1

introducing
Plastics are all around us today and help to make our personal lives cleaner, easier, safer, more convenient and more enjoyable.

The use of plastics is increasing all the time as they replace materials such as metal, wood, paper, ceramics and glass in a wide variety of uses. There are also new roles which only plastics can fulfil. The motor car is a good example of a product in which plastics are now extensively used. Over the last 20 years, the use of plastics in cars has increased by 114 per cent and it is estimated that without plastics todays cars would be at least 200kg heavier. Weight savings achieved through the use of plastics have enabled parts, such as the chassis and drive shaft, to be made lighter. It is estimated that over the average lifespan of a car of 150 000km, this lightweighting has contributed to a reduction in fuel consumption of around 750 litres. In turn, this reduces oil consumption by approximately 12 million tonnes and CO2 by

ACTIVITY 1
1 Think of at least three objects which, a few
years ago, would have been made of other materials and which are now commonly made of plastics.

2 For each object you listed, see if there are any obvious advantages of the plastic over the other material. Give reasons why you believe plastics are now used.

30 million tonnes per annum in Western Europe. But what are plastics? Why are they so useful and so widespread? Why do they behave as they do? What is their chemical structure? Many materials we use every day are made of polymers. These are large, long molecules constructed of smaller, shorter molecules called monomers.

Polymers can be natural or synthetic. Natural polymers are common in animals and plants. Much living tissue is based on polymers - for example, proteins in animals and carbohydrates in plants. A lot of our food is based on polymers - for example, fibre, grain and meat. Plants and animals also produce non-living materials based on polymers. These are usually produced
This diagram shows the structure of a monomer and a polymer

ACTIVITY 2
1 This picture shows a typical modern car. Which parts are made of plastics materials? What advantages do you think plastics have over metal? Think of
safety economy style colour cost

2 It is estimated that a 1000kg car, containing 100kg of plastics, would use 4% less fuel than a car made of more traditional materials. If a car uses 2000 litres of fuel each year, costing 70p per litre, how much money is saved through the use of plastics?

monomer

polymer

ACTIVITY 3
1 Look at these pictures of objects made from synthetic polymers. Try to decide whether the polymer is a solid plastic material or a fibre.
Whether a plastic is a solid material or whether it is a thread-like fibre depends only on how it has been produced. From now on, the word plastics will be used to describe all such materials.

as fibres and then have to be processed to produce materials such as threads and fabrics. Synthetic polymers are made mainly from petroleum. This is processed in an oil refinery to produce basic chemicals known as monomers. The monomers are then turned into polymers. Some polymers are turned into a solid plastics material, and others into textile fibres. Some can be turned into either, depending on how they are processed.

of plastics The history

As we enter the 21st century it is clear that plastics are now an integral part of our lives. From the packaged products we purchase, the transport we use and the buildings we live and work in, to the sports equipment we use and the advanced medical technology employed to keep us fit and healthy, plastics have become indispensable. Plastics products were first made in 1862 from plant materials. Cellulose fibres in the form of cotton wool were treated with nitric acid to form cellulose nitrate (Celluloid), which was used to make objects such as ornaments, knife handles, boxes, cuffs, collars and film for movies. In 1909 a new source of raw materials was found - coal tar. This provided the Bakelite plastics, used for electrical insulation and the cases

for cameras, early radios and even jewellery. In the early years of this century, chemists began to understand the reactions which they were observing, thus accelerating the search for new types of material. In the 1930s the manufacture of plastics from chemicals produced from petroleum began, and polystyrene, acrylic polymers, and polyvinyl chloride were produced, although their use grew only slowly. Nylon was discovered in 1928, and entered production in the late 1930s. It was produced as long filaments which could be spun and woven or knitted. The production and manufacture of other plastics materials - low density polyethylene, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), PTFE, polyesters,

silicones, epoxy resins - grew during the 1940s. Polycarbonates were added in the 1950s. High density polyethelene (HDPE) and polypropylene were added in the 1960s. The1970s saw the arrival of the third generation, high-tech, performance plastics which built on previous developments. These included new polyamides and polyacetals. Innovation continued throughout the 80s and 90s, with new polymers being created to meet specific design challenges. For instance, recent advances in catalyst technologies have allowed even better control of a polymers molecular structure and provide improved physical properties. For example, a new generation of metallocene catalysts allow much stronger polyethylene films to be made which are tougher and more transparent while using even less raw materials. Today, more than 700 types of plastic are produced which fall into 18 main polymer families. Readily available, versatile and economic to manufacture, plastics are used to produce both hi-tech and everyday objects. A regular consumer survey shows that the most positive attitudes towards plastics are in connection with innovative, hi-tech applications.

ACTIVITY 4
80

1 Describe the shape of this graph. 2 Why do you think the graph changes shape so
much during the 1950s?
70 60 50 40 30 20 10

3 What happened in the early 1970s to make

the graph change direction so sharply?

4 Extend the graph to the year 2010. What does this suggest the level of production will be?
The growth in the production of plastics across the world (tonnes m)

1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

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the raw
The raw material for plastics is crude oil, a complex mixture of thousands of compounds. To become useful, it must be processed. Around 4% of the worlds production is turned into plastics.
Other petrochemicals 4% Heating, electrical & energy 42% Transport 45% Plastics 4% All other 5%
The mixture is separated into fractions, not into individual compounds. Fractions contain a mixture of compounds whose boiling temperatures are similar. The diagram on page 2 shows the fractional distillation process. It is mainly the naphtha and gas oil fractions which are used for further processing to make products such as plastics. These fractions are still complex mixtures of compounds and no chemical changes have yet taken place. They need to be chemically altered to make them into more useful products with different melting and boiling points and different chemical properties. There are two types of process:

Cracking
Cracking breaks large molecules into smaller ones which are more useful and therefore of greater value. For example, very high boiling point fractions are cracked to produce

Because the compounds in crude oil have different masses, and therefore boil at different temperatures, it is possible to separate them by a process known as fractional distillation.

ACTIVITY 1
Most compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbon molecules they contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only. These diagrams show a few of the compounds which are found in crude oil. Diagram (a) shows ethylene.

A range of molecules showing different ways in which chemical bonds are formed between atoms.

1 Draw the formula of each of these compounds in the

following form CH2=CH2 This is the structural formula of ethylene

2 And then write the formula in this form

C2H4 This is the molecular formula of ethylene The mass of a molecule depends on the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in it. A carbon atom has a mass of 12 units; a hydrogen atom has a mass of 1 unit. In the example shown below, the mass of an ethane molecule, C2H6, is [2x12] + [6x1] = 30 units

g f
represents a carbon atom represents a hydrogen atom represents a chemical bond

3 Work out the mass of the molecules shown here (a-g). 4 If the boiling point of the compound increases as its
mass rises, arrange the compounds in order of increasing boiling point.

This diagram shows the fractional distillation process. It is mainly the naphtha and gas oil fractions which are used for further processing to make chemicals such as plastics.

fractionising column gasoline

refinery gases 40C 110C

heater crude oil

naphtha 180C kerosine 260C gas oil 340C long residue

Polymer manufacturing has become increasingly sophisticated in recent years, as researchers have developed new compounds to meet the needs of specific design challenges. For example a new family of catalysts known as metallocenes give greater control over how monomers join up in a more ordely fashion. This can make the resulting plastic much stronger and transparent.

gasoline and gas oil fractions. Today, most cracking uses catalysts, but some heat treatment still occurs.

ACTIVITY 2
1 One of the simplest synthetic polymers is polyethylene.
This is made from ethylene. The structure of ethylene is:
H H

Reforming
Reforming changes the internal structure of molecules to produce different compounds with a greater usefulness and therefore higher value. By altering conditions such as temperature, pressure and the catalyst the cracking and reforming techniques can now be controlled to produce exactly the blend of compounds which will be most useful at a particular time. Naphtha is cracked by mixing it with steam and heating it to 800C. It is cooled rapidly to 400C, causing chemical changes. The mixture of C6 to C10 compounds is converted to a small number of C2, C3 and C4 compounds which contain carboncarbon double bonds, C=C. The simple compounds are often known as basic chemicals many of these are shown on this card in Activity 1. All the basic chemicals are small molecules containing between two and seven carbon atoms. It is these molecules which are the monomers from which the polymers are then made. The small monomer molecules are reacted together to form a polymer rather like paper clips to form a chain. In order to make the monomers react and join up together, small amounts of special catalysts are added to the polymerisation reactor.

