Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

Characteristics of goat milk collected from small and medium enterprises in Greece, Portugal and France
F. Morgan a , T. Massouras b , M. Barbosa c , L. Roseiro c , F. Ravasco c , I. Kandarakis b , V. Bonnin a , M. Fistakoris d , E. Anifantakis b , G. Jaubert a , K. Raynal-Ljutovac a,
b c a Institut Technique des Produits Laitiers Caprins (ITPLC), BP 49, 17700 Surgres, France Department of Food Science and Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 11855 Athens, Greece Departamento de Tecnologica das Industrias Alimentares, Instituto Nacional de Engenheria e Tecnologica Industrial (INETI), Estrada do Pao do Lumiar 22, 1649-038 Lisbon, Portugal d SYTRO Ltd., 35 Dodekanisou Street, 16342 Ilioupoli, Greece

Accepted 20 October 2002

Abstract Characteristics of goat milk collected from seven small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Greece, France and Portugal were compared. Results of microbiological, biochemical and technological characteristics (whey draining capacity after lactic or rennet coagulation, acidication aspects, and heat stability) of goat milk with identical and standardised techniques are discussed in relation to effects on technological processes and quality of nal products. Results revealed variability of goat milk characteristics collected from the different European areas. Hygienically, goat milk production conditions in Greece and Portugal, under extensive breeding systems were: total bacteria3.6107 and 4107 CFU/ml; coliforms1.8106 and 2.5106 CFU/ml; staphylococci coagulase+1.7 105 and 7.6 104 CFU/ml, respectively. For France, using intensive breeding systems, microbiological quality was: total bacteria1.08105 CFU/ml; coliforms1.40102 CFU/ml; staphylococci coagulase+ 2.75 102 CFU/ml. Goat milk from Greek farms had the highest fat and protein contents: 51.4 and 37.0 g/kg, compared to goat milk in France: 36.5 and 32.5 g/kg, respectively. Portuguese goat milk was intermediate: 42.7 and 34.9 g/kg, respectively. Regarding technological aspects, Greek and Portuguese milks showed poor whey draining capacity and Greek milks presented low heat stability (100.5 C on average) but a good propensity to acidify. Systems of production of goat milk, ways of transport of raw goat milk, and the procedures applied inside factories regarding receiving and storage of the raw goat milk are discussed and should be useful for the denition of technological adaptations, that are necessary for best milk and product quality. 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Goat milk; Milk composition; Milk quality; Technological aspects

1. Introduction European goat breeding has a strong specialisation for milk production. With 3% of the world goat pop Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-5-46-27-69-80; fax: +33-5-46-27-69-89. E-mail address: ketsia.raynal@itplc.asso.fr (K. Raynal-Ljutovac).

ulation, Europe produces more than 2 million tonnes of goat milk annually (which corresponds to at least 17% of the world goat milk production) (FAO, 1990). Production of European goat milk is mainly found in the Mediterranean countries: Greece, France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal. Greece, France and Portugal produce 50% of the goat milk in the European Union (FAO, 1990).

0921-4488/03/$ see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 4 4 8 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 5 2 - 3

40

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

Goat milk shows great variability in biochemical composition, technological properties and bacteriological quality (Anifantakis and Kandarakis, 1980; Jenness, 1980; Barbosa and Miranda, 1986; Barbosa, 1993; Jaubert and Kalantzopoulos, 1996) depending on genetic factors, environmental conditions, and goat farming practices. Due to low heat stability of goat milk (Fox and Hoynes, 1976; Morgan et al., 2000), technological adaptations are needed when heat treatments are used for the production of goat milk products. In Greece, goat milk is mainly used as supplement to ewe milk for the production of Feta or other traditional Greek cheeses but its addition is limited to a low percentage due to legal requirements. In Portugal, goat milk is mainly used for cheese making, sometimes in mixture with ewe milk or, on a limited scale, for direct household consumption. In France, goat milk is used (more than 95%) for the production of soft, lactic cheeses in addition to a few other products such as UHT milk and goat milk powder. The objectives of the present study were to determine the characteristics of goat milk collected from small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Greece, France and Portugal. This concerned the microbiological, biochemical and technological characteristics of goat milk collected from four SMEs in Greece, two in France and one in Portugal under identical and standardised techniques. The data were to be discussed in relation to consequences in technological processing and product quality.

