INFORMATION SYSTEMS (IS) Information Systems (IS) is an academic/professional discipline bridging the business field and the well-defined

computer science field that is evolving toward a new scientific area of study.[4][5][6][7] An information systems discipline therefore is supported by the theoretical foundations of information and computations such that learned scholars have unique opportunities to explore the academics of various business models as well as related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline.[8][9][10] Typically, information systems or the more common legacy information systems include people, procedures, data, software, and hardware (by degree) that are used to gather and analyze digital information.[11] [12] Specifically computer-based information systems are complementary networks of hardware/software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, & distribute data (computing).[13] Computer Information System(s) (CIS) is often a track within the computer science field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software & hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society. [14][15][16] Overall, an IS discipline emphasizes functionality over design.[17] As illustrated by the Venn Diagram on the right, the history of information systems coincides with the history of computer science that began long before the modern discipline of computer science emerged in the twentieth century.[18] Regarding the circulation of information and ideas, numerous legacy information systems still exist today that are continuously updated to promote ethnographic approaches, to ensure data integrity, and to improve the social effectiveness & efficiency of the whole process.[19] In general, information systems are focused upon processing information within organizations, especially within business enterprises, and sharing the benefits with modern society.[20]

Contents
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1 Overview 2 Definition 3 The Discipline of Information Systems 4 The Impact on Economic Models 5 Differentiating IS from Related Disciplines 6 Types of information systems 7 Information systems career pathways 8 Information systems development 9 Information systems research 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

[edit] Overview

Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on (IS) and IS-centered view that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures. A second managerial view includes people, business processes and Information Systems. There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, office systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, database management systems, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes. Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives. [21] Many companies have created a position of Chief Information Officer (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operating Officer (COO) and Chief Technical Officer (CTO).The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa. The Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) focuses on information security management.

[edit] Definition
Silver et al.[22] defined Information Systems as follows: Information systems are implemented within an organization for the purpose of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of that organization. Capabilities of the information system and characteristics of the organization, its work systems, its people, and its development and implementation methodologies together determine the extent to which that purpose is achieved.

[edit] The Discipline of Information Systems

Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of Information Systems which has its roots in other reference disciplines such as Computer Science, Engineering, Mathematics, Management Science, Cybernetics, and others.[23][24][25][26]

[edit] The Impact on Economic Models

Microeconomic theory model[clarification needed] Transaction Cost theory[clarification needed] Agency Theory[clarification needed]

[edit] Differentiating IS from Related Disciplines

Information Systems relationship to Information Technology, Computer Science, Information Science, and Business. Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related disciplines and foundation disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use and effects of information systems in organizations and society. [27] But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose and orientation of their activities.[28] In a broad scope, the term Information Systems (IS) is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing and use of information, and its associated technologies, in society and organizations.[29] The term information systems is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in industry, government agencies and not-for-profit organizations.[30] Information Systems often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is not only the technology an organization uses, but also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organizations business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology (IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes components.

[edit] Types of information systems

A four level pyramid model of different types of Information Systems based on the different levels of hierarchy in an organization

The 'classic' view of Information systems found in the textbooks[31] of the 1980s was of a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually transaction processing systems at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by management information systems, decision support systems and ending with executive information systems at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful, since it was first formulated a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model. Some examples of such systems are:

data warehouses enterprise resource planning enterprise systems expert systems geographic information system global information system office automation

[edit] Information systems career pathways

Information Systems have a number of different areas of work:

Information systems strategy Information systems management Information systems development Information systems security Information systems iteration Information system organization

There are a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."[32]

[edit] Information systems development

Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence information technology development, use, and application in the organizations, which may be a business or corporation. A series of methodologies and processes can be used in order to develop and use an information system. Many developers have turned and used a more engineering approach such as the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) which is a systematic procedure of developing an information system through stages that occur in sequence. An Information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system.[33] A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team (Offshoring, Global Information System). A computer based information system, following a definition of Langefors,[34] is:

a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.