Part of the structure of polyethylene is:

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

List the structural differences between the two molecules.

2 The monomers react by the end of one molecule bonding to the end of another. In this way chains are formed. This is rather like paper clips being linked together. Draw your own picture of how this chain formation takes place.

Polymer chains have very different properties to monomers Monomers reactive compounds small number of carbon atoms in a molecule usually a gas or a liquid relatively cheap compounds to produce of little use as they are Polymers unreactive compounds very large number of carbon atoms in a chain always a solid nearly always more valuable to sell very useful once they have been processed

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polymers and
Eight of the most important polymers are produced from only three basic chemicals which come from naphtha.

Ethylene C2H4

" polymerisation to form high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE) or linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) polymerisation to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC) " reaction with chlorine to form chloroethene polymerisation to form polystyrene (PS) " reaction with benzene to form styrene further reaction and polymerisation to form polyethylene " reaction with oxygen to form ethene oxide terephthalate (PET)
Propylene C3H6

" polymerisation to form polypropylene (PP) further reaction and polymerisation to form " reaction with oxygen to form propylene oxide polyurethanes (PU) " Ethylene and propylene can be polymerized together to make a rubber which can also help make polypropene even tougher
Butadiene C4H6

" polymerisation to form polybutadiene which is a synthetic rubber

ACTIVITY 1
The table to the right shows the total sales of the major plastics by Western European manufacturers from 1992 to 1998 (figures show thousands of tonnes sold).
92 94 96 98 92 94 96 98 92 94 96 98 92 94 96 98 92 94 96 98 92 94 96 98 92 94 96 98 6834 5401 5251 5370 4920 4698 4544 4727 4829 4432 4982 5782

899

630

3 Suggest reasons for the changes you have reported.

LDPE

LLDPE

PVC

PP

HDPE

433

PET

604

965

2 Summarise in one sentence how sales of plastics generally have changed over the period.

3107

1 Describe how sales have changed for each of the plastics.

3718

3861

4195

1779

1281

1429

1692

1749

PS

2146

2194

Although there are many different examples of plastics, they fall into two distinct categories:

Those which soften on heating and then harden again on cooling

Those which never soften once they have been moulded

These are called thermoplastic polymers because they keep their plastic properties These polymer molecules consist of long chains which have only weak bonds between the chains The bonds between the chains are so weak that they can be broken when the plastic is heated The chains can then move around to form a different shape The weak bonds reform when it is cooled and the thermoplastic material keeps its new shape

These are called thermosetting polymers because once set into a shape, that shape cannot be altered These polymer molecules consist of long chains which have many strong chemical bonds between the chains The bonds between the chains are so strong that they cannot be broken when the plastic is heated This means that the thermosetting material always keeps its shape

The bonding process. When thermoplastic polymers are heated they become flexible. There are no cross-links and the molecules can slide over each other. Thermosetting polymers do not soften when heated because molecules are crosslinked together and remain rigid

It is clear from this that the chemical bonding in a polymer and the shape of the polymer will affect its properties.

Most plastics made from the basic chemicals that come from naphtha are thermoplastic

Examples are polyethylene (HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Common examples of thermosetting plastics are polymers based on formaldehyde (Bakelite was the earliest example) Examples are melamine/formaldehyde (MF), urea/formaldehyde (UF), phenol/formaldehyde (PF) and polyurethane (PU) Epoxy glues are also thermosetting plastics

ACTIVITY 2
1 Imagine that you are a small part of a thermoplastic polymer. You are part of a lump of plastic material which is waiting to be processed into a cup. You have strong chemical bonds along the polymer chain to parts of the molecule next to you; you also have some weak bonds across to parts of the polymer which are positioned near to you. The weak bonds keep the plastic material solid and rigid. As part of the manufacturing process, the plastic material is warmed to make it soft and pliable; then squeezed in a press into a new shape; then allowed to cool and solidify into the new shape. Describe what happens to your part of the polymer as this processing takes place. Use words, a diagram, or a cartoon to do this.

There are two ways of producing polymer chains:

Addition rea ctions

The polymer is made from one monomer e.g. A-A produces
A A A A A A A A

n Condensatio reactions
The polymer is made from two monomers e.g. A-A and B-B produce
A B B A A B B A

Some thermoplastic polymers are condensation polymers. Examples are Nylon and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Nylon belongs to a class of polymers called polyamides. Nylons are produced by condensation polymerisation. Two monomers which can produce Nylon are:
H H H H H H H H

In addition reaction, chains are formed from one small molecule. The monomer always contains a carboncarbon double bond. Most thermoplastic plastics C C made from naphtha are addition polymers. e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene.

In condensation reactions, chains are formed from two small molecules. During the reaction a small molecule such as water is formed and removed (condensed out). All thermosetting polymers are condensation polymers, for example, formaldehyde-based plastics and epoxides.

N
H

C
H

C
H H

C
H H

C
H H

C
H H

C
H

N
H

O O
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C O

ACTIVITY 3
1 Write down the molecular formula of each of the compounds shown above, in this form: 2 Draw a diagram of this dimer. 3 Write down the formula of each of these compounds in this form:

CxHyNz

and CxHyOz

The first step in the polymerisation is the two monomers reacting together to form a dimer. In this reaction a molecule of water H2O is produced from the H of one of the NH2 groups and the OH of one of the COOH groups.

CxHyOzNw

This table shows the main plastics and gives examples of some of their uses.

Plastic

Uses
Bottles Bin liners Garden furniture, crates, suitcases Computers Credit cards Oven-proof trays Sports shoe soles Pipes Squeezable detergent bottles Telephones Car bumpers Video and audio cassettes Window frames and pipes Anorak and duvet filling Roller skate wheels Car light covers Firemens helmets

High density polyethylene HDPE Dustbins Low density polyethylene LDPE Polypropylene PP

Bags and sacks Margarine tubs and food wrappings Food containers Blood bags

Polystyrene PS Polyvinyl Chloride PVC

Polyethylene Terephthalate PET Fizzy drinks bottles Polyurethane Acrylics (e.g. Perspex) Polycarbonates

Upholstery

Sink and bathtubs & tap tops Protective glasses CDs Car headlights

ACTIVITY 4
1 Find out more about the uses of plastics. Suggest two properties which PET has which the other plastics do not have. 2 What special properties do you think that polypropene has, if it is used as a wrapping for food such as biscuits and crisps? 3 Look at the uses of the two forms of polyethylene. From your knowledge of the different things which the two plastics are made into, list the main differences in their properties. 4 Think about these objects which are all made from polyethylene:
toys pipes film wrapcoatings for cardboard containers petrol tanks in cars electrical cable coatings Which is likely to be made from the high density form, and which from the low density form? Why?

5 Consider PVC window frames. Suggest reasons why PVC compares favourably with other materials used for window frames. Try and find out why PVC is used rather than other traditional materials. 6 Design an investigation to test the effectiveness of the plastic used to wrap biscuits. Begin with a clear statement of what you wish to test. Now design a simple method of investigation.

The family of materials which form plastics has a wide variety of different properties. Some resist high pressure and extremes of temperature, some resist air and moisture. There are different forms of the same basic plastics type which can be stiff or flexible and so suitable for particular applications. Plastics properties can also be tailored by the use of additives (see card 4). Polymers are converted into plastics products in seven main ways. These are listed here. A brief description of the different methods is given and a list of typical products.

Blow film extrusion

Soft polymer is forced into a tube-shape. This is blown up with air and either heat sealed or slit (bags, film).

Compression moulding

The polymer is placed in a mould and pressure applied to make the plastic take up the shape of the mould (electrical plugs and sockets).