goats). Bulk milk of the Portuguese SME came from three producers having 70, 170 and 200 goats. The French SME F1 collects milk from 36 producers, herds containing between 70 and 570 goats, 33% having more than 200 goats. The other one collects milk from 20 farmers having 30240 goats with an average of 125 goats per herd. 2.2. Biochemical analyses Total solids were obtained after drying to constant weight at 102 C. The Dornic acidity was determined using 0.111 M NaOH and phenolphthalein as an indicator. Fat was measured by infrared analysis using a Milkoscan apparatus according to the International Dairy Federation (IDF) method (IDF 141B: 1996) for French and Greek samples or by the butyrometric method (ISO 2446: 1976) for Portuguese samples. Total nitrogen, non-casein nitrogen and non-protein nitrogen were determined by the Kjeldahl method. The preparation of the different nitrogen fractions was performed according to the method of Rowland (1938), but the casein was precipitated at pH 4.2 (isoelectric point of caprine casein) instead of pH 4.6. Crude protein was calculated from N 6.38. Reverse Phase HPLC was carried out on milk samples as described by Jaubert and Martin (1992). This method allowed us to separate and quantify the relative amounts of the four major caseins ( s1, s2, and ). Lactose was measured by infrared analysis for Greek samples, using the Milkoscan apparatus according to the IDF method (IDF 141B: 1996) or by an enzymatic method (Boehringer kit, Mannheim, Germany) for Portuguese and French samples. Ash was determined by weight after burning at 525 C for 16 h and total calcium by atomic absorption spectroscopy according to the IDF method (IDF 154: 1992). 2.3. Microbiological analyses Somatic cell counts (SCC) were obtained according to the IDF method (IDF 148A: 1995) with a Fossomatic 360 counter (Foss Electric, Nanterre, France). Total bacteria counts were determined according to standard procedures on plate count agar (PCA)

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Goat milk Goat milk was analysed at its arrival from seven SMEs. The sampling was carried out at the dairy plant level (reception tank) in 1999 throughout the entire lactation period. Raw goat milk was stored at 4 C before analysis, that occurred within a 24 h period after sampling. Mean and standard deviations (n = 624) were calculated for each SME. Characteristics of the SMEs and the periods of milk sampling (middle lactation) are given in Table 1. In Greece, most goat farms consist of small herds (77% have from 1 to 9 goats and only 6% more than 99

Table 1 Characteristics of small and medium enterprises, collected herds and milking uses Localisation Litres per year of goat milk collected by SME (103 ) Number of producers Types of products manufactured Characteristics of collected herds Type of feeding Greece (centre, G1) 200 Greece (south, G2) 500 Greece (north, G3) 1000 Greece (centre, G4) 200 France (south-west, F1) 5000 France (centre-west, F2) 2000 Portugal (south, P) 100

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

60 Traditional cheeses (Feta, Kefalotiri, whey cheeses) Mountain area indigenous breed Grazing

150 Feta

Mountain area indigenous breed Grazing

180 Traditional cheeses (Feta, Anevato, whey cheeses) Indigenous breed

80 Feta

36 Traditional soft lactic cheeses Saanen, Alpine

20 Cheeses and powders Saanen, Alpine

3 Traditional fresh cheese Granadina, Serpentina, Saanen, Alpine One indoor, two grazing (supplement at night) Manual/mechanical Yes MarchJuly 12 (Each fortnight)

Indigenous breed Grazing

Grazing

Indoor

Indoor

Type of milking Cooling after milking Period of milk sampling Number of analyses

Manual No MarchJune 19 (Weekly)

Manual No FebruaryJune 24 (Weekly)

Manual Yes AprilJuly 38 (Weekly)

Manual Yes FebruaryJune 72 (Weekly)

Mechanical Yes FebruaryOctober 19 (Each fortnight)

Mechanical Yes FebruaryJune 7 (Each month)

