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WHAT IS A BOILER? This section briefly describes the Boiler and various auxiliaries in the Boiler Room A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be extremely dangerous equipment that must be treated with utmost care. The boiler system comprises of: feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam
STEAM TO PROCESS EXHAUST GAS VENT
VENT
BOILER
BURNER
1 BRINE
pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system. The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two sources of feed water are: (1) Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes and (2) Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room and plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, the feed water is preheated by an economizer, using the waste heat in the flue gas. TYPE OF BOILERS This section describes the various types of Boilers: Fire tube boiler, Water tube boiler, Packaged boiler, Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Stoker Fired Boiler, Pulverized Fuel Boiler, Waste Heat Boiler and Thermic Fluid Heater
The features of water tube boilers are: Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency. Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant. Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible
Fig: Simple Diagram of Water Tube Boiler
Reference: http://www.yourdictionary.com/images/ahd/jpg/ A4boiler.jpg
Packaged Boiler
The packaged boiler is so called because it comes as a complete package. Once delivered to site, it requires only the steam, water pipe work, fuel supply and electrical connections to be made for it to become operational. Package boilers are generally of shell type with fire tube design so as to achieve high heat transfer rates by both radiation and convection.
To Chimney
Oil Burner
The features of package boilers are: Small combustion space and high heat release rate resulting in faster evaporation. Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convective heat transfer. Forced or induced draft systems resulting in good combustion efficiency. Number of passes resulting in better overall heat transfer.
Higher thermal efficiency levels compared with other boilers. These boilers are classified based on the number of passes - the number of times the hot combustion gases pass through the boiler. The combustion chamber is taken, as the first pass after which there may be one, two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler of this class is a three-pass unit with two sets of fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting through the rear of the boiler.
fuel gases. The in-bed tubes carrying water generally act as the evaporator. The gaseous products of combustion pass over the super heater sections of the boiler flow past the economizer, the dust collectors and the air preheater before being exhausted to atmosphere.
Spreader Stokers
Spreader stokers utilize a combination of suspension burning and grate burning. The coal is continually fed into the furnace above a burning bed of coal. The coal fines are burned in suspension; the larger particles fall to the grate, where they are burned in a thin, fast-burning coal bed. This method of firing provides good flexibility to meet load fluctuations, since ignition is almost Fig: Spreader Stoker Boiler instantaneous when firing Reference: National Productivity Council, Technology Menu, rate is increased. Due to Coal 1985 this, the spreader stoker is favored over other types of stokers in many industrial applications.
The modern oil fired thermic fluid heater consists of a double coil, three pass construction and fitted with modulated pressure jet system. The thermic fluid, which acts as a heat carrier, is heated up in the heater
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and circulated through the user equipment. There it transfers heat for the process through a heat exchanger and the fluid is then returned to the heater. The flow of thermic fluid at the user end is controlled by a pneumatically operated control valve, based on the operating temperature. The heater operates on low or high fire depending on the return oil temperature, which varies with the system load The advantages of these heaters are: Closed cycle operation with minimum losses as compared to steam boilers. Non-Pressurized system operation even for temperatures around 250 0c as against 40 kg/cm2 steam pressure requirement in a similar steam system. Automatic control settings, which offer operational flexibility. Good thermal efficiencies as losses due to blow down, condensate drain and flash steam do not exist in a thermic fluid heater system. The overall economics of the thermic fluid heater will depend upon the specific application and reference basis. Coal fired thermic fluid heaters with a thermal efficiency range of 55-65% may compare favorably with most boilers. Incorporation of heat recovery devices in the flue gas path enhances the thermal efficiency levels further.
ASSESSMENT OF A BOILER This section describes the Performance Evaluation of Boiler (through the direct & indirect method including examples for efficiency calculations), Boiler Blow Down and Boiler Water Treatment
Heat balance
The combustion process in a boiler can be described in the form of an energy flow diagram. This shows graphically how the input energy from the fuel is transformed into the various useful energy flows and into heat and energy loss flows. The thickness of the arrows indicates the amount of energy contained in the respective flows.
