SAETI PREGLED GRAMATIKE ZA 1. GODINU UITELJSKOG STUDIJA, KOLEGIJ ENGLESKI JEZIK 2 (GRADIVO 1.

KOLOKVIJA, BEZ PRIJEDLOGA)

Conditional Clauses
Main types There are three main types of conditional clauses.Type 1 and Type 2 refer to the present/future and Type 3 refers to the past. Type 1 expresses a real condition, i.e. if the condition in the subordinate clause is fulfilled, the action in the main clause will take place.: Type 1: If you run, you will arrive in time.
(subord. clause) (main clause)

Type 2 also refers to the present or future, but the action in the main clause is improbable because the condition in the subordinate clause is unlikely to be fulfilled: Type 2: If I was a millionaire, I would travel round the world.
(subordinate clause) (main clause)

Since it is unlikely that I will ever become a millionaire, this is a hypothetical sentence. Type 3 refers to the past. It expresses the idea that things could have happened in a different way (in the main clause) if the condition in the subordinate clause was fulfilled in the past: Type 3: If I hadnt overslept, I would have arrived on time.
(subordinate clause) (main clause)

Zero conditional This type of conditional clause is used in giving advice: If you cant fall asleep, count sheep.
(subordinate clause) (main clause)

The most usual combination of tenses and forms is Simple Present in the subordinate clause and the Imperative in the main clause. Another use of zero conditional is to state in the main clause what happens every time the condition in the subordinate clause is fulfilled (in most cases it applies to something that is always true): If you throw a stone into water, it sinks.
(subordinate clause) (main clause)

Normally Simple Present is used in the subordinate clause as well as the main clause. Mixed conditionals The most usual combination is Type 2 and Type 3. If the subordiante clause refers to the present and the main clause to the past or the other way round, we are talking about a mixed conditional. They have a different time reference and are both hypothetical.
Type 2
(subordinate clause)

Type 3
(main clause)

If she didnt love him, she wouldnt have married him.

Type 3
(subordinate clause)

Type 2
(main clause)

If we had taken a compass, we would know where we are.

Relative clauses
We distinguish two types of relative clauses: defining and non defining. Defining relative clauses If we don t know who or what we are talking about in the main clause, we have to define that person/ thing in the subordinate clause: 1. This is a woman. She lives next door. This is the woman who/that lives next door. 2. This is a man. I went to school with him. This is the man that/who I went to school with. In the first example the relative pronoun that and who are in the function of the subject of the relative clause and therefore cannot be omitted. In the second example the relative pronoun that and who function as the object of the relative clause and can be omitted: This is the man (who/that) I went to school with. To define people we use two pronouns, that and who.In order to define inanimates, we use that or which: 1.This is the kind of whiskey that/which is produced in Scotland. 2.That s the book that/ which I have been looking for. The same rule applies to the relative pronouns which and that when talking about inanimates. If the relative prounoun that or which function as the subject of the relative clause (like in sentence 1), they cannot be omitted. On the other hand, if they function as the object of the relative clause , they can be omitted:

This is the book (that/which)I have been looking for. Non defining relative clauses If we already know who or what we are talking about , we use non defining relative clauses. These clauses provide extra information about the animate/inanimate we are talking about. Mark the difference between the following sentences: My brother , who lives in New York, is a teacher. My brother who lives in New York s a teacher. In the second sentence we can conclude that the speaker has more than one brother, because (s)he defines which brother the word goes about: the one who lives in New York. In the first sentence it is obvious that the speaker has one brother and that he is a teacher. You only provide extra information about him saying that he lives in New York. This extra information must be marked by commas in writing or making pauses in speaking. Sometimes this extra information comes at the end of the sentence: Jason came to Kevins party, which surprised everybody. In non defining relative clauses we can only use the relative pronouns who when talking about animates or which for inanimates. We don t use the pronoun that , either for people or for inanimates. 1. Helen, who is a doctor, is our first-dooor neighbour. 2. The island of Krk, which is situated in the northern part of the Adriatic sea, is a popular tourist destination.

Place and time relative clauses When providing extra information about places and time, we either a) insert this information in the middle of the sentence or b) add it at the end of the sentence. a) Aberdeen, where I was born, is a small town.(place) At midnight, when everybody was excited, we wished each other a Happy New year.(time) b) I was born in Aberdeen, where people live a very peaceful life. (place) We wished each other a Happy New Year at midnight, when everybody was excited.(time)

Reported speech
When we report what someone said before, we look at those words from the present perspective. To mark this the tenses shift one tense backwards and that is the main rule of reported speech. The tense shift occurs only if the reporting verb ( the verb that introduces reported speech) is in the Simple Past, Past Continuous or Past Perfect tenses. If the reporting verb is in any of the present or future tenses, the shift does not take place : Jason said : Im hungry. Jason said (that) he was hungry. Jason says:Im hungry. Jason says (that) he is hungry. Modal verbs also shift back: can-could, will- would, must-had to,etc. except modal verbs for probability in the past, which are combined with the perfect infinitive of the main verb: Helen said to Fiona:They should be home by now. Helen told Fiona (that) they should have been home by then. Other changes that take place in reported sentences include alterations of personal, demonstrative and reflexive pronouns, depending on who the sentence refers to, and time and place adverbials. A list of most common words is provided: today tomorrow yesterday here this these now this week last week next week an hour ago that day the following day, next day the day before, the previous day there that those then that week the week before, the previous week the following week an hour before/earlier

Statements

In statements (affirmative sentences) that can be used or omitted, as shown in the previous example. The usual word order is subject+verb+(object)+ (adverbials): S V ADV.(TIME) Linda said: I am leaving tomorrow. Linda said (that) she was leaving tomorrow. If there is an object after said to in direct speech, in reporting speech said to is changed into told : Kevin said to Mary: Ill pick you up at 2. Kevin told Mary that he would pick her up at two. The tense shift is an option if the situation in the direct speech is the same,i.e. unchanged to the one in the past.In this case, we can go one tense back or keep the tense used in direct speech: Jill said:I live in London. Jill said /that she lives/lived n London. If Jill still lives in London, either Present Simple or Past Simple can be used in reported speech. Questions There are two types of questions when we consider the way we answer them; Wh- or open-ended questions and Yes/No or closed questions.

Yes/No questions These questions require an answer beginning with Yes or No: Ex. Do you like pancakes? Yes ,I do. When we report these questions, we introduce the linking word if or whether: Peter asked Fiona: Do you smoke? S V Peter asked Fiona if she smoked.

The order of words in questions is the same as in affirmative sentences, that is subject+verb. Wh- questions The questions which have a question word at the beginning are called Whquestions (this is because most question words begin with Wh).They cannot be answered by Yes or No and the answer is unlimited. Bea asked Joe:Where did you go yesterday? Bea asked Joe where he went the previous day. Orders and requests Orders In orders there is no tense shift, but an infinitive structure of the main verb is used: Mother said to Ann:Wash your face. Mother told Ann to wash her face. Orders in a negative form are reported by inserting not in front of the infinitive structure: The teacher said to his students:Dont talk loudly. The teacher told his students not to talk loudly. Instead of the reporting verb tell, order and command can also be used.

Requests In requests we do not order, but ask somebody to do something. Requests are more polite than orders. The reporting verb ask is used in reported requests: Gavin said to Helen:Can you please open the window? Gavin asked Helen to open the window. Like in orders there is no tense shift, but an infinitive structure.