41

42

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

medium (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France), after an incubation period of 72 h at 30 C (IDF 100B: 1991). Total coliform counts were determined either on violet red bile lactose (VRBL) agar (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France) or by the most probable number technique at 30 C according to the IDF procedure (IDF 73B: 1998). Staphylococci coagulase+ were enumerated on BairdParker medium with CHROMagar aureole (CHROMagar, Paris, France) according to the IDF procedure (IDF 145A: 1997). Listeria spp. and Salmonella spp. were determined by an enzyme-linked uorescence assay using the VIDAS method (Bio 12/2-06/94 and Bio 12/1-04/94 certications, respectively) with VIDAS apparatus (Biomrieux, Marcy Ltoile, France) (AFNOR, 1993a,b). 2.4. Evaluation of technological aspects 2.4.1. Acidication ability Acidication ability was evaluated using lyophilised lactic strains (MA 400; Texel, Dang, St. Romain, France) under standard conditions, following a procedure similar to that described by Masle and Morgan (2001). A standard milk was prepared by reconstituting 100 g of low-heat cow milk powder especially designed for the growth of lactic bacteria (G milk, Standa Industrie, Caen, France) in 1 l of sterile water. Lactic strains (one dose) were revivied at 30 C in 900 ml of standard milk. For the measurements, samples of goat milk (100 g) as well as a sample of standard milk (100 g of G milk) were placed in a thermostatically controlled bath at 30 C. The acidication was started when 3.6 ml of the revivication medium containing the lactic bacteria were added to the samples. Dornic acidity was measured at the beginning of the acidication (A0 ), 5 h later (A5 h ) and 24 (A24 h ) hours after starting. Two replicate experiments were carried out for each measurement. The activity of the strains was controlled with the sample of standard milk. Under the experimental conditions, the acidity values obtained on the standard milk were 16.5 1.2, 47.0 2.0 and 97.6 3.8 D for A0 , A5 h and A24 h , respectively.

2.4.2. Whey drainage ability Whey drainage was evaluated by measuring the quantity of whey removed from the curd by centrifugation after rennet coagulation at pH 6.30 or direct acidication at pH 4.50. Goat milk samples (20 g) were placed in 50 ml centrifugal tubes and the pH was adjusted to 6.30 by adding 10% lactic acid solution. For rennet coagulation, 30 ml/100 l of rennet (520 mg chymosyn/L, Chr. Hansen, Arpajon, France) were added to samples, and the curd was formed after 1 h at 30 C. For direct acidication, glucono delta lactone (GDL; Lysactone, Chr. Hansen) and rennet (5 ml/100 l, 520 mg chymosyn/L; Chr. Hansen) were added to samples, and the curd was formed after 20 h at 22 C. The amount of GDL (usually between 0.2 and 0.3 g) was determined in separate experiments in order to obtain a nal pH value of 4.50. In some cases, two doses of GDL were used (0.2 and 0.3 g of GDL for 20 g of milk), in order to obtain a nal pH value of about pH 4.50, and the percentage of whey drained at pH 4.50 was obtained by interpolation. After coagulation, the tubes were centrifuged at 2800 g for 30 min and the drained whey was weighed. Whey drainage ability (percentage whey drained) was calculated as the mass ratio of whey/milk. Two replicate determinations were carried out for each measurement. 2.4.3. Heat stability (HS) Given the fact that most of the milk samples were unstable at 140 or 120 C, the determination of heat coagulation time at a xed temperature, as described by Davies and White (1966), was not suitable in the present study. Heat coagulation temperature was measured at a xed time (1 min), as previously described by Morgan et al. (2000), rather than the heat coagulation time at 140 or 120 C. Milk samples (60 l) were sealed in glass capillary tubes and heat treatment was performed in an oil bath at temperatures ranging from 80 to 140 C for 1 min. The heat stability (HS) was dened as the maximum temperature within the range 80140 C at which the sample was stable during a 1 min treatment. Three replicates were carried out for the measure.

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

43

2.4.4. Statistical analyses The data obtained from each country were analysed by ANOVA according to Students t-test. The significant level of test was set at P < 0.05. Tables report mean values and standard deviation.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Microbiological quality The microbiological characteristics of goat milks collected from the SMEs are given in Table 2, showing that goat milk collected from Greek and Portuguese

SMEs was mostly of inferior hygienic quality compared to goat milk collected from French SMEs. Somatic cell counts from French SMEs were around 106 cells/ml and total bacteria counts reached a maximum of 6.4 105 CFU/ml, the number of coliforms and staphylococci coagulase+ were low or even absent in some samples. Raw goat milk collected from Greek SMEs (Table 2) had 285 and 456 103 SCC minimum on two SMEs, but also 11,500 and 3990 103 SCC maximum on these two SMEs. Since the majority of the samples were obtained in the middle of the lactation period for those Greek SMEs (end of March to end of May) and that the highest SCC generally occurs

