Modern Physics

IITJEE Syllabus:
Alpha, beta and gamma radiations, law of radioactive decay, decay constant, half-life and mean
life. Photoelectric effect. De Broglie wavelength. Bohrs theory of hydrogen like atoms.
Production of characteristic and continuous X-rays, properties of X-rays. Atomic nucleus, binding
energy and its calculation. Fission and fusion processes, energy calculations in these processes.
1. STRUCTURE OF ATOM
All matter is made up of tiny particles known as atoms. There are only about 105 different kinds
of atoms, and they combine with each other in different ways to form groups called molecules.
All matter has been found to be composed of atoms or molecules, and some knowledge of how
atoms are made will give us valuable information about the behaviour of matter.
Thomson's Atomic Model
On the basis of his experiments J.J. Thomson proposed a model of internal atomic structure
according to which atom consisted of positively charged substance (+ve electric fluid) distributed
uniformly over the entire body of the atom, with negative electrons embedded in this continuous
positive charge like seeds in a watermelon. It was a good effort to reveal mystery of an atom but it
was not the true picture of an atom.
Rutherford's Atomic Model
The correct description of the distribution of positive and negative charges within an atom was
made in 1911 by a New Zealander when working at Manchester University in England. This was
Ernest Rutherford, who was later made Lord Rutherford for his many scientific achievements. He
entered into physics during that crucial period of its development when the phenomenon of
natural radioactivity had just been discovered, and he was first to realize that radioactivity
represents a spontaneous disintegration of heavy unstable atoms.
Rutherford realized that important information about the inner structure of atoms could be
obtained by the study of collisions between on rushing o particles and the atoms of various
materials forming the target.

o Particle Source Gold
Foil
|
Zinc Sulphate
Screen
Microscope
Fig.(1) Schematic diagram of the experimental set up used by Rutherford.
Collimator

The basic idea of the experimental arrangement used by Rutherford in his studies was explained
as follows:
a speck of o - emitting radioactive material; a lead shield with a hole that allowed a narrow beam
of the o particles to pass through; a thin metal foil to deflect or scatter them; and a pivoted
flourescent screen with a magnifier through which the tiny flashes of light were observed
whenever an o-particle struck the screen. The whole apparatus was evacuated, so that the particles
would not collide with air molecules.
Observation
Most of the o-particles penetrated the foil with
very little deflection. An appreciable fraction of
them were deflected through large angles - a few
were turned back almost as though they had been
reflected from the foil. This was a deflection of
nearly 180 and a completely impossible
phenomenon according to the Thomson's model.
Such large deflections required strong forces to
be acting, such as those between very smaller
charged particles very close together. This would
be possible, Rutherford reasoned, if all the
positive charge, along with most of the atomic
mass, were concentrated in a very small central
region which Rutherford called the atomic
nucleus.
Nucleus
Fig.(2) According to Rutherfords nuclear model, the alpha
particles were scattered by the coulomb force of a
tiny particle (the nucleus) rather than a large
sphere, as in Thomsons model of the atom, Each
alpha particle experienced a single string collision.
Rutherford, knowing the kinetic energy of the o-particles, calculated that they would be within
about 10
-12
cm from its centre if o - particles were to be turned back in the direction from which
they came.
Because there would be a Coulomb force of attraction between the positive nucleus and the
negative electrons, the two would be down together and the atom would vanish unless some
provisions were made to prevent it. It was suggested that the electrons might be orbiting rapidly
around the nucleus, so that the electrostatic attraction would merely provide the necessary
centripetal force.
Drawbacks
(i) Rutherford's atomic model was unable to make any predictions about the light that an atom
would emit
(ii) More serious than this was its conflict with the accepted laws of electromagnetic theory. An
electron revolving rapidly around a nucleus must have a continual centripetal acceleration, and
this acceleration would cause a continuous loss of energy by radiation. Bohr calculated that
this emission of radiation would cause the electrons in an atom to lose all their energy and fall
into the nucleus within a hundred - millionth of a second. Since matter composed of atoms
exists permanently, as far as we know, there was obviously something wrong here. Bohr's
conclusion was that the conventional classical laws of physics must be wrong, at least when
applied to the motion of electrons within an atom.