3 4

Extrusion and extrusion coating

Blow moulding

Injection moulding
The plastic is first heated, then the soft polymer is forced under pressure into a cool, closed mould (containers, lids, footwear, crates, gear wheels).

The warm, soft polymer is blown into the shape of a mould by compressed air or steam (bottles, containers).

Rotational moulding

The materials are heated, compressed, and extruded through a die of the desired shape. Materials can also be coated with soft polymer and then passed between rollers to give an even coating (coatings on food and drink containers).

Plastics powder or paste is heated inside a closed mould which is rotated until the walls of the mould are covered with an even layer of polymer (large, hollow items such as litter bins, fuel tanks, drums).

Calendering
Heated polymer is fed between two rollers which squeezes it into a thin sheet (flooring, tiles, panelling, sheeting).

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the properties of
Today, plastics provide an environmentally sound and cost-effective solution for many design challenges.

Industries, especially the hi-tech ones such as aerospace, medicine, computing and communications, rely on new plastics materials for progress in engineering and design. Plastics are often superior to any other materials in these fields. Many new developments would not in fact be possible without them. Think about the clothes we wear, the houses we live in and how we travel. What about the toys we play with, the televisions we watch, the computers we use and CDs we listen to? Whether were shopping in a supermarket, having major surgery or merely brushing our teeth, plastics are an integral part of everything we do.

Safe and hygienic

ACTIVITY 1
1 Plastics do not usually conduct electricity. Think of as many different ways in which this property is used in the home or at work. 2 A lot of the plastics used to package foods are transparent. How might this increase food safety?

Why are plastics so widely used in all our lives? It is because they are:

3 Plastics are widely used in hospitals. Look at this picture. What are the particular advantages of using plastics in this way? Think of the advantages that cheapness of production brings. 4 Plastics are likely to be safer than glass because they do not break, and safer than steel because they do not rust and are less likely to have jagged edges. Can you think of objects made from plastics which might pose a hazard to people or animals if not disposed of sensibly? 5 Some plastics can withstand very high temperatures, why might this be
useful?

safe and hygienic tough and durable lightweight, cost-effective and convenient good insulators flexible and adaptable capable of re-use supportive of innovation

6 Some plastics are waterproof and resistant to attack by chemicals.

Think of ways in which these properties are useful to us.

Tough and durable

ACTIVITY 2
1 Around 30-50% of food produced in developing countries is wasted before it reaches the consumer, whereas in western Europe this figure is only 2-3%. Modern plastics packaging plays a part in this. What other factors might be responsible for this wide difference? 2 Look around at home in the kitchen or bathroom or in a supermarket. Find as many different ways as you can in which plastics add to the safe use of other things. 3 By weight, plastics account for about 50% of the packaging of food sold in supermarkets, yet only 17% of packaging waste by weight is plastics. Look at these pictures and think of the food you buy yourselves. Make a list of different types of packaging for food. Think in particular of examples of how shape is used as a means of protection. 4 Expanded polystyrene is an alternative to corrugated cardboard as a protective packaging material. Design an investigation to compare the effectiveness of the protection offered by the two materials against penetration by a sharp object such as a screwdriver. You will need to think of the quantity of each material used to provide a fair comparison. Discuss your ideas before you begin the investigation. 5 Bubble-wrap is widely used to protect delicate objects such as crockery. Just how effective is it? How much protection can it give to an egg? Design an investigation which compares the amount of protection given to the shell of a hard-boiled egg as the amount of bubble-wrap used changes. Begin by thinking of ways in which you can carry out the investigation.

, c Lightweight cost-effective and onvenient

ACTIVITY 3
1 Suggest why using bottles made from plastics on jet aircraft can save up to 6000 per year on the cost of running an aircraft. 2 What else might you need to
know about the plastic bottles before you could say whether the real saving was 6000? Explain how it might be more or less than this figure.

3 When faced with a choice of using plastic or paper bags which do you choose? Why? What does it depend on? Make a list of the advantages of both paper and plastic bags for holding fruit and vegetables. 4 Compare the masses of plastic and paper bags which are used to carry fruit and vegetables. First of all decide how you will ensure that your test is a fair one. 5 Looking at your results, discuss what the impact would be on the mass of packaging used if we had to use paper bags all the time. 6 Compare a soft drink carried in a plastic, glass, metal, and card container. Measure the masses of the total package and the masses of the liquids they contain. Make a chart showing the percentage of the total mass which is taken up by the packaging material. 7 Compare a one-litre drink packed in glass and one packed in plastics. Make a list of the differences in the use of energy as it moves: from the factory to
warehouse to storage in the shop

8 Now do the same but compare metal and card drinks packaging with plastics. Are these likely to be similar to glass or plastics? Why? 9 Compare the four materials again. Think of other advantages and disadvantages of each one. 10 Now summarise the
advantages and disadvantages of using plastics as containers. Think of energy savings, the amount of raw materials needed, other environmental issues such as pollution and waste, and the impact on our lives.

from storage in the shop to

the shelves

from shelves to checkout to

home and storage

Good insulators
ACTIVITY 4
1 Plastics are widely used in cups,
mugs and beakers, at home and in vending machines. You know that various plastics materials conduct heat to different extents. Design an investigation to see how the material used affects the rate at which heat is lost from a cup containing hot water. Try to use expanded polystyrene, a thin-walled plastic cup and a paper cup. You will need the cups, a thermometer and a clock or watch that records seconds. Discuss ways in which you will make this a fair comparison.

2 Plastics are normally poor conductors of electricity. Look around your home and make a list of ways in which plastics are used in objects with an electrical power supply. Looking back in time, would some of these objects previously have been made of other materials? See if you can identify the material which plastics have replaced.

Flexible and adaptable

The properties of everyday plastics are different from those of the basic polymers. A wide range of additives is used to give plastics the required properties. They are designer materials we are able to create exactly what we want from the raw materials. The additives used include:

UV absorbers protecting against decomposition by ultra-violet light. Flame retardants reducing the flammability. Mineral fillers increasing rigidity and improving the properties of electrical insulation. Inert materials such as talc, chalk and clay are used. Blowing agents which break down at high temperatures (above 200C) to release gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide. When this happens inside a plastic in a mould, a foam is produced. Anti-oxidants used widely prolonging plastics life by preventing reaction with oxygen and breakdown of the polymer chain.

Pigments incorporated into plastics to add colour. Impact modifiers to ensure that plastics dont crack or break when they are knocked or bumped. Anti-static agents to reduce the amount of dust and dirt which adheres to the plastic due to static electricity.

Capable of

re-use
Today, everyone is more aware of the need to act more responsibly to protect our world for the future a drive towards sustainable development. This means acting in a way which does not limit the range of economic, social and environmental options available to future generations. Ensuring we use our valuable resources wisely is an important consideration for all of us. Re-use is one way of achieving this. But first we have to make sure we use as little natural resources in production and use as possible. Plastics make the most of valuable resources by using the minimum amount of raw materials and energy during manufacture and processing. Plastics only consume a small fraction - 4 per cent - of the worlds oil. Today, plastics are lighter, yet stronger and more adaptable than ever before, thanks to continuing technological innovation. This means that product for product, proportionally less of the worlds oil and energy resources are being used with lower overall impact on the environment.

The versatility of plastics. The plastic wrapping is used to store and safeguard this frozen meal. The plastic wrapping is removed and the meal can be quickly reheated in a microwave oven using the plastic container and can then be eaten on the plastic plate.

ACTIVITY 5
1 Look at what happens to plastics which come into the home. How many are used again and what for? How many are disposed of and how? Which are re-used and which are thrown away? Why is this?