Table 2 Microbiological characteristics of goat milk collected from small and medium enterprises in Greece (G1G4), France (F1 and F2) and Portugal (P) SME Somatic cells (103 cells/ml) Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum Mean S.D. Minimum Maximum 1840 6430 1100 2830 3210 2190 285 11500 1570 771 456 3990 2390 485 1620 3240 1185 303 933 1738 981 92 909 1140 ND Total bacteria (CFU/ml) 4.95 4.56 1.10 9.98 1.67 1.95 8.13 7.40 1.40 2.15 7.75 7.55 6.40 2.21 4.19 8.60 2.66 3.03 1.20 8.71 1.90 3.02 1.40 6.42 4.00 7.04 3.70 2.40 107 107 107 107 107 107 105 107 107 107 104 107 107 107 107 107 104 104 103 104 105 105 104 105 107 107 105 108 Coliform (CFU/ml) 4.22 3.32 1.45 7.90 1.40 2.89 1.72 1.03 3.34 9.18 8.20 4.78 5.03 7.46 4.15 1.83 105 105 105 105 106 106 104 107 105 105 102 106 106 106 104 107 Staphylococci coagulase+ (CFU/ml) 1.69 1.47 6.45 2.73 1.38 3.85 1.50 1.75 5.05 1.01 1.00 4.40 3.62 5.00 6.40 1.81 105 105 104 105 105 105 103 106 103 104 102 104 105 105 103 106 Listeria (absent or present) ND Salmonella (absent or present) Absent

G1

G2

ND

Absent

G3

ND

Absent

G4

ND

Absent

F1

1.74 102 2.96 102 Absent 6.17 102 1.06 7.50 3.00 2.20 2.53 5.54 3.60 1.90 102 101 101 102 106 106 103 107

3.02 102 Absent 3.02 102 2.48 2.09 3.00 5.50 7.58 1.15 4.00 3.90 102 102 101 102 104 105 102 105

Absent

Absent

F2

Absent

Absent

Absent

Absent

ND, not determined.

44

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

at the end of lactation (Zeng and Escobar, 1996), the high values (above 106 SCC) obtained in this study indicate poor hygienic conditions in some goat udders (Anifantakis, 1993). The average bacteria count quality ranged from 1.4 107 to 6.4 107 for the four Greek SMEs and 4.0 107 for the Portuguese SMEs with 3.7 105 minimum for the Portuguese SME and 7.75 104 for one Greek SME. Anifantakis (1993) reported that 10 and 28% of 1158 samples had SCC <105 cells/ml and good bacteriological standards respectively. In this study (Table 2), coliform counts were variable exceeding 107 CFU/ml maximum in three SMEs. The number of staphylococci coagulase+ was also variable, ranging from <103 to 106 CFU/ml, depending on origin of milk. Salmonella and Listeria were not detected in the analysed samples. These microbiological results indicated some low quality of raw goat milk used by some dairies. Our results showed that the bacteriological quality of goat milk collected from Greek SMEs which had cooling facilities was improved. For instance, 48% of samples without cooling had staphylococci coagulase+ number around 105 CFU/ml whereas, in cooled milks, this number was around 103 CFU/ml for 55% of the samples. Besides the inuence of cooling, low microbiological quality of raw goat milk in Greece and Portugal could also be linked to factors of the stage of lactation, hygienic conditions of milk production and handling (Anifantakis, 1993) and collection procedures (Fatouros, 1986). 3.2. Biochemical composition The mean biochemical composition of goat milk collected from Greek, Portuguese and French SMEs is given in Table 3 indicating that the milk compositions differed from one country to another. The milk from Greek SMEs had a low pH value and high acidity compared to milk collected from French SMEs (Table 3). This could be related to poor microbiological quality of the milk (as discussed above) even if a part of the high acidity and low pH of Greek milks, especially for SMEs G1, G3 and G4, can be explained by the higher protein content (Parkash and Jenness, 1968; Alais, 1984). This agrees with the results of Anifantakis (1993), which pointed out relationships between low pH of raw goat milk and