Bohrs Theory
Bohr in defiance of the well - established
laws of classical mechanics and
electrodynamics, proposed that the following
rules must hold
1. Of all the infinite number of
mechanically possible orbits for an
electron revolving around a nucleus, only
a few are permitted. These are the orbits
in which the angular momentum of the
electron is an integral multiple of h/2.
2. While circling around these permitted
orbits, the electrons do not emit any
electromagnetic radiation, even though
conventional electrodynamics holds that
they should.
Fig.(3) Planetary model of the hydrogen atom.
A massive positive charge is nearly stationary in the
center. An electron travels in a circular orbit. The electron
is held in its orbit by the Coulombs law attraction of the
positive nucleus and the negative electron.
v
r
mv
2
3. Electrons may jump from one orbit to another, in which case the difference in energy between
the two states of motion is radiated as a photon whose frequency is determined by the
quantum rule AE = hf.
Bohr's Orbits
For an electron orbiting in a hydrogen atom, the necessary centripetal force is the electrostatic
attraction between the negative electron and the massive, positively-charged proton, that is the
nucleus.
Thus, k
2
2
r
e
=
r
mv
2
or r =
2
2
mv
ke
(1)
According to Bohr's theory
mvr =
2
nh
where, n = 1, 2, 3,.
r =
mv
nh
2
(2)
From (1) and (2)
v =
nh
ke
2
2
2 2
2 2
4 kme
h n
r

= where h = 6.63 10
-34
J s (1)

Electron energies
Kinetic energy
K =
2
1
mv
2
=
2
m
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
nh
ke
=
2 2
4 2 2
2
h n
me k
(2)
Potential energy
U =
r
ke
2
= ke
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
2 2
2 2
4
h n
kme
=
2 2
4 2 2
4
h n
me k
(3)
Total energy
E = K + U =
2
1
n
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
4 2 2
2
h
me k
(4)
Putting the values of k = 9 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
e = 1.6 10
-19
C and h = 6.63 10
-34
Js,
we get
E =
2
1
n
(2.18 10
-18
) J =
2
6 . 13
n

eV (5)
E
Free Electron
Bound Electron
n = 5
n = 4
n = 3
n = 2
n = 1
0 eV
-13.6eV
-3.40eV
-1.51eV
Fig.(4) Energy level diagram for the Bohr model of
the hydrogen atom. The vertical axis
represents energy. The (arbitrary) zero of
energy is taken as the energy of a stationary
electron, infinitely far from the positive
nucleus. The lowest energy level (n = 1) is
known as the ground state.
Radiation and Energy Levels
AE = hf
AE = E
2
E
1
Using equation (5)
AE = 2.18 10
-18
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
1 1
n n
Applying Plancks Law,
f =
h
E A
= 3.29 10
15
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
1 1
n n
Hz (6)
Dividing the above equation by c = 3 10
8
m/s, we get
(
(

=
2
2
2
1
8
15
1 1
10 3
10 29 . 3 1
n n

m
-1
or
(
(

=

2
2
2
1
1 1 1
n n
R

m
-1
(7)
where R

= Rydberg constant = 1.097 10

7
m
-1
.

0 eV
-1.51eV
-3.40eV
-13.6 eV
Lyman
Balmer
Paschen
Bracket
n =
n = 5
n = 4
n = 3
n = 2
n = 1
Fig.(5) Light is emitted from the hydrogen atom only when the electron makes
transitions between stationary orbits. The Balmer series of spectral lines,
for instance, results when electrons from higher energy levels fall into the
n = 2 level, releasing their energy as a single photon.
Successes and Limitations
Bohr showed that Planck's quantum idea were a necessary part of the atom and its inner
mechanism; he introduced the idea of quantized energy levels and explained the emission or
absorption of radiation as being due to the transition of an electron from one level to another. As a
model for even multielectron atoms, the Bohr picture is still useful. It leads to a good, simple,
rational ordering of the electrons in larger atoms and qualitatively helps to predict a great deal
about chemical behaviour and spectral details.
Bohr's theory is unable to explain the following facts
1. The spectral lines of hydrogen atom is not a single line but a collection of several lines very
close together.
2. The structure of multielectron atoms is not explained.
3. No explanation for using the principle of quantisation of angular momentum.
4. No explanation for Zeeman effect
If a substance which gives a line emission spectrum is placed in a magnetic field, the lines of
the spectrum get split up into a number of closely spaced lines.
This phenomenon is known as Zeeman effect.
Conclusion
The atom consists of a heavy positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons
moving around it. The electron is an elementary particle having a mass
m
e
~ 9.1 10
31
kg and a charge e, e being an elementary charge approximately equal to
1.60 10
-19
C.