Innovation supporters
Throughout their history, plastics have enabled designers to innovate, to improve existing products and to create new ones that improve our quality of life and minimise environmental impact. In every aspect of our lives we have benefited from these innovations. For example, the enhanced performance of the sports equipment made with plastics has allowed athletes to set themselves ever more challenging records to break. In medicine, plastics not only provide an alternative to traditional materials for garments and products improving hygiene and safety, but they have enabled ground breaking developments in micro-surgery. Plastics packaging has significantly improved the convenience of buying food for one person with microwavable packaging for ready meals. And the shelf life of packaged fresh food has been lengthened with oxygen-scavenging

films. Refill pouches for detergents have significantly reduced the packaging to product ratio found on supermarket shelves. Theyve contributed to increased comfort, safety and energy efficiency of many forms of transport, from cars and bikes to planes and trains. Providing a lightweight alternative to conventional materials, they conserve natural resources in manufacture, contribute to reduced fuel consumption and ultimately limit environmental impact. Plastics have also played a crucial role in the development of electric car technology and innovations such as airbags in cars and the aerodynamic nosecone of high-speed trains like the Eurostar. Communications has been completely transformed by plastics. With mobile phones, palmtop computers, the internet and digital technology, we can access information more easily and contact people while on the move. Internet usage is forecast to continue growing at more than 300 per cent a year. Although polymer optical fibres have been available for 30 years, their usage has increased exponentially in line with the demand for costeffective global communications. If anything, the pace of innovation is increasing. Designers in every industry are experimenting with plastics capabilities. Where the polymer doesnt yet exist to meet the designers needs, researchers are developing new types of plastics. Plastics batteries, light-emitting polymers and roll-up computer screens may sound like fantasy, but they could be in the shops in the near future.

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protecting our world for future

Everyone is increasingly aware that we need to act more responsibly to protect our world for future generations.
Many industries and governments explain their commitment as acting in a way which does not limit the range of environmental, social and economic choices available to our grandchildren. This mission is known as sustainable development. Everyone has a key role to play. Plastics and the plastics industry play their part in contributing to sustainable development in the following ways:
Environmental protection:

ACTIVITY 1
1 Describe three examples of efforts people are making now to live more sustainable lives than, say, in the 60s and 70s, e.g. using less energy than before, or using resources more efficiently. What benefits do these efforts bring?

constantly seeking ways to help save resources such as oil, other fossil fuels, water and even food. The industry aims to do more with less.
Economic development: the plastics

industry adds value to society through the employment and the wealth it creates over one million workers in Europe.
Social progress: plastics play a

crucial role in innovative technologies and products that provide higher standards of living, healthcare and education for an ever-growing world population. This card explores how plastics can contribute to environmental protection to help us all achieve the ambition of a more sustainable lifestyle. You may want to look at cards 4, 6 and 7 to help with some of the activities.

and are they necessary? This is a good starting point. All products are made from raw materials. Most plastics are produced from crude oil, which is a limited and valuable resource. However, very little of total oil production is used for this purpose only 4 per cent for all plastics products. Although the production and use of plastics have grown steadily, the amount of oil used has grown less quickly. This is because continuing innovation means plastics are lighter, yet stronger and more adaptable.

Assessing environmental impact

Everything we use, whether made of wood, glass, plastics, paper or metal, has an impact on the environment. This includes finding raw materials, making and using products and disposing of them at end-of-life.

All other 5% Plastics 4% Other petrochemicals 4%

This opens up a huge range of uses for plastics yet at the same time means that, product for product, proportionally less of the worlds oil and energy resources are being used, with lower overall impact on the environment.

Transport 45%

Doing more with less

The environmental group Greenpeace often asks the question why are we using these materials in the first place

Heating, electrical & energy 42%

inputs

raw materials acquisition

outputs

energy

manufacturing, processing and formulation

water effluents

distribution and transportation

airborne emissions

packaging options and is lighter to transport meaning less fuel is consumed and fewer emissions produced. However, at end-of-life, plastics film is often contaminated and difficult to separate from the household waste making it difficult to recycle mechanically. Using life cycle analysis it is possible to determine the overall environmental impact of a product, from production to disposal.

Savings throughout the life cycle

use/re-use/ maintenance

solid wastes

recycling

products

raw materials
waste management

power and heat

Reducing the amount of raw material used in the first place New polymers and new technologies have greatly reduced the amount of raw materials needed to pack a product. For example, by printing information directly onto the plastics wrapper of its bread, one supermarket has reduced the need for extra labels and packaging materials by 23 per cent per package. Using less fuel, creating fewer emissions during use Reducing the amount of material used in a product has a direct impact on the weight of loads. For example, reducing the amount of packaging for

Environmental impacts include contribution to global warming, depletion of finite natural resources and waste. Without taking all of these factors into account, through proper studies, it is impossible to make sound environmental decisions. Such studies involve looking at each part of the life cycle of a product, as shown above. While the European waste management industry is working hard to meet the challenges of the recovery targets set by the EU (see card 6), it is important to keep in mind the ultimate goal the efficient use of resources to meet the needs of future generations. In some instances, new plastics products and technologies, that reduce the amount of raw materials used and the impact during use, may make it more difficult, and therefore less economically or environmentally

beneficial, to collect and sort the plastics at end-of-life. For example, lightweight film uses less raw materials than traditional

ACTIVITY 2
1 Think of a plastics item you might find in your home or classroom. Using the flow diagram as a frame, consider the environmental impact of this item throughout its life cycle.
Use these ideas to draw your own flow diagram. Begin by making a rough sketch and then compare notes with others in your group. Then see if there are any points you want to add to your sketch before making your final diagram. You might find it helpful to add artwork of some kind. Make sure it is clearly labelled with the following key words: raw materials product distribution disposal recycling energy consumer use chemical treatment manufacture re-use landfill

combustion with energy recovery

 they need less raw materials and

ACTIVITY 3
1 Find an example of an
object that can be made from less raw material today than in the past. Does the object function better, worse or the same? Do you think there are energy savings from using less raw materials to make it? What are they?

use less energy to manufacture.

Their low mass means less energy

is needed to pull them, there is less wear on the machinery, the wheels and the rails and the plastics material will not rust. For example, a large chain of supermarkets encouraged customers to bring the companys plastics bags back to their stores and use them again. The incentive was a small refund for every bag reused. As a result, they reduced their use of new bags by 60 million in one year and saved 1000 tonnes of plastics. Looking further into the future, it is predicted that ultra light-weight vehicles will be made from plastics, including parts of the engine, transmission and axles. This could mean a 500kg car with greatly increased fuel efficiency that weighs less than its passengers and luggage while retaining its safety features.

ACTIVITY 4
1 Look at the different means of transport which students in your class use to travel to school. List some parts of those vehicles which are made of plastics, e.g. car seat, bicycle mudguard. For each one, what alternative material could be used, e.g. leather, metal. Can you describe any advantages or disadvantages of using plastics in terms of function, environmental impact or cost?

a product whether large or small means you transport more product and less package each time you fill a truck or load a train. This reduces emissions, fuel usage and costs. Granular detergents are now being sold in plastics pouches which use 90 per cent less packaging than equivalent containers. Improvements in design and technology used in cars have dramatically reduced fuel consumption. Between 1974 and 1988, fuel consumption dropped by an average of 14 per cent for 18 car models in Europe. Plastics contributed to at least half the saving through lighter weight and improved aerodynamics because of their mouldability. Minimising impact and maximising recovery at end of life Often we look at waste when we think about saving resources. But an important question should be asked before we think about waste and whether it should be recycled or thrown away. Can we prevent it from becoming waste in the first place? Either by reducing the amount of material used to make it or extending its life by re-using the product.