FUEL INPUT
Stack Gas
A heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a boiler against that leaving the boiler in different forms. The following figure illustrates the different losses occurring for generating steam. 12.7 % 8.1 %
Heat loss due to dry flue gas Dry Flue Gas Loss Heat loss due to steam in flue gas Heat loss due to moisture in fuel Heat loss due to moisture in air Heat loss due to unburnts in residue Heat loss due to radiation & other unaccounted loss Heat in Steam
100.0 % Fuel
BOILER
The energy losses can be divided in unavoidable and avoidable losses. The goal of a Cleaner Production and/or energy assessment must be to reduce the avoidable losses, i.e. to improve energy efficiency. The following losses can be avoided or reduced: Stack gas losses: - Excess air (reduce to the necessary minimum which depends from burner technology, operation, operation (i.e. control) and maintenance). - Stack gas temperature (reduce by optimizing maintenance (cleaning), load; better burner and boiler technology).
Blow Down
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Losses by unburnt fuel in stack and ash (optimize operation and maintenance; better technology of burner). Blow down losses (treat fresh feed water, recycle condensate) Condensate losses (recover the largest possible amount of condensate) Convection and radiation losses (reduced by better insulation of the boiler).
Boiler efficiency
Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of (heat) energy input that is effectively useful in the generated steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency: The Direct Method: the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel The Indirect Method: the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy input
Direct Method
Indirect Method
Boiler Efficiency () =
x 100
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Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are: Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr. Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr. The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature (oC), if any The temperature of feed water (oC) Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel And where hg Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam hf Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water
Example Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below: Type of boiler: Coal fired Quantity of steam (dry) generated: 10 TPH Steam pressure (gauge) / temp: Quantity of coal consumed: Feed water temperature: GCV of coal: 10 kg/cm (g)/ 180 C 2.25 TPH 85 C 3200 kcal/kg 665 kcal/kg (saturated) 85 kcal/kg x 100 = 80.56%
0 2 0
Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm pressure: Enthalpy of feed water: Boiler Efficiency () = 10 x (665 85) x 1000 2.25 x 3200 x 1000
Advantages of direct method Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers Requires few parameters for computation Needs few instruments for monitoring Easy to compare evaporation ratios with benchmark figures Disadvantages of direct method Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
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The indirect method is also called the heat loss method. The efficiency can be calculated by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100 as follows: Efficiency of boiler (n) = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii) Whereby the principle losses that occur in a boiler are loss of heat due to: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Dry flue gas Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel Evaporation of moisture in fuel Moisture present in combustion air Unburnt fuel in fly ash Unburnt fuel in bottom ash Radiation and other unaccounted losses
Losses due to moisture in fuel and due to combustion of hydrogen are dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design. The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using the indirect method are: Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content) Percentage of oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas Flue gas temperature in oC (Tf) Ambient temperature in oC (Ta) and humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air GCV of fuel in kcal/kg Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels) GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels) A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency using the indirect method is given below. However, practicing energy managers in industries usually prefer simpler calculation procedures. Step 1: Calculate the theoretical air requirement = [(11.43 x C) + {34.5 x (H2 O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of fuel Step 2: Calculate the % excess air supplied (EA) = O2% x 100 ------------(21 - O2%)
Step 3: Calculate actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS) = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air Step 4: Estimate all heat losses i. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = m x Cp x (Tf-Ta) x 100