which can be formulated as a generalized information systems design mathematical program Geographic Information Systems, Land Information systems and Disaster Information Systems are also some of the emerging information systems but they can be broadly considered as Spatial Information Systems. System development is done in stages which include:

Problem recognition and specification Information gathering Requirements specification for the new system System design System construction System implementation Review and maintenance[35]

[edit] Information systems research

Information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behavior of individuals, groups, and organizations.[36][37] Hevner et al. (2004) [38] categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including behavioral science which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and design science which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. Salvatore March and Gerald Smith [39] proposed a framework for researching different aspects of Information Technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows:
1. Constructs which are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. They constitute a

conceptualization used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions. 2. A model which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs. 3. A method which is a set of steps (an algorithm or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution space. 4. An instantiation is the realization of an artifact in its environment. Also research activities including:
1. Build an artifact to perform a specific task. 2. Evaluate the artifact to determine if any progress has been achieved. 3. Given an artifact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine

why and how the artifact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore theorize and justify theories about IT artifacts.

Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now,[40] the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars such as.[41][42][43] There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context.[44] A third view provided by [45] calling IS scholars to take a balanced attention for both the IT artifact and its context. Since information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. However, that is not always the case. Often information systems researchers explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.[46] To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as EATPUT. The international body of Information Systems researchers, the Association for Information Systems (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (23 April 2007), proposed a 'basket' of journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent', and nominated: Management Information Systems Quarterly (MISQ), Information Systems Research (ISR), Journal of Association of Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS), European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS), and Information Systems Journal (ISJ).[47]

[edit] See also

Related studies

Components

Implementation

Computer Science Humancomputer interaction Bioinformatics Health informatics Business informatics Cheminformatics Disaster informatics Geoinformatics Information system MIS Formative Context

Data architect Data modeling Data Processing System Data Reference Model Database EATPUT Metadata Predictive Model Markup Language Semantic translation Three schema approach

Enterprise Information System Environmental Modeling Center European Research Center for Information Systems Information Processing System INFORMS

Information technology
Information technology (IT) is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications.[1] The term in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review, in which authors Leavitt and Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT).".[2] Some of the modern and emerging fields of Information technology are next generation web technologies, bioinformatics, cloud computing, global information systems, large scale knowledgebases, etc.

Contents
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1 General information 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links

[edit] General information

Information and communication technology spending in 2005

IT is the area of managing technology and spans wide variety of areas that include but are not limited to things such as processes, computer software, information systems, computer hardware, programming languages, and data constructs. In short, anything that renders data, information or perceived knowledge in any visual format whatsoever, via any multimedia distribution mechanism, is considered part of the IT domain. IT provides businesses with four sets of core services to help execute the business strategy: business process automation, providing information, connecting with customers, and productivity tools. IT professionals perform a variety of functions (IT Disciplines/Competencies) that ranges from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information

databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as management and administration of entire systems. Information technology is starting to spread further than the conventional personal computer and network technologies, and more into integrations of other technologies such as the use of cell phones, televisions, automobiles, and more, which is increasing the demand for such jobs. In the recent past, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and the Association for Computing Machinery have collaborated to form accreditation and curriculum standards[3] for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of study as compared[4] to Computer Science and Information Systems today. SIGITE (Special Interest Group for IT Education)[5] is the ACM working group for defining these standards. The Worldwide IT services revenue totaled $763 billion in 2009.[6]

Information and communications technolog

Spending on information and communications technology in 2005

Information and communications technology or information and communication technology,[1] usually called ICT, is often used as an extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is usually a more general term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), intelligent building management systems and audio-visual systems in modern information technology. ICT consists of all technical means used to handle information and aid communication, including computer and network hardware, communication middleware as well as necessary software. In other words, ICT consists of IT as well as telephony, broadcast media, all types of audio and video processing and transmission and network based control and monitoring functions.[2] The expression was first used in 1997[3] in a report by Dennis Stevenson to the UK government[4] and promoted by the new National Curriculum documents for the UK in 2000. ICT is often used in the context of "ICT roadmap" to indicate the path that an organization will take with their ICT needs.[5] The term ICT is now also used to refer to the merging (convergence) of audio-visual and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination of the telephone network)