Sustainable development
and how we can make a contribution in our day-to-day lives
Making transport work harder Different modes of transport have different environmental consequences. For instance, if everyone travelled to school by bus, rather than in individual cars, there would be less fuel used and fewer emissions. This may not always be a practical solution but we should all be encouraging such systems. Plastics have made a great contribution to energy efficiency in transport because they are light and reduce the weight of vehicles. This can be achieved by a simple design solution i.e. choosing plastics instead of a heavier material, and by technological advances. For example plastics have made possible the largest one-piece component in the world a railway carriage. This is manufactured in Switzerland and has four major benefits: the carriages are quicker to make;
they are 25 per cent lighter than

traditional carriages;

Creating sustainable buildings There are many examples of building materials and fittings where plastics materials are replacing traditional ones because of their benefits of strength, durability, lightness, insulation, low cost, low environmental impact, non-corrosion and aesthetic appeal. These include window frames, pipes and insulation. Plastics contribute to sustainable buildings in a number of ways:
Energy efficiency: is a key concern

ACTIVITY 5
1 What do you think is meant by an intelligent polymer? Describe an imaginary intelligent polymer and what uses it would have.
What functional and environmental benefit might there be to system-built housing compared with conventional building methods? Think of the features of a housing construction site, e.g. bricks, wooden beams, window frames, glass.

in modern buildings, and plastics can provide huge benefits. In northern European countries, almost one quarter of total energy consumption is used for domestic heating. Plastics insulating properties means that this can and is being reduced considerably. Research shows that 50kg of plastics foam used to insulate a house saves 3,700 litres of heating fuel over 25 years equivalent to 150 litres a year. It is estimated that since the energy crisis of the 1970s, the use of such foam in construction has saved the equivalent of more than five billion gallons of oil.
Environmental impact: in southern

Emergency housing: today, more

Space exploration is providing the

people live in cities than the total number of humans alive 100 years ago. At the same time, with the worlds population growing faster than at any time in history, the provision of shelter is becoming even more critical. Advances in plastics engineering and design are allowing the development of lowcost system-built housing that can be constructed simply and quickly in any climate and can even meet the demands of earthquake zones.

inspiration for some of these developments. For example, one of the concepts considered for living quarters on the International Space Station is a lightweight, inflatable habitation module. Based on the design of a space suit, the module is a multi-layer, puncture-resistant construction to house four to six astronauts.

Europe, more and more homes are being fitted with solar heating systems which turn the suns energy into heat. Plastics are a vital component of the solar heating equipment. As well as helping to warm buildings, plastics can also help keep them cool. Two intelligent polymers are now being developed to provide shade and prevent overheating in buildings. The materials are transparent at room temperature but become milky when exposed to bright sunlight. They reflect the light and prevent the building overheating. They will provide alternatives to blinds and the need for air conditioning.

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dealing with
Despite reduction and re-use, there will always be waste to deal with, whatever materials we use.

As the demand for plastics grows, the challenge is to find ways to ensure maximum recovery to avoid the loss of a valuable resource at the end of a plastics products or packages useful life. The best way to do this is to use all the available recovery techniques to optimise the balance between environmental gain and cost. There are three main options to manage plastics waste:

The five stages in the recycling of plastics are:

Recycling
The process of mechanical recycling is encouraged where it makes environmental and economic sense. For example, this is often the case when large amounts of the same type of plastics waste can be easily collected, such as distribution and agricultural films, car battery cases, soft drinks bottles and other containers.

1 disposal by the user 2 collection by a local authority or company 3 sorting into single types of plastics 4 cleaning to remove labels, dirt and content residues 5 re-processing into granules or flakes which can then be formed into new products
Throughout the European Union, material recycling targets have been set for some sectors and opportunities to increase plastics recycling are being

explored. For packaging, for example, research forecasts that there is the potential to increase the amount of mechanically recycled packaging plastics to a European average of 15 per cent in 2006, compared to 11 per cent in 1995. There are also opportunities for increases in areas such as agriculture, automotive and product distribution. However, there are barriers where the waste is hard to collect or where different components in integrated, complex products, must be separated (for example computers and electronic equipment). Different thermoplastics do not mix well when heated together and the strength of the recyclate is reduced. While mixed plastics can be recycled into products such as fence posts it is much better to recycle the same type of plastics together.

High calorific alternative fuel

When separated from other waste, the high energy content of plastics make them an excellent substitute for fossil fuels in energyintensive processes, for example in cement production.

Mechanical recycling
Material reprocessing of waste plastics by physical means into plastics products.

Energy recovery
Plastics are made from oil this gives them a calorific value equal to or greater than coal. This energy value can be recovered via combustion.

Material recycling
Reprocessing in a production process of waste plastics for the original purpose or for other purposes excluding direct energy recovery.

Municiple Solid Waste (MSW)

The incineration of plastics waste along with other materials in MSW can safely and cleanly generate heat and/or power.

Recovery Options

Feedstock recycling
Material reprocessing of waste plastics by chemical means into basic chemicals, monomers for plastics or hydrocarbon feedstock.

Landfill A disposal route for residues not recoverable

ACTIVITY 1
It is important to try to separate different plastics early in the recycling process.

electrostatic separation. This can be used with plastics that take different electrical charges for example, PET and PVC selective dissolution. Organic solvents are used to dissolve one or more polymer types that can then be filtered, isolated and re-solidified

1 Why is waste separated into different plastics always likely to be more

valuable and more useful than waste which remains mixed?

2 Why are dark plastics separated from clear plastics - even though they are made from the same material? 3 Have a look at home at the plastics packaging materials in the kitchen or bathroom. Look for the code number stamped on the bottom or inside of a container. Make a table showing which plastics are used for which purposes. 4 Make a careful note of where two different plastics are used in the same
item e.g. for a lid and a container. Why are different types selected?

ACTIVITY 2
1 The density of polypropene is 0.91 g/cm3. The density of polystyrene is 1.05 g/cm3. What density would a liquid need to be to make sure that the polypropene floated and the polystyrene sank? 2 PET has a density of 1.35 g/cm3. What density would a liquid need to be if it was to separate PET from polystyrene? 3 Ease of separation of plastics materials is now being taken into account at the design stage. What recommendations about design rules would you make? Think about densities, colour, inks and labels. 4 Recycling makes a lot of sense, but only if demand for recycled materials matches the supply. If demand is much less than the supply, what will happen to
the price paid for the recycled material

The common plastics have been given a code number which you will find on much of todays packaging. This coding system can now be used to help identify plastics when separated by hand. In several European countries, including Germany and France, a labelling system called the green dot is used to indicate that money has been paid to national recycling systems. To further help in recycling endof-life products, manufacturers are being encouraged to take recycling into account at the design stage. This could, for instance, involve making a label more easily removeable from a

package by using water-soluble glue. Recycled plastics are often used in completely different applications. For example, fizzy drinks bottles are mainly recycled into fibres. Apart from hand-sorting, three other methods for separation are used: analysis of the elements in the plastic. PVC is easy to spot because of the chlorine atom in the molecule. Automatic systems exist, for example to identify and sort different types of plastics bottles separation by density. The plastics are cut into flakes and mixed with a liquid so that some float and some sink, or can be spun in centrifuges

PET (polyethylene terephthalate)

HDPE (high density polyethylene)

the amount of recycled material in storage the costs of the process the profitability of the process?

V (vinyl)*

LDPE (low density polyethylene)

5 If there is a large difference between supply and demand, the amount of waste being collected will have to be reduced. What effect might this have on public opinion and on the wisdom of recycling?

PP (polypropylene)
*PVC

PS (polystyrene)

Other (including multi-layer)

cycling Feedstock re
The potential of new recycling technologies such as feedstock recycling is being investigated by the plastics industry. Feedstock recycling, which is mainly used for mixed plastics waste is currently only practised in Germany but possible investment in other countries is being considered. There is still much to be learnt about the potential for these technologies if they are to offer the opportunity to increase recycling in the future.

ACTIVITY 3
1 Summarize these processes in a flow diagram. Make sure that you distinguish between the different stages, and between the usefulness of the four end-products. 2 What other factors do we need to take into account before we can know whether processes such as these are actually of benefit? Think of the costs involved.

Energy from waste

Re-use and recycling are not the only waste management options. Plastics waste has a high calorific value, equivalent to coal or oil, which can be safely and cleanly released through combustion to generate heat and/or power. There are three main types of plants to recover energy from plastics waste: combustion with household waste in a municipal incinerator or the combustion of plastics as a fuel, usually in combination with traditional fossil fuels in a manufacturing process or a power generation plant. Pre-sorted mixed plastics packaging waste for example, has been used effectively as a substitute for coal in energy-intensive processes such as cement manufacture. In mixed waste incineration, the 8% plastics content produces 30% of the heat energy released. One concern often associated with combustion is the level of dioxin emissions. A very small number of these are toxic although their degree
kcal 15000 This diagram shows the heat energy content of 1kg of lignite, diesel oil and plastics.