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---------------------------GCV of fuel Where, m = mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel m = (mass of dry products of combustion / kg of fuel) + (mass of N2 in fuel on 1 kg basis ) + (mass of N2 in actual mass of air we are supplying). Cp = Specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg ) ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel = 9 x H2 {584+Cp (Tf-Ta)} x 100 -------------------------------------GCV of fuel Where, H2 = percentage of H2 in 1 kg of fuel Cp = specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg) iii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel = M{584+ Cp (Tf-Ta)} x 100 --------------------------------GCV of fuel Where, M % moisture in 1kg of fuel Cp Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg) iv. Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air = AAS x humidity factor x Cp (Tf-Ta)} x 100 --------------------------------------------------GCV of fuel Where, Cp Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg) v. Percentage heat loss due to unburnt fuel in fly ash = Total ash collected/kg of fuel burnt x GCV of fly ash x 100 ----------------------------------------------------------------------GCV of fuel vi. Percentage heat loss due to unburnt fuel in bottom ash = Total ash collected per Kg of fuel burnt x G.C.V of bottom ash x 100 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------GCV of fuel vii. Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss
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The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of particular emissivity of various surfaces, its inclination, airflow patterns etc. In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of 10 MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could amount to between 1% and 2% of the gross calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW boiler, values between 0.2% to 1% are typical. The loss may be assumed appropriately depending on the surface condition. Step 5: Calculate boiler efficiency and boiler evaporation ratio Efficiency of boiler (n) = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii) Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilised for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed. Typical Examples are: Coal fired boiler: 6 (i.e. 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam) Oil fired boiler: 13 (i.e. 1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam) However, the evaporation ratio will depend upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and associated efficiencies. Example Type of boiler: Ultimate analysis of Oil C: H2: S: O2: GCV of Oil: Percentage of Oxygen: Percentage of CO2: Flue gas temperature (Tf): Ambient temperature (Ta): Humidity of air : Oil fired 84 % 12.0 % 3.0 % 1% 10200 kcal/kg 7% 11% 220 0C 27 0C 0.018 kg/kg of dry air
Step-1: Calculate the theoretical air requirement = [(11.43 x C) + [{34.5 x (H2 O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of oil = [(11.43 x 84) + [{34.5 x (12 1/8)} + (4.32 x 3)]/100 kg/kg of oil = 13.82 kg of air/kg of oil Step-2: Calculate the % excess air supplied (EA) Excess air supplied (EA) = (O2 x 100)/(21-O2)
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= (7 x 100)/(21-7) = 50% Step 3: Calculate actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS) AAS/kg fuel = [1 + EA/100] x Theo. Air (AAS) = [1 + 50/100] x 13.82 = 1.5 x 13.82 = 20.74 kg of air/kg of oil
Step 4: Estimate all heat losses i. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = m x Cp x (Tf Ta ) x 100 ----------------------------GCV of fuel m = mass of CO2 + mass of SO2 + mass of N2 + mass of O2 m= 0.84 x 44 ----------- + 12 0.03x64 20.74x77 ---------- + ----------32 100 (0.07 x 32)
m = 21.35 kg / kg of oil = 21.35 x 0.23 x (220 27) ------------------------------- x 100 10200 9.29%
A simpler method can also be used: Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = m x Cp x (Tf Ta ) x 100 ----------------------------GCV of fuel
m (total mass of flue gas) = = = mass of actual air supplied + mass of fuel supplied 20.19 + 1 = 21.19 21.19 x 0.23 x (220-27) ------------------------------- x 100 10200 9.22%
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ii.
Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel = 9 x H2 {584+0.45 (Tf Ta )} --------------------------------GCV of fuel H2 in fuel 9 x 12 {584+0.45(220-27)} -------------------------------10200 7.10%
where H2 = percentage of
= = iii.
Heat loss due to moisture present in air = = = AAS x humidity x 0.45 x ((Tf Ta ) x 100 ------------------------------------------------GCV of fuel [20.74 x 0.018 x 0.45 x (220-27) x 100]/10200 0.317%
iv.
Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses For a small boiler it is estimated to be 2%
Step 5: Calculate boiler efficiency and boiler evaporation ratio Efficiency of boiler (n) = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii) i. ii. iii. iv. Heat loss due to dry flue gas Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel Heat loss due to moisture present in air Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses = 100- [9.29+7.10+0.317+2] = 100 17.024 = 83% (approximate) Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilised for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam = 10200 x 0.83 / (660-60) = 14.11 (compared to 13 for a typical oil fired boiler) : 9.29% : 7.10 % : 0.317 % : 2%
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A complete mass and energy balance can be obtained for each individual stream, which makes it easier to identify options to improve boiler efficiency Disadvantages of indirect method Time consuming Requires lab facilities for analysis
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distribution which accompany changes in concentration of solids. Also substantial amount of heat energy is lost with intermittent blow down. Continuous blow down There is a steady and constant dispatch of small stream of concentrated boiler water, and replacement by steady and constant inflow of feed water. This ensures constant TDS and steam purity at given steam load. Once blow down valve is set for a given conditions, there is no need for regular operator intervention. Even though large quantities of heat are wasted, opportunity exists for recovering this heat by blowing into a flash tank and generating flash steam. This flash steam can be used for pre-heating boiler feed water or for any other. This type of blow down is common in high-pressure boilers.
