicity of expression. Use plain English wherever possible and be concise. Long complicated sentences can confuse and the use of over-elaborate phrases, unusual words or jargon with no value added in terms of meaning serve only to discourage the reader. They often signal a lack of understanding by the author. Ensure

the spelling is accurate and the grammar and punctuation appropriate. Cut out any unnecessary repetition. Ask yourself whether the organisation of the essay is coherent, or can some paragraphs be moved to new locations with better effect or even omitted altogether? Is your essay generally reader friendly and the argument as easy to follow as it can be? Using well-defined technical terms can add an air of professionalism, and can usefully add precision to your argument. But make sure you use them correctly! As a rule of thumb limit your paragraphs to one main point; they should be no longer than half a page. All of this is much easier to achieve if the essay is done on a computer. Top

Presentation of the Essay

Appearance i) Pay attention to the appearance of your essay. Word processed and spell-checked essays are virtually always more acceptable and now often expected, being easier to read. Use a reasonable font size e.g. 12 pt. If not typed, ensure that your essay is legible, well laid out and neatly presented. Always provide proper margins and leave enough space for your supervisors comments: in the case of typed essays leaving one side of the page blank will help. Number the pages. Size ii) Most supervision essays are likely to be about 3 to 4 A4 sides of typescript - 900 to 1200 words. This is more or less what you will be able to produce under exam conditions. Answers to problem questions (eg as in accounting, law, statistical computations) may be shorter and in some instances the supervisor may explicitly waive the normal requirements, but for most supervision essays it is practically impossible to develop the detail and degree of argument required in much less than 3 sides. On the other hand, producing more than 4 sides of typescript runs the risk of being repetitive and an essay which is too long will not offer good practice for exams. Make sure your essay conforms to any prescribed word limit. Signature iii) Put your name and College on your work, the date of the supervision and also the supervisors name. Top

The Contents of the Essay

A clear structure i) As explained above it is usual for essays to have an introduction, middle and conclusion, though you shouldnt be too formalistic about this. The aim of the introduction is to explain your approach and the essays structure and define problematic terms. The middle part is the heart of your answer. In the conclusion you may very briefly summarise the main points, spell out implications, outline how further analysis would proceed given time and resources, note the limitations of the work etc. The best essays have a recognisable argument or theme threading through the text which provides a direct answer to the question set. There is a clear structure and recognisable signposts. The

examples have a clear purpose, to support a particular point, and whilst illustrative are comprehensive rather than partial. Irrelevant material is cut out altogether. Conclusions follow from the argument and evidence. Answering the question set ii) This is fundamental. Address the question directly, dont write around the subject. Avoid irrelevancies. Incidentally, in an exam, you are unlikely to get the best marks if you simply regurgitate a supervision essay - at the very least whilst being on the same topic the question will be different. Getting the message across iii) The aim of the essay is communication. If you do not communicate your ideas and analysis then the essay is devalued. Communication is about making sure that what you write is understood. But it is also about making it engaging and stimulating. So try to make your essays interesting - shopping lists of points are rarely this. If the supervisor enjoys reading your essay then he or she will tend to give it a better mark. For many academics, enjoyment amounts to learning something new, being surprised by a novel turn of phrase, finding insight or comment worthy of admiration, having ones imagination triggered, and detecting empathy with some big issue of interest to himself or herself. The danger, of course, of too much flair is a loss of orthodoxy, so take care to find the correct balance of material. Mere regurgitation of lecture notes is unlikely to be much admired, on the other hand ignoring the lecture material completely is likely to do you a disservice. Credit may be gained by developing a theme from the lectures, or challenging or reinforcing or putting a fresh interpretation on what was said. Being analytical and scholarly iv)The diversity of facts should be marshalled but also interpreted in coming to a point of view. Support your argument (especially where it could be construed as controversial you will know when this is) with relevant data and with reference to the literature that helps to back it up. Be yourself, stick to your thought-through position, but acknowledge the existence of competing positions, and assemble the evidence for and against both (e.g. Keynesian versus neoclassical economics). Be scholarly - it is alright to have an opinion but do not be opinionated. You cannot always avoid being overtly political, it goes with the social sciences territory, but dont be dishonest about this - dont try to hide political opinion as fact. Try to be as objective as you can, at least in the sense of not conveniently avoiding arguments that have been rehearsed in the literature that clearly do not support your point of view! Avoid unsupported opinions. But be prepared to adapt your position with hindsight! Finally, use an impersonal style to your writing - you should rarely if ever need to use the word I. Acknowledging sources v) All academic work relies on prior sources, so there is no shame in using someone elses ideas. BUT, sources must be acknowledged. If nothing else it helps provide authority for the argument you are making. In the body of the text of an essay use of the Harvard system of referencing is advised: stating, in brackets, the authors surname followed by the year of publication and then, if you are quoting, the relevant page number e.g. (Bloggs, 1990, 43-5). The full reference can be given at the end of the essay in a bibliography. There is no standard way of doing this (look at the journals in the library to see the diversity of styles). However, one would normally include the authors full name, a date, the full book or journal title, and the exact title of the article or chapter. It should be possible from the information given for the supervisor to go precisely to the text referred to if necessary and you may even want to do this yourself at