to merge the audio-visual, building management and telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution and management. This in turn has spurred the growth of organizations with the term ICT in their names to indicate their specialization in the process of merging the different network systems. "ICT" is used as a general term for all kinds of technologies which enable users to create, access and manipulate information. ICT is a combination of information technology and communications technology. In an increasingly interconnected world, the interactions among devices, systems, and people are growing rapidly. Businesses need to meet the demands of their employees and customers to allow for greater access to systems and information. All of these communications needs must be delivered in a unified way. By offering a scalable infrastructure, cloud computing models enable companies to work smarter through more agile and cost-effective access to technology and information. This unified platform reduces costs and boosts productivity across a business and beyond. Part of an information and communications technology roadmap should involve consolidating infrastructures, while providing added benefits to users in collaboration, messaging, calendaring, instant messaging, audio, video, and Web conferencing. Cloud computing is driving more efficient IT consumption and delivery and taking ICT to the next level.[6]

Contents
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1 ICT in Society 2 ICT in Education o 2.1 Uses o 2.2 Advantages o 2.3 Disadvantages 3 Careers 4 See Also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External Links

[edit] ICT in Society

Information technology has taken over every aspect of our daily lives from commerce to leisure and even culture. Today, mobile phones, desktop computers, hand held devices, emails and the use of Internet has become a central part of our culture and society. ICT has made us a global society, where people can interact and communicate swiftly and efficiently. ICT has contributed towards the elimination of language barriers. Examples of (ICT) tools are emails, instant messaging (IM), Chat rooms and social networking websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, Skype, iPhones, cellular phones and similar applications. A disadvantage is that older generations find it difficult to keep up with the ever changing technologies available today. The resistance to change and inability to keep up with rapid technology evolution are areas to note. Many people in society are not in a position to take

advantage of available technology.[7] This may be due to poverty, geographical location or lack of access to technology.[8]

[edit] ICT in Education

In current education systems worldwide, ICT has not been as extensively implemented as might be found in other fields, such as business.[9] Reasons for the absence of these technologies in education vary. Some experts suggest it is the high costs associated with implementing these technologies that prevents schools from using them in the classroom.Other experts argue that the social nature of current education systems, which require a substantial amount of personal contact between teachers and their students, prevents these technologies from being better integrated in the classroom setting.

[edit] Uses
The use of ICTs in education extends beyond equipping classrooms with computers and an Internet connection. There are a wide variety of ICTs currently available to schools and universities that can be implemented to enhance students overall learning experiences in numerous ways. Those schools and universities that have implemented ICTs primarily use these technologies to fulfill three objectives:

Increase Networking Opportunities: ICTs helps connect schools to other schools, as well as individuals within those schools to one another. This ability to network is especially important for students in rural areas and students in developing countries. Provide Distance Learning: With the advent of ICTs, learning has become Web-based. As a result, ICTs have started to replace correspondence schools. Supplement Traditional Learning: One of the most common uses of ICTs in education involves students using software programs such as Microsoft Word to produce otherwise traditional written assignments.

[edit] Advantages
As with other technologies that have been implemented in education throughout the years, ICTs offer a number of advantages to both students and educators when successfully integrated into a learning environment. Some of these advantages include:

Increased Access to Resources: Unlike the traditional classroom that is locked at the end of the school day, ICTs allow students to access educational resources from anywhere at any time. This increased access to resources is especially valuable for students with special needs and those students who live in rural areas or developing countries. Interactive Learning Experiences: Many educators deliver information to their students in the form of lectures. ICTs allow students to access information through videos, podcasts, and a variety of other interactive media, which creates a more engaging learning experience for students.

Student-Centered Learning: In a traditional classroom, students cannot control how lessons are planned. Through the use of ICTs, students can take control of their learning experiences. Students can decide when class is in session, as well as how the lesson material will be presented.