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If maximum permissible limit of TDS as in a package boiler is 3000 ppm, percentage make up water is 10% and TDS in feed water is 300 ppm, then the percentage blow down is given as: = 300 x 10 / 3000 =1% If boiler evaporation rate is 3000 kg/hr then required blow down rate is: = 3000 x 1 / 100 = 30 kg/hr
Deposit control
Deposits in boilers may result from hardness contamination of feed water and corrosion products from the condensate and feed water system. Hardness contamination of the feed water may arise due to deficient softener system. Deposits and corrosion result in efficiency losses and may result in boiler tube failures and inability to produce steam. Deposits act as insulators and slow heat transfer. Large amounts of deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat transfer enough to reduce the boiler efficiency significantly. Different types of deposits affect the boiler efficiency differently. Thus it may be useful to analyze the deposits for their
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characteristics. The insulating effect of deposits causes the boiler metal temperature to rise and may lead to tube-failure by overheating.
Silica
The presence of silica in boiler water can rise to formation of hard silicate scales. It can also associate with calcium and magnesium salts, forming calcium and magnesium silicates of very low thermal conductivity. Silica can give rise to deposits on steam turbine blades, after been carried over either in droplets of water in steam, or in volatile form in steam at higher pressures. Two major types of boiler water treatment are: Internal water treatment and External water treatment.
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Ion exchange processes can be used for almost total demineralization if required, as is the case in large electric power plant boilers De-aeration In de-aeration, dissolved gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are expelled by preheating the feed water before it enters the boiler. All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solution. Certain gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, greatly increase corrosion. When heated in boiler systems, carbon dioxide (CO ) and oxygen (O ) are released as gases and combine with water (H O) to form carbonic acid, (H CO ).
2 2 3 2 2
Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases from boiler feed water is vital to boiler equipment longevity as well as safety of operation. Carbonic acid corrodes metal reducing the life of equipment and piping. It also dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the boiler precipitates and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes. This scale not only contributes to reducing the life of the equipment but also increases the amount of energy needed to achieve heat transfer. De-aeration can be done by mechanical de-aeration, by chemical de-aeration or by both together. Mechanical de-aeration Mechanical deVent aeration for the Spray Nozzles removal of these Boiler Feed Water dissolved gases is typically Steam utilized prior to the addition of Scrubber Section chemical oxygen (Trays) scavengers. Mechanical deaeration is based on Charles' and Storage Section Henry's laws of physics. Simplified, these laws state that Deaerated Boiler removal of Feed Water oxygen and carbon Fig: Mechanical Deaeration dioxide can Reference: National Productivity Council be accomplished by heating the boiler feed water, which reduces the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surrounding the feed water. Mechanical
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de-aeration can be the most economical. They operate at the boiling point of water at the pressure in the de-aerator. They can be of vacuum or pressure type. The vacuum type of de-aerator operates below atmospheric pressure, at about 82 C, can reduce the oxygen content in water to less than 0.02 mg/litre. Vacuum pumps or steam ejectors are required to maintain the vacuum. The pressure-type de-aerators operates by allowing steam into the feed water through a pressure control valve to maintain the desired operating pressure, and hence temperature at a minimum of 105oC. The steam raises the water temperature causing the release of O2 and CO2 gases that are then vented from the system. This type can reduce the oxygen content to 0.005 mg/litre. Where excess low-pressure steam is available, the operating pressure can be selected to make use of this steam and hence improve fuel economy. In boiler systems, steam is preferred for de-aeration because: Steam is essentially free from O2 and CO2, Steam is readily available Steam adds the heat required to complete the reaction.
o
Chemical de-aeration While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels (0.005 mg/liter), even trace amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system. Consequently, good operating practice requires removal of that trace oxygen with a chemical oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulfite or hydrazine. Sodium sulphite reacts with oxygen to form sodium sulphate, which increases the TDS in the boiler water and hence increases the blowdown requirements and make-up water quality. Hydrazine reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen and water. It is invariably used in high pressures boilers when low boiler water solids are necessary, as it does not increase the TDS of the boiler water. Reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis uses the fact that when solutions of differing concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, water from less concentrated solution passes through the membrane to dilute the liquid of high concentration. If the solution of high concentration is pressurized, the process is reversed and the water from the solution of high concentration flows to the weaker solution. This is known as reverse osmosis.