Collection and sorting

Treatment of the plastics waste e.g. grinding

Feedstock recycling into basic raw materials

Closed-loop recycling back to the original plastics or as feedstock for new petrochemical products
There are four main methods of feedstock recycling:

Pyrolysis Plastics waste is heated in a vacuum producing a mixture of gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons not unlike petroleum. Hydrogenation Plastics waste is heated with hydrogen. This cracks the polymers into a liquid hydrocarbon. Gasification Plastics waste is heated in air producing a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases. This is used to produce new raw materials such as methanol. Chemolysis Certain plastics can be chemically treated and turned back into the raw materials for making the same plastics.

12500

10000

7500

5000

of toxicity varies greatly. Dioxins are formed where carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine and heat are present and they are an unwanted by-product in a variety of combustion and manufacturing processes. They can also occur in nature in forest fires, volcanoes and compost heaps. Dioxin emissions from waste combustion have been closely monitored and much research undertaken to reduce such emissions to meet the most stringent safety requirements. Well operated incinerators in fact destroy dioxins. European legislation means that by 2005 all municipal and clinical waste combustion will contribute just 11g per year (or 0.3%) to overall dioxin emissions. Already across Europe over 2.6 million tonnes of plastics waste is burnt each year replacing fossil fuels to produce useful heat and/or power. This takes place in well-managed incineration plants or cement works where emissions are carefully monitored and limited. There is an obvious need in recycling to balance supply and demand. There is no point in collecting material for recycling if the recycled material cannot be produced and marketed in an environmentally and economically acceptable way. There is also a need to consider other ways of treating waste. What should we do?
Recycle plastics as materials? Recycle them as feedstock

2500

chemicals?
Release the energy they contain
1kg lignite 1kg diesel oil 1kg plastics

through combustion?

ACTIVITY 4
1/ Look at the following information & produce a poster which summarises it. 1 2.6 tonnes of domestic waste has the energy value of 1 tonne of coal. A 10% increase in the amount of waste combusted would save over 1 million tonnes of coal. Sweden already recovers energy from 33% of its plastics in domestic waste, providing a significant proportion of its total district heating needs. In Denmark, 56% of plastics in domestic waste is recovered for energy. In Switzerland the figure is 55%. If European waste was incinerated and the heat energy recovered, it could provide 5% of our domestic electricity needs and halve coal imports.

2 This table shows what happens to plastics waste across Europe

Amounts (000 tonnes) 1994 1995 1222 99 2698 4019 25% 1996 16871 251 2496 4067 24% 1997 17454 1440 334 2575 4349 total plastics waste 17505 mechanically recycled 1057 feedstock recycled 51 energy recovered 2348 total plastics recovered % waste recovered 20%

Complete the table by calculating the data missing from the empty boxes.

The answer is probably to do all three, and to decide on the best combination of options. The option chosen depends on the specific circumstances. For example: What sector is the waste from? How is it collected? What sorting, separation technology is available? Is there a demand for recyclate, feedstock or alternative fuel? Studies can be done which assess the environmental impact of the recovery or disposal option chosen. In fact, such studies can be carried out over the whole life-cycle of the plastics product and this sort of analysis can help with choosing the best material at the design stage.

applications in medicine (e.g. degradable stitches and other bioproducts) and agriculture (e.g. film for improving the growth of crops).

Landfill sites create two byproducts a liquid and a gas. The liquid is rather like concentrated sewage and must be contained within the site to avoid its seeping into the water supply. To prevent this, the site is usually lined with clay or plastics. The gas is a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane (which can be explosive if not properly controlled) and both contribute to global warming. There are a number of sites where this gas is now collected and used for the generation of electricity or heat. Today, it is recognised that landfill is not a viable long-term waste management option. To encourage manufacturers to design products that maximise the use of resources throughout the life-cycle and to make recovery options more attractive, the financial cost of landfill is being increased. This card has shown something of the three main options for dealing with plastics.

Recycling Combustion with energy recovery Disposal

All of these are used to varying degrees across Europe today. There are changes from time to time as to which process is the most attractive. For example, changing oil prices on the world market can affect the value of recovered plastics materials and hence the incentive to recycle.

Landfill
In parts of Europe where waste cannot be burnt to release energy, it is still disposed of in landfill sites. Landfill is a waste of resources. The plastics industry is committed to optimising the combination of recovery options to divert as much waste as possible from landfill. In the past, landfill sites have often been located in disused quarries or clay pits. Filling these large holes in the ground with solid waste has been a good way of removing landscape eyesores and restoring land. Landfill sites contain organic material usually more than 50 per cent of the total mass of waste. Because of this they behave like gigantic compost heaps with paper, food and natural fibres slowly breaking down through bacterial activity. Modern sites can contain many millions of tonnes of material, with thousands of tonnes being added each day.

ACTIVITY 5
1/ Draw up a table of 1 advantages and disadvantages of

y Degradabilit
Degradable plastics have been produced which can be broken down either by light or bacteria, but they are not yet widely used. Such plastics, however, are not an easy solution to waste management because they can take many years to degrade completely and can represent the loss of a valuable resource that could be otherwise recovered for a second life. However, they do have certain

recycling of waste energy recovery from

waste through burning Think of transport costs, emissions, effect on other resources, land use. Legislation now strictly controls the design and operation of landfill areas.

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7
110

dealing with
Individuals, communities, corporations we all contribute to the large amounts of waste that need to be taken care of.

On average each of us throws out these items each year:

glass bottles

290 130
newspapers or magazines

metal cans

66 70kg
of vegetable waste and food scraps

plastic bottles

As discussed in card 4, plastics are often used for packaging because they are resilient, light, clean and cost effective. Therefore, household waste contains plastics as well as other materials. In card 6 we looked at some of the ways in which we can deal with plastics waste. Increasingly, efforts are being made to manage this waste in order to reduce its impact on the environment and maximise the amount of waste given a second life.

Once collected, waste can be reused, recycled or recovered as energy. As a last resort it should be buried in landfill sites for safe disposal. However, when we throw things away irresponsibly they have no chance of entering a sensible waste management and recovery system and instead, they become litter. Litter typically consists of packaging items thrown away without regard to the surroundings. It ends up in public spaces causing serious social, and environmental consequences, as well as being a waste of resources. In an ideal world, litter would not exist because people would behave with care for their environment. One of the most important steps towards solving the litter problem is making sure that everyone knows that it is people who create litter, and not the companies which make the products.

A survey of European cities found that the top five items of litter were cigarette butts and matchsticks, pieces of paper, sweet wrappers and bits of plastics. To find out whether our attitude towards littering is improving or getting worse, litter in the environment is measured.

litter Identifying
Sadly, wherever you are you will find litter in city centres, the countryside, on the coast and at sea. Although its hard to believe, even Mount Everest in the Himalayas has a litter problem!

ACTIVITY 1
As a class, identify at least ten different 50-metre strips of land near your school or where you live. Identify, list and classify all the items of litter. For example bottles, bags, cigarette butts. v Which items are most commonly found? v Which could be dangerous to people or wildlife? Explain why. v Which would be difficult or costly to remove? v Which could be recycled or used again? v Using the Litter Index below, what grade A-D would you give to the area that you surveyed? Based on the Tidy Britain Litter Index, towns and cities can be assessed as a whole. If ten sites were surveyed and each scored A (or 5), then the town would score 50/50 or 100%, but if each site scored only D (or 1) then its cleanliness index would be 10/50 or 20%. Use the grades that the class calculated for the ten sites to calculate an overall cleanliness index for your neighbourhood.

Coastwatch Europe collects data about coastal litter and pollution. A recent survey of some 10,000 sites found over 60 items of packaging litter at each location. These included cans, cartons, bags and bottles as well as cigarette butts, matches and newspapers. Pollutants including sewage, oil and tar were also seen.

Causes and consequences of litter

Nearly all of us can remember an incident when our behaviour created litter. The way we act in different environments determines the type of litter produced and where it is found. For example, litter found on beaches comes from a number of sources. Holiday-makers picnicking on the beach bring a large number of disposable items such newspapers, packaged food and drinks and cigarettes. When these items are taken home after use or put in a bin, no litter is created, but frequently people dont dispose of them responsibly. Sometimes this is because there are not enough bins, but often it is just carelessness.