[edit] Disadvantages
Although ICTs can enhance student learning in many ways, there are some disadvantages associated with implementing these sophisticated technologies in schools and universities around the world. Some of these disadvantages include:

High Costs: Implementing ICTs in the education setting can be quite costly regarding updating existing infrastructures, training teachers and developing quality course materials. To make matters worse, funding for such projects is often scarce. Teacher Training: Many teachers are unfamiliar with using ICTs in the classroom and are resistant to incorporating such technologies into their established pedagogies. To succeed, the use of ICTs in education needs to be supported by well-trained teachers. Uncertain Success Rates: Currently, no large-scale studies have been conducted that show whether or not the use of ICTs in an educational setting will result in a measurable increase in individual student achievement, making school administrators hesitant to invest in these technologies

Despite existing research and evidence-based studies, the future of ICTs in education remains unclear. Additional research is needed to better understand if a link exists between the use of ICTs in education and improved student learning.

[edit] Careers
There are a variety of career opportunities available for beginning and experienced ICT professionals. Computer Information Systems Managers[10] oversee all technical aspect of an organization, such as software development, network security, and Internet operations. People who enjoy designing software programs might be interested in a career as a Computer Programmer.[11] Teamwork is essential for Computer Software Engineers,[12] who might work with a large group to solve problems and create new products. Even those who travel or telecommute must typically report to a team or management structure. Database Administrators (DBA)[13] use software to store and manage information. They also set up database systems and are responsible for making sure those systems operate efficiently. Statisticians[14] collect data and analyze it, looking for patterns that explain behavior or describe the world as it is.

types of information system

For most businesses, there are a variety of requirements for information. Senior managers need information to help with their business planning. Middle management need more detailed information to help them monitor and control business activities. Employees with operational roles need information to help them carry out their duties. As a result, businesses tend to have several "information systems" operating at the same time. This revision note highlights the main categories of information system and provides some examples to help you distinguish between them.

The main kinds of information systems in business are described briefly below:
Information System Executive Support Systems Description

An Executive Support System ("ESS") is designed to help senior management make strategic decisions. It gathers, analyses and summarises the key internal and external information used in the business. A good way to think about an ESS is to imagine the senior management team in an aircraft cockpit - with the instrument panel showing them the status of all the key business activities. ESS typically involve lots of data analysis and modelling tools such as "what-if" analysis to help strategic decision-making.

Management Information Systems

A management information system ("MIS") is mainly concerned with internal sources of information. MIS usually take data from the transaction processing systems (see below) and summarise it into a series of management reports. MIS reports tend to be used by middle management and operational supervisors.

DecisionSupport Systems

Decision-support systems ("DSS") are specifically designed to help management make decisions in situations where there is uncertainty about the possible outcomes of those decisions. DSS comprise tools and techniques to help gather relevant information and analyse the options and alternatives. DSS often involves use of complex spreadsheet and databases to create "what-if" models. Knowledge Management Systems ("KMS") exist to help businesses create and share information. These are typically used in a business where employees create new knowledge and expertise - which can then be shared by other people in the organisation to create further commercial opportunities. Good examples include firms of lawyers, accountants and management consultants. KMS are built around systems which allow efficient categorisation and distribution of knowledge. For example, the knowledge itself might be contained in word processing documents, spreadsheets, PowerPoint presentations. internet pages or whatever. To share the knowledge, a KMS would use group collaboration systems such as an intranet.

Knowledge Management Systems

Transaction Processing Systems

As the name implies, Transaction Processing Systems ("TPS") are designed to process routine transactions efficiently and accurately. A business will have several (sometimes many) TPS; for example: - Billing systems to send invoices to customers - Systems to calculate the weekly and monthly payroll and tax payments - Production and purchasing systems to calculate raw material requirements - Stock control systems to process all movements into, within and out of the business

Office Automation Systems

Office Automation Systems are systems that try to improve the productivity of employees who need to process data and information. Perhaps the best example is the wide range of software systems that exist to improve the productivity of employees working in an office (e.g. Microsoft Office XP) or systems that allow employees to work from home or whilst on the move.