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Solution Will Rise to this Point This Difference in Liquid Level is the Osmotic Pressure More Concentrated Solution Less Concentrated Solution Water Flow Semi Permeable Membrane
The semi-permeable nature of the membrane allows the water to pass much more readily than the dissolved minerals. Since the water in the less concentrated solution seeks to dilute the more concentrated solution, the water passage through the membrane generates a noticeable head difference between the two solutions. This head difference is a measure of the concentration difference of the two solutions and is referred to as the osmotic pressure difference.
Pressure
When a pressure is applied to the concentrated solution which is great that the osmotic pressure difference, the direction of water passage through the membrane is reversed and the process that we refer to as reverse osmosis is established. That is, the membrane's ability to selectively pass water is unchanged, only the direction of the water flow is changed.
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Pressure
Fresh Water
Concentrate Flow
The feed water and concentrate (reject stream) ports illustrates a continuously operating RO system. The quality of water produced depends upon the concentration of the solution on the high-pressure side and pressure differential across the membrane. This process is suitable for waters with very high TDS, such as sea water. Recommended boiler and feed water quality The impurities found in boiler water depend on the untreated feed water quality, the treatment process used and the boiler operating procedures. As a general rule, the higher the boiler operating pressure, the greater will be the sensitivity to impurities.
RECOMMENDED FEED WATER LIMITS Factor Total iron (max) ppm Total copper (max) ppm Total silica (max) ppm Oxygen (max) ppm Hydrazine residual ppm pH at 25 C Hardness, ppm
0 2 2 2
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RECOMMENDED BOILER WATER LIMITS (IS 10392, Year 1982) Factor TDS, ppm Total iron dissolved solids ppm Specific electrical conductivity at 25 C (mho) Phosphate residual ppm pH at 25 C Silica (max) ppm
0 0 2 2 2
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES This section includes Energy Efficiency Opportunities related to combustion, Heat Transfer, Avoidable losses, Auxiliary Power Consumption, Water Quality and Blow Down. This section also includes Thumb rules for Energy Conservation. Energy losses and therefore energy efficiency opportunities in boilers can be related to combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blowdown. The various energy efficiency opportunities in boiler system can be related to: Stack temperature control Feed water preheating using economizers Combustion air pre-heating Incomplete combustion minimization Excess air control Radiation and convection heat loss avoidance Reduction of scaling and soot losses Reduction of boiler steam pressure Variable speed control for fans, blowers and pumps Controlling boiler loading Proper boiler scheduling Boiler replacement These are explained in the sections below.
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Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke, and must be corrected immediately. In the case of oil and gas fired systems, CO or smoke (for oil fired systems only) with normal or high excess air indicates burner system problems. A more frequent cause of incomplete combustion is the poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires can result from improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on tips and deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates. With coal firing, unburned carbon can comprise a big loss. It occurs as grit carry-over or carbon-in-ash and may amount to more than 2% of the heat supplied to the boiler. Non uniform fuel size could be one of the reasons for incomplete combustion. In chain grate stokers, large lumps will not burn out completely, while small pieces and fines may block the air passage, thus causing poor air distribution. In sprinkler stokers, stoker grate condition, fuel distributors, wind box air regulation and over-fire systems can affect carbon loss. Increase in the fines in pulverized coal also increases carbon loss.
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TYPICAL VALUES OF EXCESS AIR LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT FUELS Fuel Type of Furnace or Burners Excess Air (% by wt) Pulverized Completely water-cooled furnace for slag-tap or dry-ash 15-20 coal removal Partially water-cooled furnace for dry-ash removal 15-40 Coal Spreader stoker Water-cooler vibrating-grate stokers Chain-grate and traveling-grate stokers Underfeed stoker Oil burners, register type Multi-fuel burners and flat-flame High pressure burner Dutch over (10-23% through grates) and Hofft type All furnaces Recovery furnaces for draft and soda-pulping processes 30-60 30-60 15-50 20-50 15-20 20-30 5-7 20-25 25-35 30-40
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Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas losses; for every 1% reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency. Various methods are available to control the excess air: Portable oxygen analyzers and draft gauges can be used to make periodic readings to guide the operator to manually adjust the flow of air for optimum operation. Excess air reduction up to 20% is feasible. The most common method is the continuous oxygen analyzer with a local readout mounted draft gauge, by which the operator can adjust air flow. A further reduction of 10-15% can be achieved over the previous system. The same continuous oxygen analyzer can have a remote controlled pneumatic damper positioner, by which the readouts are available in a control room. This enables an operator to remotely control a number of firing systems simultaneously. The most sophisticated system is the automatic stack damper control, whose cost is really justified only for large systems.