hygienic conditions at the different steps of milk production. Milk collected from Greek SMEs had the highest percentage of total solids (ranging from 13.1 to 14.4%), as well as highest contents in fat and protein (Table 3). Fat contents were particularly elevated in SME G1 milk by 20 g/l more fat than milk collected from SME F1 in France (i.e. 54.1 g/l versus 34.4 g/l). Such differences have been observed also by other authors (Juarez and Ramos, 1986; Alichanidis and Polychroniadou, 1996). Protein and fat contents of goat milk are determined by genetic factors. Especially, s1 casein variants differ in frequencies owing to breed (Grosclaude et al., 1994). Greek herds consist mainly of local indigenous animals with low milk production levels but with high fat and protein content. Other factors such as feeding (system of production, e.g. grazing in the arid mountains) may also have an impact on milk composition of Greek goats. The crude protein content of milk collected from Greek SMEs varied from 35 to 38.3 g/kg. Further analysis of the protein content of Greek and French milk samples revealed that the ratio of casein/whey protein was higher for Greek milks than for French milks (Table 3). Milk collected in Portugal had an intermediate situation (Table 3). The total solids, fat and protein contents of milk collected from Portuguese SMEs were higher than those of French milks but lower than those of Greek milks. A further analysis of the casein fraction by reverse phase HPLC did not show any significant differences in the relative amounts of s1, s2, and caseins between milks collected from SMEs F1, F2 and P (Table 4). Lactose content was lower in milk collected from Greek SMEs than for French and Portuguese SMEs (Table 3), a trend opposite to those observed for fat and protein contents. This could be linked either to the analytical method used for lactose determination (different for Greek samples) or to udder infection of some goats, but minerals other than calcium (e.g. Na, Cl) were not determined in this study, which does not enable conclusions to be drawn. Ash and calcium content of the different milks did not seem to differ signicantly from one country to another (Table 3).

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

Table 3 Physicochemical characteristics of goat milk collected from small and medium enterprises in Greece (G1G4), France (F1 and F2) and Portugal (P)
Characteristics G1 Mean pH Acidity ( D) Total solids (%) Protein (g/kg) Casein/crude protein (%) Fat (g/kg) Lactose (g/kg) Ash (g/kg) Calcium (mg/100g) 6.51 18 14.4 38.3 77.3 54.1 39.2 7.4 126 S.D. Minimum/ maximum 0.10 1 0.3 1.3 3.07 2.8 0.4 0.5 8 6.41/6.62 16/19 14.0/14.8 36.8/39.4 74.8/80.7 50.8/57.4 38.9/39.9 6.7/8.1 114/140 G2 Mean 6.41 20 13.8 37.6 78.0 52.1 37.3 7.2 133 S.D. 0.08 2 0.7 3.0 1.6 4.8 1.4 0.4 13 Minimum/ maximum 6.30/6.48 17/22 12.7/14.8 34.0/40.1 75.9/80.0 44.2/60.3 34.5/40.0 6.6/7.8 112/153 G3 Mean 6.61 16 13.1 35.0 74.0 48.0 38.5 7.6 125 S.D. Minimum/ maximum 0.06 1 0.5 2.8 6.11 3.6 1.6 0.4 9 6.49/6.70 15/19 12.1/13.8 29.4/38.4 63.36/80.7 42.1/57.3 32.9/40.9 6.9/8.2 112/140 G4 Mean 6.56 17 13.6 36.9 76.2 51.5 37.4 7.2 136 S.D. 0.45 2 0.3 1.1 2.3 2.3 1.4 0.2 13 Minimum/ maximum 6.48/6.65 15/20 13.1/14.3 35.7/38.2 73.4/78.5 47.4/55.6 33.9/39.7 6.9/7.7 122/171 F1 Mean 6.63 14 11.8 32.3 73.7 34.4 45.6 7.8 129 S.D. 0.14 2 0.9 2.4 2.6 3.5 1.9 0.3 14 Minimum/ maximum 6.12/6.81 10/17 10.4/14.2 28.2/38.7 68.8/81.0 29.0/39.0 40.6/48.0 7.4/8.4 107/159 F2 Mean 6.75 16 11.6 32.6 72.2 38.5 45.4 7.8 140 S.D. 0.10 1 0.6 1.5 4.9 0 0.4 10 Minimum/ maximum 6.62/6.89 14/18 11.2/12.0 29.0/35.1 31.0/44.5 45.4/45.4 7.5/8.3 127/150 P Mean S.D. Minimum/ maximum

6.59 0.14 6.20/6.70 16 5.8 11/30 12.8 0.5 12.2/13.8 34.9 1.6 31.9/37.2 ND ND ND 42.7 42.1 7.8 140 3.5 1.7 0.4 12 39.0/51.0 38.6/44.1 7.0/8.0 114/154

ND, not determined.

