Physical Geography Chapter 3: Rivers and Coasts

Chapter 3.1: The River System

Chapter Outline: Parts of the River System

1. 2.

Explain what is meant by the terms drainage basin and watershed. [2] (N01 P2 Q5) Name and briefly describe the relief and landforms of the lower course of a river. (In your answer you should refer to the river, its channel and its valley)

Chapter 3.2: Energy of River

Chapter Outline: Factors affecting the energy of a river: GRoW + PVCD 1. When the river has both high speed and high volume, it has high energy.

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

3 Courses: Lower, Middle, Upper. a. Upper Course: Where the stream begins and many small streams and channels join up to form larger streams which join to form a river. b. Middle Course: River starts to meander as many tributaries join the river c. Lower Course: Meanders are common, many distributaries, river flows towards its mouth and enters the sea. Delta may form at river mouth. Watershed: A boundary that surrounds the drainage basin. Drainage Basin: A river system that collects rainwater and comprises of streams and rivers Tributaries: Streams that flow in the river which is mainly found in the upper course. Distributaries: Branch out from the river which is mainly found in the river delta. Confluence: The point where the tributaries join the main river. River Mouth: Place where the river meets the ocean River Delta: Landform created at the mouth of the sea where the river flows into. It is formed by the deposition of the sediment carried by the river as it flows into the sea. 3 main courses of the river (detailed): Middle Wider than upper course. Lower Wider than middle course (lateral erosion) Large volume (combined from the tributaries) Gentle (deposition takes place here) Floodplains / Deltas / River Mouth

Upper Narrow and shallow channel due to vertical erosion. Small volume

Moderate volume

Factors affecting Speed (GRoW) Gradient: Refers to how When it is steep (upper course), steep the river is. the flow of water is faster, thus the speed increases. Roughness of Channel: When there are more obstacles, Refers to how rough there is more friction, thus the the river is. speed is reduced. Wetted Perimeter: The larger the wetted Refers to the area perimeter, the more friction the (length and breadth) in river has, thus the speed contact with the river. decreases. Affected by the shape of the river channel Factors affecting Volume (PVCD) Permeability of Rocks: The more permeable the rocks Refers to how well the are, the lesser the surface area, rocks can absorb the thus leading to lesser volume. water. Vegetation Cover: The more vegetation there are, Refers to how much more rainwater infiltrate the vegetation there are ground and more rain is near the river. intercepted by plants, thus lesser surface runoff, leading to lesser volume. Climate: Refers to the Distinct wet and dry climate rainfall and volume of river drops. temperature of an area Dry: Low volume of water for a long period of throughout the year. time (e.g. 30 years) Hot and Wet: High volume of water. Drainage Basin: Refers The bigger the drainage basin, to the size of the river the larger the surface area, thus system that collects the volume of the river rainwater. It comprises increases. of steam and rivers. Extra: Type of Soil. The more porous the soil, the more water absorbed into it, thus less surface runoff and thus leads to lower volume. O Level Questions 3. Why do some rivers have a greater volume than others? [5m]

Steep gradient (higher speed, higher energy) River source

Less steep

Tributaries

Chapter 3.3: River Processes

O Level Questions Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

Chapter Outline: Processes of a river: Erosion (CASH), Transportation (SSST) and Deposition 1. Erosion is the wearing down of banks and bed of a river and removal of the eroded materials by the action of gravity and moving water. a. In the middle course, lateral erosion becomes more prominent as the speed of flow increases, leading to greater discharge and thus a much bigger, deeper and higher speed of flow. b. A river can erode materials in 4 ways: i. Corrasion (Abrasion), ii. Attrition, iii. Solution (Corrosion), and iv. Hydraulic Action

Solution

that are kept from settling down on the river bed by the flow of water. A large quantity of this, especially during floods, will cause the water to look cloudily. E.g. Gravels Occurs when readily soluble rocks like limestone dissolve in water to form a solution which is transported downstream. (Dissolved materials) N.B. Not affected by river energy.

3.