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procedures and tube cleaning to remove deposits. An estimated 1% efficiency loss occurs with every 22oC increase in stack temperature. Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot deposits. When the flue gas temperature rises about 20oC above the temperature for a newly cleaned boiler, it is time to remove the soot deposits. It is, therefore, recommended to install a dial type thermometer at the base of the stack to monitor the exhaust flue gas temperature. It is estimated that 3 mm of soot can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to increased flue gas temperatures. Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn deposits.
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Below half load, most combustion appliances need more excess air to burn the fuel completely. This increases the sensible heat loss. In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces significantly below 25% of the rated load and operation of boilers below this level should be avoided as far as possible.
Boiler Replacement
The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in overall efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing boiler is: Old and inefficient Not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel Over or under-sized for present requirements Not designed for ideal loading conditions The feasibility study should examine all implications of long-term fuel availability and company growth plans. All financial and engineering factors should be considered. Since boiler plants traditionally have a useful life of well over 25 years, replacement must be carefully studied.
OPTION CHECK LIST This section includes the most common options for improving the energy efficiency of a boiler
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Boilers: extra items for steam raising and hot water boilers
Check regularly for build-up of scale or sludge in the boiler vessel or check TDS of boiler water each shift, but not less than once per day. Impurities in boiler water are concentrated in the boiler and the concentration has limits that depend on type of boiler and load. Boiler blow down should be minimized, but consistent with maintaining correct water density. Recover heat from blow down water. With steam boilers, is water treatment adequate to prevent foaming or priming and consequent excessive carry over of water and chemicals into the steam system? For steam boilers: are automatic water level controllers operational? The presence of inter-connecting pipes can be extremely dangerous. Have checks been made regularly on air leakages round boiler inspection doors, or between boiler and chimney? The former can reduce efficiency; the latter can reduce draught availability and may encourage condensation, corrosion and smutting. Combustion conditions should be checked using flue gas analyzers at least twice per season and the fuel/air ratio should be adjusted if required. Both detection and actual controls should be labeled effectively and checked regularly. Safety lockout features should have manual re-set and alarm features. Test points should be available, or permanent indicators should be fitted to oil burners to give operating pressure/temperature conditions. With oil-fired or gas-fired boilers, if cables of fusible link systems for shutdown due to fire or overheating run across any passageway accessible to personnel, they should be fitted above head level. The emergency shut down facility is to be situated at exit door of the boiler house. In order to reduce corrosion, steps should be taken to minimize the periods when water return temperatures fall below dew point, particularly on oil and coal fired boilers. Very large fuel users may have their own weighbridge and so can operate a direct check on deliveries. If no weighbridge exists, do you occasionally ask your supplier to run via a public weighbridge (or a friendly neighbour with a weighbridge) just as a check? With liquid fuel deliveries do you check with the vehicles dipsticks? With boiler plant, ensure that the fuel used is correct for the job. With solid fuel, correct grading or size is important, and ash and moisture content should be as the plant designer originally intended. With oil fuel, ensure that viscosity is correct at the burner, and check fuel oil temperature. The monitoring of fuel usage should be as accurate as possible. Fuel stock measurements must be realistic. With oil burners, examine parts and repairs. Burner nozzles should be changed regularly and cleaned carefully to prevent damage to burner tip. Maintenance and repair procedures should be reviewed especially for burner equipment, controls and monitoring equipment. Regular cleaning of heat transfer surfaces maintains efficiency at the highest possible level.