45

46

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

Table 4 Relative amount (%) of the different casein of goat milk collected from French and Portuguese small and medium enterprises Casein F1 Mean (n = 9) s1 s2 11.8 14.0 59.7 14.4 S.D. 3.0 2.0 2.2 1.6 Minimum/ maximum 8.3/17.0 9.8/16.0 56.1/63.2 12.3/17.7 F2 Mean (n = 7) 11.5 14.7 59.4 14.5 S.D. 3.4 1.5 2.2 2.3 Minimum/ maximum 4.7/14.2 11.6/16.2 58.1/64.2 12.8/19.5 P Mean (n = 10) 13.7 15.6 57.5 13.2 S.D. 1.1 1.0 1.9 1.4 Minimum/ maximum 11.1/15.3 13.9/16.8 53.9/59.4 11.5/16.1

3.3. Technological aspects Results concerning acidication ability, whey draining and heat stability of goat milk collected from SMEs are given in Table 5. The initial acidity of milk collected from most SMEs in Greece was elevated compared to milk collected in France and Portugal (Table 5). After an acidication period of 5 h, no signicant differences of acidity were observed among the samples. However, after 24 h, the obtained acidity seemed to be higher for the Greek samples compared to the others. The composition of milk from Greek SMEs could be better adapted to the development of lactic

starters, notably because of the high protein content that increases buffering capacity (Park, 1991). Recent studies have shown that high buffering capacity is favourable to the growth of lactic acid bacteria in goat milk (Masle and Morgan, 2001). However, acidication rate and extent could be inuenced by others factors (Mietton et al., 1994), which were not investigated in the present study. Draining of whey from the milks collected from the different SMEs were similar. However, milk collected from SME F1 from France had a higher percentage of whey drained after rennet or lactic coagulation (Table 5). This could be related to the lower fat and protein contents of the French milk samples (Table 3).

Table 5 Technological aspects of goat milk collected from small and medium enterprises in Greece (G1G4), France (F1 and F2) and Portugal (P): acidication capacity, whey drainage, and heat stability SME Acidication capacity ( D) A0 G1 G2 G3 G4 F1 F2 P Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 30 10 26 7 17 2 20 7 15 2 ND 18 2 A5 h 64 14 62 11 49 9 58 8 56 7 ND 68 8 A24 h 97 3 92 2 91 4 91 5 84 7 ND 85 5 Whey drainage (%) Rennet 77.9 2.9 82.3 1.9 82.0 2.4 81.2 1.6 88.1 1.5 ND 79.0 3.6 Lactic 73.6 73.2 3.8 73.6 3.1 70.4 2.3 78.9 2.3 ND 71.1 5.6 92.0 4.4 95.0 2.6 110.0 3.7 105.0 3.3 125.9 5.6 133.0 5.9 124.5 6.5 Heat stability ( C)

ND, not determined.

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949

47

Walstra et al. (1985) have shown that the percentage of whey drained after milk coagulation is increased if the fat and protein contents decreased, leading also to weaker gels (Remeuf et al., 1989). In this study, similar observations have been made using the Formagraph apparatus (data not shown): milks with high protein and fat contents led to rm coagulum with low whey drainage (Greek and Portuguese milk samples) and milks with lower protein and fat contents gave weak gels with higher propensity to syneresis (French milk samples). Results concerning heat stability are given in Table 5. Milk samples from Greek SMEs had a very low heat stability (92110 C). This poor thermal stability could be related to low hygienic quality and pH of these samples (Morgan et al., 2000). Moreover, heat stability was lower for Greek SMEs which cooled their milks (G3 and G4). Other factors like ionic calcium and whey proteins may play role in the thermal coagulation of goat milk (Morgan et al., 2000, 2001). A negative impact of cold storage on heat stability, because of increased calcium level during cold storage (Raynal-Ljutovac and Remeuf, 2000), may be suggested. Heat stability of the milk collected from the Portuguese SME (124.5 C) was similar to the one from SME F1 (125.9 C), and the heat stability of SME F2 was the highest (133 C) (Table 5). However, heat stability of goat milk, at its natural pH, is lower than that of cow milk (Fox and Hoynes, 1976) and the heat sensitivity of goat milk must be kept in mind when technological treatments are to be considered.