The nuclear charge is equal to +Ze, where Z is the atomic number. The atom contains Z electrons,
their total charge being Ze. Consequently, the atom is an electrically neutral system. The size of
the nucleus varies depending on Z from 10
-13
cm to 10
-12
cm. The size of the atom is a quantity of
the order of 10
-8
cm.
The energy of the atom is quantized. This means that it can assume only discrete (i.e. separated
by finite gaps) values: E
1
, E
2
, E
3
,, which are called the energy levels of the atom
(E
1
< E
2
< E
3
< ). Atoms with different Z's have different sets of energy levels.
In a normal (unexcited) state, the atom is on the lowest possible energy level. In such a state, the
atom may stay for an infinitely long time. By imparting an energy to the atom, it is possible to
transfer it to an excited state with an energy higher than the energy of the ground state. A
transition of the atom to a higher energy level may occur as a result of absorption of a photon or
as a result of a collision with another atom or a particle, say, an electron.
Excited states of the atom are unstable. The atom can stay in an excited state for about 10
-8
s.
After that the atom spontaneously (by its own) goes over to a lower energy level, emitting in this
process a photon with an energy
ik ik
hf E = (i > k),
where i is the number of the energy level in the initial state and k is the number of the level to
which a spontaneous transition of the atom occurred. For example, an atom which is in an excited
state with the energy E
3
can return to the ground state either directly, by emitting a photon of
frequency f
31
= (E
3
E
1
)/h, or through an intermediate state with the energy E
2
, as a result of
which two photons with frequencies f
32
= (E
3
E
2
)/h and f
21
= (E
2
E
1
)/h are emitted.
Important Formulae
1. Radius of nth orbit
r
n
= 0.53
Z
n
2
where Z = atomic number (8)
2. Velocity of the electron in the nth orbit
v
n
= |
.
|

\
|
137
c
n
Z
where c = 3 10
8
m/s (9)
3. Energy of the electron in the nth orbit
E
n
= -13.6
2
2
n
Z
(eV) (10 a)
E
n
= -(2.18 10
-18
)
2
2
n
Z
(J) (10 b)
E = K + U (11 a )
K = -E =
2
U
(11 b)
U = 2E = -2 K (11 c)

4. Wavelength of photon emitted for a transition from n

2
to n
1
(
(

=

2
2
2
1
2
1 1 1
n n
Z R

(12)
where R

= 1.096 10
7
m
-1
(for a stationary nucleus)
If nucleus is not considered to be stationary
R =
M
m
R
+

1
(13)
where m is the mass of electron and M is the mass of nucleus.
5. Wavelength () of a photon of energy E (eV) is given by
=
) eV (
12400
E
(14)
6. Momentum of a photon of energy E
p =
c
E
(15)
Example: 1
A single electron orbits around a stationary nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z is a constant
and e is the magnitude of electronic charge. It requires 47.2 eV to excite the electron from
second Bohr orbit to the third Bohr orbit.
(a) Find the value of Z
(b) Find the energy required to excite the electron from n = 3 to n = 4
(c) Find the wavelength of radiation required to remove electron from first Bohrs Orbit to
infinity.
(d) Find the kinetic energy, potential energy and angular momentum of the electron in the first
Bohr orbit.
Solution
(a) Given AE
23
= 47.2 eV
Since AE = 13.6Z
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
1 1
n n
eV
47.2 = 13.6 Z
2
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
3
1
2
1
Z = 5
(b) To find AE
34
; n
1
= 3; n
2
= 4
AE = 13.6 Z
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
1 1
n n
eV
AE = 13.6 5
2
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
4
1
3
1
= 16.53 eV
(c) Ionization energy is the energy required to excite the electron from n = 1 to n =
Thus, AE = 13.6 5
2
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
1
1
1
= 340 eV

The respective wavelength is

=
E
hc
A
=
340
12400 12400
=
AE
= 36.47
(d) K = -E = +340 eV
U = 2E = -680 eV
L =
2
h
=
t