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Ensure that the boiler operators are conversant with the operational procedures, especially any new control equipment. Have you investigated the possibility of heat recovery from boiler exit gases? Modern heat exchangers/recuperators are available for most types and sizes of boiler. Do you check feed and header tanks for leaking make up valves, correct insulation or loss of water to drain? The boiler plant may have originally been provided with insulation by the manufacturer. Is this still adequate with todays fuel costs? Check on optimum thickness. If the amount of steam produced is quite large, invest in a steam meter. Measure the output of steam and input of fuel. The ratio of steam to fuel is the main measure of efficiency at the boiler. Use the monitoring system provided: this will expose any signs of deterioration. Feed water should be checked regularly for both quantity and purity. Steam meters should be checked occasionally as they deteriorate with time due to erosion of the metering orifice or pilot head. It should be noted that steam meters only give correct readings at the calibrated steam pressure. Recalibration may be required. Check all pipe work, connectors and steam traps for leaks, even in inaccessible spaces. Pipes not in use should be isolated and redundant pipes disconnected. Is someone designated to operate and generally look after the installation? This work should be included in their job specification. Are basic records available to that person in the form of drawings, operational instructions and maintenance details? Is a log book kept to record details of maintenance carried out, actual combustion flue gas readings taken, fuel consumption at weekly or monthly intervals, and complaints made? Ensure that steam pressure is no higher than need be for the job. When night load is materially less than day load, consider a pressure switch to allow pressure to vary over a much wider band during night to reduce frequency of burner cut-out, or limit the maximum firing rate of the burner. Examine the need for maintaining boilers in standby conditionsthis is often an unjustified loss of heat. Standing boilers should be isolated on the fluid and gas sides. Keep a proper log of boiler house activity so that performance can be measured against targets. When checking combustion, etc. with portable instruments, ensure that this is done regularly and that load conditions are reported in the log: percentage of CO2 at full flame/half load, etc. Have the plant checked to ensure that severe load fluctuations are not caused by incorrect operation of auxiliaries in the boiler house, for example, ON/OFF feed control, defective modulating feed systems or incorrect header design. Have hot water heating systems been dosed with an anti-corrosion additive and is this checked annually to see that concentration is still adequate? Make sure that this additive is NOT put into the domestic hot water heater tank, it will contaminate water going to taps at sinks and basins. Recover all condensate where practical and substantial savings are possible.
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Boiler water
Water must be alkalinewithin 150 ppm of CaCO3 and above 50 ppm of CaCO3 at pH 8.3. Alkalinity number should be less than 120. Total solids should be maintained below the value at which contamination of steam becomes excessive, in order to avoid cooling over and accompanying danger of deposition on super heater, steam mains and prime movers. Phosphate should be no more than 25 ppm P2 O5. Make up feed water should not contain more than traces of silica. There must be less than 40 ppm in boiler water and 0.02 ppm in steam, as SiO2. Greater amounts may be carried to turbine blades. Maximum Boiler Water Concentrations recommended by American Boiler Manufacturers Association Boiler Steam Pressure (ata) Maximum Boiler Water Concentration (ppm) 0-20 3500 20-30 3000 30-40 2500 40-50 2000 50-60 1500 60-70 1250 70-100 1000
Reference: American Boiler Manufacturers Association
Water treatment plants suitable for the application must be installed to ensure water purity, and chemical dosing arrangement must be provided to further control boiler water quality. Blow downs should be resorted to when concentration increases beyond the permissible limits stipulated by the manufacturers. Alkalinity not to exceed 20 per cent of total concentration. Boiler water level should be correctly maintained. Normally, 2 gauge glasses are provided to ensure this. Operators should blow these down regularly in every shift, or at least once per day where boilers are steamed less than 24 hours a day.
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The water that first appears is generally representative of the boiler water. If it is discolored, the reason should be ascertained.