4. Conclusions In this study, goat milk characteristics from seven SMEs in three different countries, using similar analytical methods were determined. This enabled direct comparison and the results revealed much variability of goat milk biochemical, microbiological and technological characteristics collected from SMEs among the different European areas. From the hygienic point of view, goat milk production conditions in Greece and Portugal need improvement compared to production in France. Also, richness of milk differed from one country to another. In Greece, milk had the highest content in fat and protein, in France the lowest and an intermediate

situation was observed for Portugal. Two production systems are distinguished. There are intensive breeding systems with large numbers of improved breeds of high yield and modern techniques of livestock breeding mainly in France and Spain while in Greece, Portugal and Italy there are extensive breeding systems mostly and small ocks with unimproved technology of farming and milking systems resulting in low yields (Le Jaouen and Toussaint, 1993). For the bacteriological quality of raw goat milk, specic risk assessments need study in the different countries. In Greece, the large number of dairy farmers, small herd size, wide dispersal of milk producers all over the country, the mountain topography, climatic conditions, poor stabling, as well as, in many cases, absence of roads, water supplies and electricity, constitute the main problems. Information concerning the systems of production of goat milk, ways of transport of raw goat milk to the milk processing factories, procedures applied inside each factory regarding receiving and storage of the incoming raw goat milk need to be collected. Considering that the technological aspects of goat milk are affected to a great extent by its biochemical and microbiological composition (e.g. low heat stability of Greek milks collected from Greek SMEs linked to poor microbiological quality), the results of such surveys should be useful for the denition of technological adaptations that are necessary for good milk quality and thus good goat milk product quality. Goat milk production in EU countries is seasonal, the greatest amount being produced from February to June in Greece and Portugal and from February to September in France. The surplus of milk in these periods, which cannot always be benecially exploited by the dairy industries, must be optimised from a hygienic point of view in order to maximally exploit goat milk with a high biochemical content, to improve traditional cheese manufacture and/or to develop new products. The study shows the necessity to better know the characteristics of the raw material before developing new products, especially in different European areas where goat milk composition greatly differs. This implies that technologists must adapt to constraints linked to the milk composition and its technological aspects. Results of this study should be useful for further development steps. The technological parameters need to be adjusted in order to ensure safety of the products,

48

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949 IDF, 1992. Milk and milk powder: determination of calcium by atomic absorption spectrometry. IDF standard 154, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. IDF, 1995. Milk: enumeration of somatic cells. IDF standard 148A, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. IDF, 1996. Milk: determination of concentration in fat, protein and lactose using apparatus with absorption in the mean infrared. IDF standard 141B, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. IDF, 1997. Milk and milk products: enumeration of staphylococcus coagulase+. IDF standard 145A, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. IDF, 1998. Milk and milk products: enumeration of coliforms. IDF standard 73B, International Dairy Federation, Brussels. ISO, 1976. Milk: determination of fat content (Gerber method). ISO standard 2446, International Standard Organisation, Geneva. Jaubert, G., Kalantzopoulos, G., 1996. Quality and goat milk cheese and other products. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Goats, vol. 1. International Academic Publishers, Beijing, China, p. 274. Jaubert, A., Martin, P., 1992. Reverse-phase analysis of goat caseins. Identication of s1 and s2 genetic variants. Lait 72, 235247. Jenness, R., 1980. Composition and characteristics of goat milk: review 19681979. J. Dairy Sci. 63, 16051630. Juarez, M., Ramos, M., 1986. Physicochemical characteristics of goats milk as distinct from those of cows milk. Bull. IDF 202, 5467. Le Jaouen, J.C., Toussaint, G., 1993. Le lait de chvre en Europe (Goat milk in Europe). Lait 73, 407415 (in French). Masle, I., Morgan, F., 2001. Aptitude du lait de chvre lacidication par les ferments lactiquesfacteurs de variation lis la composition du lait (Compositional factors involved in the variable acidication capacity of goat milk by lactic starters). Lait 81, 561569 (in French). Mietton, B., Weber, F., Desmazeaud, M., de Roissart, H., 1994. Transformation du lait en fromage (Milk transformation into cheese). In: de Roissart, H., Luquet, F.M. (Eds.), Bactries Lactiques, vol. 2. Lorica, Uriage, pp. 55133 (in French). Morgan, F., Micault, S., Jacquet, F., Bonnin, V., Jaubert, A., 2000. Study on the compositional factors involved in the variable sensitivity of caprine milk to high temperature processing. Int. Dairy J. 10, 113117. Morgan, F., Micault, S., Fauquant, J., 2001. Combined effect of whey protein and s1 casein genotype on the heat stability of goat milk. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 54, 6468. Park, Y.W., 1991. Relative buffering capacity of goat milk, cow milk, soya-based infant formulas and commercial non-prescription antacid drugs. J. Dairy Sci. 74 (10), 3326 3333. Parkash, S., Jenness, R., 1968. The composition and characteristics of goats milk: a review. Dairy Sci. Abstr. 30 (2), 67 87. Raynal-Ljutovac, K., Remeuf, F., 2000. Effect of storage at 4 C on the physicochemical and renneting properties of milk: a comparison of caprine, ovine and bovine milks. J. Dairy Res. 67, 199207.