2
10 63 . 6
34
= 1.056 10
-34
J-s
Example 2
Find the quantum number n corresponding to excited state of He
+
ion if on transition to the
ground state, the ion emits two photons in succession with wavelengths 108.5 nm and
30.4 nm. The ionization energy of H atom is 13.6 eV.
Solution
The energy transitions for the given wavelengths are
AE
1
= eV 43 . 11
1085
12400 12400
1
= =

AE
2
=
304
12400 12400
2
=

= 40.79 eV
Total energy emitted AE = AE
1
+ AE
2
= 52.22 eV
Now AE = 13.6 Z
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
1 1
n n
eV AE = energy emitted
or 52.34 = 13.6 2
2
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
1
1
1
n
Thus, n = 5
Example 3
An isolated hydrogen atom emits a photon of 10.2 eV.
(a) Determine the momentum of photon emitted
(b) Calculate the recoil momentum of the atom
(c) Find the kinetic energy of the recoil atom.
[Mass of proton, m
P
= 1.67 10
-27
kg]
Solution
(a) Momentum of the photon is
p
1
=
c
E
=
8
19
10 3
10 6 . 1 2 . 10

= 5.44 10
-27
kg m/s
(b) Applying the momentum conservation
p
2
atm
photon
p
1
p
2
= p
1
= 5.44 10
-27
kg m/s
(c) K =
2
1
mv
2
(v = recoil speed of atom, m = mass of hydrogen atom)

or K =
m
p
m
p
m
2 2
1
2
2
= |
.
|

\
|
Substituting the value of the momentum of atom, we get
K =
( )
27
2
27
10 67 . 1 2
10 44 . 5

= 8.86 10
-27
J
Example 4
A hydrogen atom in a state of binding energy 0.85 eV makes a transition to a state of
excitation energy of 10.2 eV. Find the energy and wavelength of photon emitted.
Solution
Since the binding energy is always negative, therefore,
E
i
= -0.85 eV
Let n
i
be the initial binding state of the electron, then
E
n
=
2
2
6 . 13
i
n
Z

or -0.85 = -13.6
2
2
i
n
Z
or n
i
= 4
Binding energy = E
n
= -13.6 Z
2
/n
2

0.85 eV = -13.6(1)
2
/n
2
2
n
2
= 4
Let the electron now goes to an energy level n whose excitation energy is 10.2 eV. Since
the excitation energy AE is defined with respect to ground state, therefore
AE = 13.6 Z
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
1 1
n n
eV
or 10.2 = 13.6 1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
1
1
1
f
n
thus n
f
= 2
So the electron makes a transition from energy level n
i
= 4 to n
f
= 2.
Thus, the energy released is AE = E
4
E
2
or AE = 13.6
(

2 2
4
1
2
1
= 2.55 eV
Since =
E
hc
A
= 5511
eV 25 . 2
12400
=
Example 5
A particle of charge equal to that of an electron, -e and mass 208 times the mass of
electron (called a -meson) moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e (take
the mass of the nucleus to be infinite). Assuming that the Bohr model of the atom is
applicable to this system:
(i) Calculate the radius of nth Bohr orbit
(ii) Find the value of n, for which the radius of orbit is approximately the same as that of first
Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom;

(iii)Find the wavelength of radiation emitted when the -meson jumps from the third orbit to
first orbit
(Rydbergs constant = 1.097 10
7
/m)
Solution
(i) Radius of the nth Bohr orbit for hydrogen atom is
r
n
= 0.53
Z
n
2
Since r
m
1
Radius of nth orbit for -meson is
r
n
=
( )Z
n
208
53 . 0
2
or r
n
= (8.5 10
-4
)n
2
(ii) (8.5 10
-4
)n
2
= 0.53
n
2
= 623
or n ~ 25
(iii)In case of hydrogen like atom,
AE = E
3
E
1
= 13.6 Z
2
|
.
|

\
|

2
3
1
1 = 12.08 eV
since AE m
-meson, AE = (12.8)(208) = 22.6 keV
Thus =
3
10 6 . 22
12400 12400