some date in the future. This is standard scientific convention, and a good habit to get into. Having said all this, however, do not clutter up your work with pointless references. Your own work vi) The work of each student must be clearly his or her own work (unless you have been encouraged to work jointly on a specific project). Submitted work which has as its source the work of another candidate is not acceptable, nor is copying. Of course preliminary informal discussion with colleagues is a good, indeed laudable practice, but the onus is on you to turn any discussion into your own creation. Labelling vii) If you include figures, tables etc, number them in some consistent way and refer to the numbers in the text. Make sure that they are properly labelled. All factual evidence relates to a particular time and place, so make sure you specify what these are. Note, for example, the differences between England, England and Wales, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Top

Assessment of the Essay

Feedback i) Your essays provide opportunities for in-depth learning, and for expert feedback from a supervisor, who will evaluate your work and give you the information needed to progress. Assessment will normally be in the form of a grade plus comments which will be both critical and supportive. As well as encouragement and praise, some indication should be given of where you went wrong if you did, what else you could have done, what elements of the literature you have missed, and what is the correct interpretation of some point or idea misunderstood. Additional references are also useful, guiding you into areas of the literature, developing themes or providing clarification or insight. Standards ii) It follows from the advice given so far that what supervisors tend most to dislike, and what should be avoided, are:
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failure to answer the question (and all its various components); obvious mistakes and misunderstanding; a poorly written and poorly organised answer; writing off the point, repetition and the mere regurgitation of others opinions; rhetoric, over-generalisation and the sloppy use of evidence; and lack of reasoning, lack of analysis and too much description.

iii) Generally speaking, supervisors are looking for the following:

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a deep, thorough and detailed knowledge and understanding of the subject area, its relevant literature and, in many cases, its historical and social context; a clear, logical and structured argument; an answer which covers all parts of the question and achieves a sensible balance between them; creativity of thought;

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effective and appropriate (correct, purposeful, properly referenced) use of supporting material (e.g. evidence, data, figures, ideas); fluency of writing and correct grammar, spelling and punctuation; and legibility and reasonable length.

Grades iv) Grades come in various forms. If a letter or degree class is used in place of a %, then alpha = A = I = 70%+; beta = B = II(i) = 60%+; gamma = C = II(ii) = 50%+; delta = D = III = 40%+;epsilon = E = below 40%. A mark of below 33% is a Fail. Top

Housekeeping
Submitting your essay on time i) This means at least one day (24 hrs) before the supervision is due. This will give the supervisor at least some chance to read the essay, and formulate some kind of response. ii)If you have a problem with a deadline set by the supervisor, go and discuss the problem with him or her. In many cases an alternative deadline can be set. Also, if you are having trouble getting started, a sympathetic word from a supervisor is usually available to point you in the right direction. Delivery of your essay iii) Supervisors are increasingly ready to accept essays by e-mail. Otherwise, put the essay in reception in a sealed envelope with your supervisors name on it. They have been known to inadvertently disappear from staff pigeonholes (usually a case of someone picking up a bundle of his/her papers from the wrong pigeonhole).