River erosional processes (CASH) Corrasion, also known as This widens and abrasion, is an erosional process deepens the river where the river uses its load channel as more rocks (rock) to scrap and grind against are worn down and the channels walls and bed, carried away by the wearing them down. river. Agent: Rock Fragments Attrition is the process whereby This leads to the rock fragments carried by the breaking down of rock water knock against each other. fragments into smaller It does not affect the bed/bank, pieces, causing them to only size of river load. become smoother and Agent: Rock fragments rounded in the process. Solution is the process whereby A solution is formed. the water in the river reacts For instance, limestone chemically with the minerals in dissolves when water the rocks. contains CO2 Agent: Acidic Water Hydraulic Action refers to the The water enters cracks action of flowing water that hits and breaks loose pieces against the river banks and river of rock. The fragments bed. are then carried down Agent: Fast flowing water by the river.

River Deposition: A river may deposit its load along the course when: a. Volume of flow is reduced, or b. Speed of flow is decreased. c. It is most commonly found at the lower course where gradient is gentle, and the load carried is at maximum. d. The coarser and heavier load will be deposited first whereas the finer particles will be transported into the sea or lake. Dominant Process at Different Parts of River Course: a. Upper Course: Dominated by Vertical Erosion. b. Middle course: Erosive ability increases due to lesser friction. c. Lower Course: Deposition and Lateral Erosion. d. River transportation process occurs throughout the river course as the amount of load transported increases progressively towards the river mouth in the lower course. The size of sediments also decreases. River discharge is the volume of water that flows through a point along the river channel within a given time.

4.

5.

N.B. Agent: The object that causes the process to occur.

2. Rivers transport their load in several ways depending on the size of the particles in the loads, and the speed and volume of flow. River load can be transported by: a. Traction, b. Saltation, c. Suspension, or d. Solution.

Chapter 3.4: River Landforms

1. River Landforms can be categorized into 3 types: a. Erosional, b. Depositional, and c. Erosional and Depositional Summary of Landforms:

2.

River transportation processes (SSST) Occurs when there are large boulders that are too heavy to be lifted up by the water in the river, causing them to roll and slide along the river bed. E.g. Pebbles. (lots of energy required) Saltation Occurs when larger particles such as gravel are part of the river load. They are too heavy to be suspended, thus they bounce or hop along the river bed. E.g. Silt. Suspension Suspended materials are fine particles Traction

Erosional: Valleys, Waterfalls

Floodplains ,Leeves, Deltas, Distributaries Both: Meanders and Oxbow Lakes

Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

Chapter 3.5: River Management Strategies

Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

Chapter 3.6: Coasts (Introduction)

A coast is a zone where the land meets the sea.
Figure 1: A coast in Kuantan, Pahang Malaysia.

2.

A wave is the rising and falling movement of the water surface. Wave energy refers to the energy produced by the movement of the waves. Tides refer to the daily alternate rising and falling of the sea level seen along coasts. Waves attack, eroded and transport away a larger part of the coasts at low tides.

Process of Erosion: a. As waves approach the shore, the water becomes shallower, and the friction of the waves against the surface of the sea floor slows down its movement. b. As a result, this frictional force causes the waves to rise and bend forward, and eventually collapse into foaming water. (ref. fig. 2) c. The forward movement of the wave to the shore is called the swash, whereas the flow back to the sea due to gravity is the backwash. There are 2 types of waves: Constructive and Destructive waves. Constructive Stronger Weaker Lower Deposition 6 8 wave/min Destructive Weaker Stronger Longer Erosion 10 14 wave/min

3.

Swash Backwash Wave Height Dominant Process Wave Frequency 4.

Factors affecting Erosion: Less resistant rocks erode faster; rocks with more lines of weaknesses enable waves to attack easily. <<This limestone cave is formed by erosion.

Rock Composition/ Structure

Currents are large scale and persistent movement of water in the ocean driven largely by prevailing winds. Longshore Currents are ocean currents that flow parallel to a coast. They are formed by waves that approach the coasts at an angle.