One way of measuring litter is with a litter index such as the one below. Using a five-point scale, litter found on a 50-metre length of road, footpath, beach or parkland is measured.

Grade A Rating 5/5 Completely free of all items of litter

Although you are probably more aware of the litter in your local area than elsewhere, when you visit other places you cannot escape the litter problem. In fact, litter in holiday spots and at sea attracts the most attention. Is this because we expect to enjoy the seaside or natural scenery where we choose to spend our holidays and forget that our actions create the same impact wherever we are?

Grade A- Rating 4/5 Appears free of litter but on careful inspection has 5 or less small items of litter

Grade B Rating 3/5 Small items of litter present, like bits of paper and milk bottle tops
(source: Tidy Britain Group)

Grade C Rating 2/5 Clearly noticeable build-up of litter: cigarette butts, paper, cans and packets

Grade D Rating 1/5 Lots of clearly visible litter and large items like household goods

But not all coastal litter is created by irresponsible individuals at the location in question. Even uninhabited islands are littered with materials washed ashore by ocean currents that do not recognise national boundaries. This litter can come from other beaches or by the

casual but illegal dumping at sea of items including food packaging and bottles. While some litter will rot over time, much of it remains unless it is collected and removed. Apart from the fact that it is unpleasant to look at and spoils our environment, it can also:

What can be done to m of litter? solve the proble

Everyone is responsible for the problem. If anyone breaks the litter or waste disposal laws then local authorities can take action. This happens all over Europe. Local authorities also encourage individuals to take pride in their area, provide disposal facilities and organise litter collection. Clearly, it is much cheaper to manage waste disposed of responsibly, than to collect it as litter from the streets, countryside and sea.

injure people
For example, rusting cans and broken glass can lie hidden in the sand or in the grass and cause nasty injuries when people tread on them.

kill or injure wildlife

For example, a harmless plastic bag disposed of carelessly could look like an edible jellyfish to a sea turtle, but if eaten it may kill. Damaged fishing nets cut loose by fishermen can be a death trap for dolphins who become entangled and drown.

be a health hazard
Insects, rats and mice frequently congregate around discarded food wrappers and sanitary products, potentially leading to the spread of disease.

cost money to clean up

For example, according to the Local Government Financial Statistics Unit of the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions, street cleaning in England and Wales costs local authorities almost 340 million a year.

ACTIVITY 3
Find out what schemes operate in your country, who is involved and how they work.

ACTIVITY 2
Think about the type of waste found in different places: rural, urban and coastal.

v v v v

Who is responsible for the litter in each environment? Do you think the amount of litter has increased in recent years? Consider each environment in turn, what measures could be taken to reduce litter? Identify what litter might be biodegradable, do you think biodegradability is the answer to protect our environment or would it encourage people to litter more?

Consider the consequences of the types of litter found in each environment.

Throughout Europe, campaigns have been run to raise peoples awareness of litter. In the UK, the Tidy Britain Group, which uses programmes of action and education to fight litter and littering, is the recognised national agency. On a more local scale, schemes range from the annual enlisting of volunteers from schools, sports clubs and local organisations to help clear litter on a particular day, to more formal partnerships. For example, in Devon, the Tamar Estuaries Management Plan brings together local municipal and harbour authorities, water companies and residents. They work together to ensure that adequate facilities for litter disposal are in place, collection services arranged and that the public is kept informed.

do an you What c to help?

Can you say that you have never added to the problem? When did you last drop a sweet or crisp wrapper, a piece of chewing gum or drinks can somewhere other than in a waste bin?

ACTIVITY 4
As a class, discuss the litter problems in your local area. Think about the causes and the consequences. Choose ONE aspect of the litter problem and draw up a plan to tackle it. For example, this could be organising a litter awareness campaign in your school, or getting the local authorities to place more bins in a specific location. Make sure your plan answers these points:

v v

Who would you need to involve? Which organisations/ authorities would be able to help or advise? Which organisations would you need to consult?

v v

How could the plan be carried out? How would you tell people about it and get them to take part? How would you check its progress? How and when would you measure its success or failure?

v v

Now you have learnt a bit more about the consequences of your actions, would you stop and think before contributing to the litter problem?

While it is important that cleaning up litter is organised, it is only part of a solution. We all have a role to play so that one day litter will no longer be a problem.

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8
blem A pro to solve

for life
We live on a blue planet, where two-thirds of the surface is covered with water, but most of the water on Earth is too salty to be useful for anything but sailing on.

But we need more water now. The UN has declared water a human right, which means that everyone should have access to sufficient, affordable, Only 3.5 per cent of the planets total accessible and safe water supplies and surface water is fresh, and most of that sanitation services. Unfortunately, one is frozen in the ice caps. A mere 0.01 billion people live without access to per cent one drop in every bucketful adequate drinking water, and over two is in a form suitable for direct human billion people lack basic sanitation. use: in streams, rivers, lakes and Every day, 10,000 children die from groundwater aquifers. cholera and other waterborne diseases. Between 1950 and 1990, global Eighty per cent of all diseases and onewater demand tripled and it is still third of all deaths in developing nations rising. If current trends persist, the are caused by contaminated water. demand for water could exceed the Bilharzia, typhoid, salmonella, E coli, available supply within 30 years. There hepatitis, parasitic worms all these simply wont be enough falling from are potential killers. They can be found the sky to satisfy our needs. in the rivers and streams that many of the worlds poor depend on for their water supplies. There are many needs that 3.5% must be met by clean water. Farmers need water for their crops. Families need water for cooking and washing. In parts of Africa, women and children may spend three hours a day walking to a water source, then queuing for a chance to fill a pot. Water is also a problem in Europe. In an average year, over 3000 cubic metres of water are available for every European Union inhabitant. Around 20 per cent of the available water is actually used, but there are still shortages in some areas. For example, in southern European countries, periodic droughts are a major environmental, social and economic problem. In other countries, ageing water supply systems lead to cracked pipes and subsequent water leakage.

ACTIVITY 1
1 How much water do you think you use on average per day? Think about what purposes you use water for and list some ways in which you could be more efficient in your use of water. 2 Identify three European countries that you think would be likely to suffer water shortages in summer. 3 Can you discover the name of one European country that uses desalinated sea water for nearly half its drinking water?

The problem of water shortages looks set to get worse due to the impact of climate change. Most scientists agree that global temperatures will rise by the end of the century by between 1.4C and 5.8C. There are likely to be more floods and storms but also more droughts and heat waves, affecting crop yields, water supplies and health. We have to learn to use the water we have more carefully, in a more efficient way. The world is becoming increasingly aware of the need to act more responsibly to extend our help to those in need and at the same time, to protect our world for future generations; what is now known as sustainable development. This is a term used to describe acting in a way that does not limit the economic, social

and environment options available to us now and in the future. Efforts to promote sustainable development received a boost at the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002, where world leaders met to discuss the protection of the environment and how to tackle the causes of poverty throughout the planet. Scarcity and misuse of fresh water were highlighted as two of the most serious threats to sustainable development. As a result of the Summit, all heads of governments agreed to aim to halve the number of people without access to clean water or proper sanitation by 2015. Water can be delivered to consumers in different ways. Whatever the solution, the aim is to make available adequate quantities of water safe for human consumption. Plastics play a vital role in preserving and distributing water economically and reliably to a growing world population. In many areas of the world where water is scarce, conservation and irrigation systems help retain water and distribute it either for domestic or industrial use, or for growing crops. Plastics are a favoured material in many of these applications due to their costeffectiveness, ease of transport and assembly, flexibility and durability. All people, whatever their stage of development and social and economic condition, have the right to have access to drinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to their basic needs.
Source: UN Conference at Mar del Plata, 1977