to provide a high sensorial and nutritional quality, and to full the economic viability of the products.

Acknowledgements This research was nancially supported by the European Union (Program title: Development of new dairy products based on goat milk; Contract No.: FAIR-CT 98-9598). References
AFNOR (French Association of Standardisation), 1993a. Bio 12/1-04/94, validation of VIDAS Salmonella parameter obtained in relation to the reference method ISO 6579. AFNOR (French Association of Standardisation), 1993b. Bio 12/2-06/94, validation of VIDAS Listeria spp. parameter obtained in relation to the reference method NF V 03 100. Alais, 1984. Physique et physico-chimie du lait. Les effets des traitements technologiques (Physique and physicochemistry of milk, effects of technological treatments). In: Sciences du Lait, 4th ed. Socit ddition et de promotion agro-alimentaires, industrielles et commerciales, Paris. Chapter 9, pp. 247258. Alichanidis, E., Polychroniadou, A., 1996. Special features of dairy products from ewe and goat milk from the physicochemical and organoleptic point of view. IDF 9603, International Dairy Federation, Brussels, pp. 2143. Anifantakis, E.M., 1993. Bacteriological quality of raw goats milk in Greece. Lait 73, 465472. Anifantakis, E.M., Kandarakis, J., 1980. Contribution to the study of the composition of goats milk. Milchwissenschaft 35, 617 619. Barbosa, M., 1993. Goats milk research in Portugal. Lait 73, 425429. Barbosa, M., Miranda, R., 1986. Physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of goat milk in Portugal. Bull. IDF 202, 8489. Davies, T.D., White, J.C.D., 1966. The stability of milk protein to heat. I. Subjective measurement of heat stability of milk. J. Dairy Res. 33, 6781. FAO, 1990. Agricultural Production Yearbook. Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy. Fatouros, T., 1986. The collection of goats and ewes milk and the problem involved. Bull. IDF 202, 7375. Fox, P.F., Hoynes, M.C.T., 1976. Heat stability characteristics of ovine, caprine and equine milks. J. Dairy Res. 43, 433442. Grosclaude, F., Ricordeau, G., Martin, P., Remeuf, F., Vassal, L., Bouillon, J., 1994. Du gne au fromage: le polymorphisme de la casine s1 caprine, ses effets, son volution (From gene to cheese: caprine s1 casein polymorphismits effects, its evolution). INRA Prod. Anim. 7, 319 (in French). IDF, 1991. Milk and milk products: enumeration of microorganisms. IDF standard 100B, International Dairy Federation, Brussels.

F. Morgan et al. / Small Ruminant Research 47 (2003) 3949 Remeuf, F., Lenoir, J., Duby, C., 1989. Etude des relations entre les caractristiques physico-chimiques des laits de chvre et leur aptitude la coagulation par la prsure (Study of relations between physicochemical characteristics of goat milks and their renneting properties). Lait 69, 499518 (in French). Rowland, S.J., 1938. The determination of the nitrogen distribution in milk. J. Dairy Res. 9, 4246.

49

Walstra, P., van Dijk, H.J.M., Geurts, T.J., 1985. The syneresis of curd. 1. General considerations and literature review. Neth. Milk Dairy J. 39, 209246. Zeng, S.S., Escobar, E.N., 1996. Effect of breed and milking method on somatic cell count, standard plate count and composition of goat milk. Small Rumin. Res. 19, 169 175.