Location of coast

Climate

Human Interference

A coast exposed to strong onshore winds will be more susceptible to erosion. Erosion intensifies when there are strong prevailing onshore winds. Sea walls and breakwaters are built to reduce marine erosion.

Chapter 3.7: Coastal Processes

1. Erosion occurs when waves wear away the rocks along the coast and carry away the eroded materials. a. Whether erosion takes place is determined by the amount of energy the wave possesses. b. The wave energy is affected by 3 main factors: The faster the wind speed, the greater the wave energy. The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves Fetch refers to the distance of the sea over which wind blows to generate waves. The greater the fetch, the more energy the waves have.

5.

Processes of Coastal Erosion Refers to the impact of materials carried by waves scraping against the coast. Materials carried by waves knock against each other resulting in smaller, smoother and rounded pieces (doesnt affect coastline) Soluble minerals in rocks dissolved and removed by seawater. The direct impact of the waves against the coast. The sheer force of waves pounding against the sea cliff exerts great pressure on the cliff face. Air in the cracks may be compressed by water and pressure can widen the cracks, enlarging them and may cause the rocks

Abrasion /Corrasion Attrition

Wind Energy Duration of Wind Fetch

Solution Hydraulic Action

Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

to breakdown eventually.

6.

Coastal Transportation is the process whereby sediments are transported along coasts. One way this is done is through longshore drifts.

When waves approach the coasts at an angle, the swash carries the materials in the water to the beach at an angle whereas the backwash pulls the materials perpendicularly down the beach due to gravity. This results in a zigzag movement of the materials along the beach, also known as longshore drift. The direction of the longshore drift is affected by the direction of the wind. Longshore drift is thus a powerful process capable of moving large amount of beach materials along the direction of movement. 7. Deposition occurs when small/low energy waves lay down sediments along the coast. a. Caused by constructive waves (Swash > Backwash) b. Lack of energy can be due to decrease in wind speed or increase in size of sediments. c. It can also be caused by currents where they meet a bend in the coast with shallow and sheltered water. d. Factors affecting deposition: When wave energy is weak and the waves cannot carry their load of sediment, deposition takes place. On gentle slopes, wave energy is spread out and reduced due to friction with shore & gravitational pull, producing constructive waves. Coasts that are sheltered from strong winds and have calm coastal conditions allow deposition to take place.

Supply of Sediments Gradient of slope

Position of coast

Chapter 3.8: Coastal Landforms and Features

Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

Chapter 3.9: Coastal Management

1. There are 2 approaches to coastal management: a. Hard Engineering: Refers to the construction of physical structures such as breakwaters, groynes, seawalls and gabions to defend against the erosive power of waves. b. Soft Engineering: Focuses on planning and management to prevent coastal areas and property to be damaged. 1. 2.

They are walls built along the coast. They are built along the coast which absorbs the energy of waves before they can erode away loose materials. 3. Waves breaking against seawalls direct their energy downwards, resulting in a strong backwash which wears away the base of the seawall. 4. Costly to build and maintain. Breakwaters 1. They are made of granite and built off the coast parallel to it. 2. Waves will break against them before reaching the coast. 3. A zone of calm water is created behind it where deposition can take place. 4. Unable to offer complete protection as they leave portions of the coast unprotected who are prone to erosion. 1. They are built at right angles to the Groynes shore to prevent longshore drift. 2. They absorb/reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited on the side of the groyne facing the longshore drift. 3. As no fresh materials are deposited on the downdrift side, that part will gradually be eroded. 4. To prevent this, the tips of groynes are sometimes angled about 5 to 10, but if failed, erosion can still take place on unprotected areas. 1. They are 2. They need to be Gabions wire cages maintained as filled with they are easily crushed corroded. rocks that 3. If not properly are piled up maintained, the along the wire baskets shore to become reduce unsightly and coastal pose a threat. erosion by weakening wave energy. Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.

Seawalls (e.g. Kallang River in Singapore)

Copyright 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.