WaterAid was able to help 7 million people gain access to clean water in the developing world, thanks, in part, to plastic piping.
In lowland areas, the problems are often more difficult. There are more people competing for the same water, which is often dirty and unsafe. One answer is to drill down to the waterbearing aquifer below the surface. Using hand pumps and plastics pipes, a village can often find clean water, but the drilling operation can be expensive and, if too much water is extracted, the aquifer itself can become contaminated. Plastics also help purify water and remove disease-causing bacteria and parasites. A simple nylon filter has almost eradicated Guinea Worm Disease which cripples victims, leaving them unable to work, attend school, care for children or harvest crops. The worm enters through the digestive system, but then makes its way to anywhere in the body, boring close to the skin surface. When an infected person steps into water, the worm releases millions of larvae. People who drink the water become infected and the cycle starts all over again. The answer is to filter the parasites out of the water. In the past, this has been done with muslin cloth, but the special nylon monofilament cloth is easier to disinfect and cheaper to supply. Filtering has successfully reduced the cases of infection by 95 per cent.

for life ater W

Preserving and distributing clean water
In much of the world, polluted water, improper waste disposal, and poor water management cause serious public health problems. Such water-related diseases as malaria, cholera, typhoid, and schistosomiasis harm or kill millions of people every year. In an ideal world, the solution would be to prevent the water supplies becoming polluted in the first place. But sewage treatment to clean the water source is expensive and even European rivers arent drinking water quality yet! There are other ways of accessing clean water. In remote mountain areas, such as Nepal, there is often plenty of water. But poor hygiene and a lack of sanitation may leave the village stream or river badly polluted. One solution is to pipe in clean water from further upstream, relying on gravity flow. Plastic piping is ideal for this situation. It is light, flexible, easy to carry, yet strong once it is in place.

ACTIVITY 2
Use of abstracted water (ie taken from rivers, reservoirs, canals etc) in Europe: 18% public water supply 30% agriculture (mainly irrigation) 14% industry, excluding cooling water 38% power (hydropower, cooling water) and nondefined uses
1 Where would it be best to source water for piping? Further upstream? From a deep water pool? From a spring above the village? Explain why. 2 Contaminated water may contain bacteria, viruses and parasites. For each type of contamination, give an example and explain how someone would be made ill by the micro-organism in the water. 3 The Guinea Worm is a parasite. Explain what a parasite is. Which of the following are parasites and which are not? house fly, fleas, rats, dandruff, tapeworm, salmonella 4 Would filtering water protect against bacteria and viruses? Explain why.

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Preventing water loss through conservation and irrigation
Water loss
In most countries, leakage in water distribution networks is still too high. Previously, where traditional materials were used in the construction of piping infrastructure, cracks and leaks would occur in the piping systems over time. In some European countries, old pipes result in losses of up to 30 per cent and the cost of leakage is estimated at over 9 billion euros / year in clean water wasted alone. Although rarely seen, plastics pipes under our streets and in our homes play a critical role in delivering clean water for drinking and other needs. In Europe today, modern housing often uses high-strength plastic piping to deliver gas and water. Plastics pipes have a long lifetime, are flexible and mouldable which means that they are less vulnerable to damage and easy to manufacture and assemble. They are extremely strong, which means they can be used in the most demanding of conditions, crucial to ensure that they can distribute water in towns and cities. Plastics are also light and provide cost-effective solutions qualities that also make the material ideal for widespread use, including in the developing world.

40 per cent or so of all irrigation water gets to where it is needed. One answer is drip-irrigation (sometimes called trickle irrigation). This works by applying water slowly through plastic piping directly onto the soil. Traditional sprinklers throw huge amounts of water into the air and onto plants, where much is lost to evaporation. In contrast, microirrigation emitters apply water slowly, close to the soil and roots of plants. This is estimated to result in a 70 per cent saving in water. Drip irrigation is being used in California, Israel, Spain and South Africa all places where water is expensive and in short supply. In the developing world, a cheaper solution using buckets and surface pipes can produce similar results. In fact, pipes as old as 75 years have been dug up still in excellent condition. Plastic sheeting can also be used to reduce water losses from the soil. In China, farmers are using plastics to line the furrows in which rice is planted.

Today, agriculture is the largest consumer of water, worldwide. Between 70 and 80 per cent of the water withdrawn globally is used to irrigate fields. Traditional methods of irrigation are, however, enormously wasteful. It is estimated that only

ACTIVITY 3
1 Plastics are flexible and mouldable. Explain why this is an advantage for pipes that carry water. Give an example of a material with poor elasticity. 2 Give an example of a European crop that relies on irrigation. 3 Evapotranspiration describes water loss from the ground and through vegetation. How do plants and trees lose water and at what point in the year is loss through evapotranspiration likely to be highest? 4 Some farmers use strips of plastic as a mulch spread over the surface of the soil around the growing plants. Why do you think this is? 5 Try to explain why so few buildings are constructed with water conservation in mind. What would it take to change this situation?

Irrigation
Agriculture requires water, and rainfall doesnt always occur when farmers need it. Add that to the fact that much farming is in countries with low or unreliable rainfall, making irrigation vital. Irrigation systems exist to divert water to crop, from a river, a dam or a borehole. The first irrigation probably took place on the River Nile thousands of years ago, using a simple bucket and lever mechanism called a shadouf.

The sheeting lasts for five years and prevents water waste in a desert area between Mongolia and the Badain Jaran desert. The plastic-lined furrows also work to hold nutrients in the soil, giving the farmers a double benefit. Farmers have used plastic sheeting to build temporary greenhouses for years, but now the technology has gone a step further with a purposebuilt controlled environment where every plant has just the right amount of light, water and food, and unwanted flies and bugs are kept firmly outside. Technology and plastics provide solutions to water losses in agriculture.

One of the responses to the problem of poor water supply and hygiene has been the growth of bottled water in recent years. This presents a challenge in terms of packaging how do you combine safety, hygiene, convenience and ease of transport? Bottled drinks are frequently packaged in plastics because they are: lightweight yet strong (hence more energy efficient to transport) and safer than glass shatterproof able to withstand high pressures without shattering pure and do not affect the taste of the products they protect recyclable

ative Innov solutions

Solutions to the provision of clean water continue to evolve and plastics have their part to play. For example, future developments include a solar still which has been designed by a company as a way of producing pure water, using the simple principles of evaporation and condensation. The pack is placed over a water source even floating on top of it if required and a wick allows water to

ACTIVITY 4
1 Try making your own solar still. Dig a hole about 50 cms deep and a metre wide. Place a plastic bowl in the middle and cover the whole thing with a thick plastic sheet. Put a small weight in the middle of the sheet. Leave during a warm day and cold night. See how much water has collected in the bowl the next morning. 2 Think about water use in the modern home. How could designers reduce family water consumption? Make a list of water conservation measures consider reducing waste, recycling, rain water capture.

soak into the porous base. Sunlight heats the inside of the plastic tent and the water evaporates, leaving behind its impurities as it does so. On contact with the plastic walls, the moist air condenses and pure water runs down, to be collected in a channel. The makers claim that the invention could provide more than a litre of water a day. But scientists are considering farms of solar stills, capable of producing enough water for a family, or even a village. Advanced plastics-based technologies used in space exploration could also be the key to improving the distribution of fresh water supplies.

into space. Space travel requires the ability to reuse and recycle the existing supply of water. As a result, highly advanced personal water purification systems have been developed for use by astronauts, based largely on a plastics filter system. These allow recovery of 8595 per cent of the waste water and urine. The water is then turned to steam, and, following additional stages of chemical, heat and mechanical treatment, it is returned pure enough to drink some 89 hours later. This technology is now being developed by organisations who hope to make large scale water purification systems for countries that need it. Solutions to our water problems do exist the challenge is to make the solution available to the people in need. To date, plastics have helped provide millions of people with access to clean water, and will continue to play a vital role in the future.

Plastics used in the life support systems in space exploration help provide astronauts with the cleanest air and purest water possible, and better sanitation than ever previously experienced. Only a thousand or so litres of water are carried into orbit because of weight and the amount of fuel that would be consumed in order to take this water

Innovative materials such as plastics have often provided the solution to the problems and challenges encountered in space missions. Now the same technologies are helping to meet the challenges we face on Earth, says Pierre Brisson, Head of ESA's Technology Transfer Programme

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