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WORKSHEETS AND OTHER TOOLS This section includes worksheets (Boiler Performance; Data Collection Sheet; Fuel Analysis Sheet) and other tools (Boiler Performance Checklist; Rules of Thumb; Dos and Donts)
WORKSHEET BOILER: BOILER PERFORMANCE S No. 1 Parameter reference Ultimate Analysis Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulphur Nitrogen Moisture Ash 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 GCV of Fuel Oxygen in Flue Gas Flue Gas Temperature (Tf) Ambient Temperature (Ta) Humidity in Air Combustible in Ash GCV of Ash Excess Air Supplied (EA) (O2 x 100)/(21 O2) Theoretical air requirement (TAR) [11 x C + {34.5 x (H2 O2/8)} + 4.32 x S]/100 Actual mass of air supplied {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas {k x (Tf Ta)} / %CO2 Where, k (Seigert const.) = 0.65 for Coal = 0.56 for Oil % % % % % % % KCal/kg %
0 0
Units
Readings
C C
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S No. 13
Parameter reference = 0.40 for NG Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel [9 x H2 {584 + 0.45(Tf Ta)}]/ GCV of Fuel Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel [M x {584 + 0.45 x (Tf Ta)}] / GCV of Fuel Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air {AAS x Humidity x 0.45 (Tf Ta) x 100} / GCV of Fuel Percentage heat loss due to combustibles in ash {Ash x (100 Comb. In Ash) x GCV of Ash x 100} / GCV of Fuel Total Losses Efficiency
Units
Readings
14
15
16
17 18
% %
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WORKSHEET BOILER: DATA COLLECTION SHEET S No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Parameter reference Type of Boiler Quantity of Steam Generated Steam Pressure Steam Temperature Fuel Used (Coal/Oil/Gas etc.) Quantity of Fuel Consumed GCV of Fuel Feed Water Temperature Oxygen in Flue Gas Flue Gas Temperature (Tf) Ambient Temperature (Ta) Humidity in Air Combustible in Ash GCV of Ash TPH kCal/kg
0
Units
Readings
%
0 0
C C
WORKSHEET BOILER: FUEL ANALYSIS SHEET S No. 1 Parameter reference Ultimate Analysis Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulphur Nitrogen Moisture Ash 2 GCV of Fuel % % % % % % % KCal/kg Units Readings
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Flue Gases
Fuel System
Air leaks in water side and fire side surfaces Air leaks
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System
Daily
Monthly
Annual around access openings and flame Repair Clean, repair terminals and contacts etc. Repair all defects and check for proper operation
Inspect panels inside Clean equipment, oil spillages to be arrested and air leaks to be avoided
Rules of Thumb
5 percent reduction in excess air increases boiler efficiency by 1 percent (or 1 percent reduction of residual oxygen in stack gas increases boiler efficiency by 1 percent). 22 C reduction in flue gas temperature increases the boiler efficiency by 1 percent. 6 C rise in feed water temperature brought about by economizer/condensate recovery corresponds to a 1 percent saving in boiler fuel consumption. 20 C increase in combustion air temperature, pre-heated by waste heat recovery, results in a 1 percent fuel saving. A 3 mm diameter hole in a pipe carrying 7 kg/cm2 steam would waste 32 650 liters of fuel oil per year. 100 m of bare steam pipe with a diameter of 150 mm carrying saturated steam at 8 kg/cm2 would waste 25 000 liters furnace oil in a year. 70 percent of heat losses can be reduced by floating a layer of 45 mm diameter polypropylene (plastic) balls on the surface of a 90 C hot liquid/condensate. A 0.25 mm thick air film offers the same resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick copper wall. A 3 mm thick soot deposit on a heat transfer surface can cause a 2.5 percent increase in fuel consumption. A 1 mm thick scale deposit on the waterside could increase fuel consumption by 5 to 8 per cent.
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REFERENCES 1. Steam Boiler Room Questions & Answers, Third Edition by Stephen M.Elonka and AlexHiggins 2. Steam Boiler Operation by James J.Jackson,Prentice-Hall Inc,New Jersey, 1980. 3. Boilers by Carl D.Shields, McGraw Hill Book Company,U.S, 1961. 4. Industrial Heat Generation and Distribution -NIFES Training Manual Issued For CEC India Energy Bus Project 5. Practical Boiler Water Treatment by Leo.I.Pincus,McGraw Hill Inc,New York, 1962. 6. Technical Papers, Boiler Congress-2000 Seminar, 11 & 12 January 2000 7. Industrial Boilers by David Gunn and Robert Horton, Longman Scientific & Technical, New York 8. Energy Technology Handbook by Douglas M.Considine, McGraw Hill Inc, New York, 1977. 9. Fluidised Bed Coal-Fired Boilers Department of Coal Publications, Government of India Fluidised Combustion of Coal A National Coal Board Report, London 10. Steam Generation, Distribution and Utilisation by TERI, GTZ and EMC 11. Efficient Operation of Boilers by National Productivity Council www.eren.doe.gov www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices www.pcra.org www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk www.actionenergy.org.uk www.cia.org.uk www.altenergy.com
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