=
AE
= 0.548
2. de BROGLIE WAVES
The first step in the understanding of the hidden meaning of Bohr's quantum orbits was made by a
Frenchman, Louis de Broglie, who tried to draw an analogy between the sets of discrete energy
levels that characterise the inner state of atoms and the discrete sets of mechanical vibrations that
are observed in the case of violin strings, organ pipes etc.
de Broglie asked himself,
"Could it not be that the optical properties of atoms are due to some kind of standing waves
enclosed within themselves?"
As a result of these considerations, de Broglie came out with his hypothesis that the motion of
electron within the atom is associated with a peculiar kind of waves which he called "pilot
waves".
In order to have n complete wavelengths (n) fit into the circumference of the nth orbit, the
following relation must be true:
n
n
= 2tr
n
From Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom,
r
n
=
2 2
2 2
4 kme
h n

or n
n
=
2
2 2
2 kme
h n

or
n
=
2
2
2 kme
nh

=
m
h
2
2 ke
nh

n
n
mv
h
= (16)
The wavelength of the wave associated with a moving particle is equal to Planck's quantum
constant divided by the momentum of the particle.
Example 6
What is the energy and wavelength of a thermal neutron ?
Solution
By definition, a thermal neutron is a free neutron in a neutron gas at about 20
o
C (293 K).
Since it has three degrees of freedom, therefore
K = ( )( )
21 23
10 07 . 6 293 10 38 . 1
2
3
2
3

= = kT J
=
( )( )
21 27
34
10 07 . 6 10 67 . 1 2
10 63 . 6
2

= =
K m
h
p
h
o
= 0.147 nm
Example 7
A particle of mass m is confined to a narrow tube of length L.
(a) Find the wavelengths of the de-Broglie waves which will resonate in the tube,
(b) Calculate the corresponding particle momenta, and
(c) Calculate the corresponding energies.
Solution
(a) The de Broglie waves will resonate with a node at each end of the tube.
A few of the possible resonance forms are as follows :

n
=
n
L 2
; n = 1, 2, 3, ......
(b) Since de-Broglie wavelengths are

n
=
n
p
h
p
n
=
L
nh h
n
2
=

n = 1, 2, 3....
(c) The kinetic energies of the particles are
K
n
=
m L
h n
m
p
n
2
2 2 2
8
2
= ,
n = 1, 2, 3, ........
L
L = 3(/2)
L = 2(/2)
L = (/2)
N N
N
N
N
N
A A A
A A
A
N
N
N

3. X RAYS
When a heavy metal target is bombarded
with high-energy (30 50keV) electrons, it
emits X rays. The radiation involves both a
continuous and a line spectrum, as shown
in the fig.(6). The continuous spectrum,
which starts at some minimum wavelength

o
, arises from the rapid deceleration of the
electrons when they enter the target it is
called bremsstrahlung, or braking radiation.
The existence of minimum wavelength (or
maximum frequency) is further evidence in
favour of the photon concept. The highest
frequency photon is emitted when an
electron loses all its energy in one step. By
equating the energy of the electron (eV) to
the energy of the photon (hf
o
), we find
hf
o
= eV
or
o
=
eV
hc
(17)

min

Fig.(6) The X-ray emission when stream of fast moving

electrons strike a target of heavy element.
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
The minimum wavelength depends on the electron energy, but not on the target material.
W
Mo
Cr
Wavelength

O
Intensity
Fig.(7) Different targets of tungsten (W), Molybdenum
(Mo) and Chromium (Cr) are used and the
kinetic energies of the incident electrons are kept
constant. It is observed that the minimum
wavelength o is independent of target material.
K
3
Wavelength

3 O
Intensity
Fig.(8) Electron beam of different energies K
1
, K
2
and
K
3
are incident on a target of same material. The
minimum wavelength is inversely proportional
to the kinetic energy.
If K
3
> K
2
> K
1
, then
3
<
2
<
1
.
K
2
K
1

1
Fig.(9) Energy level diagram for an electron in an atom.
The arrows indicate the transitions that give rise
to the different series of X rays.
O
Fig.(10) A plot of the square root of the frequency versus
atomic number Z.
N
M
L
K
L

f
Atomic number Z

The line spectrum depends on the element used as target. These characteristic X rays are
produced when an electron knocks out an atomic electron from one of the inner levels. The ejected
electron leaves a vacancy, which is then filled by an electron falling from a higher level. In the
process a high energy photon is emitted. If the transitions are to the n = 1 level, the X rays are
labeled K
o,
K
|
.If they are to the n = 2 level, they are labeled L
o,
L
|
,
In 1913, Moseley noted that the characteristic lines shifted systematically as the target material
was changed. He plotted the square root of the frequency of the K
o
line versus the atomic number
Z for many elements. The straight line he obtained is shown in the fig.(10).
Moseleys plot did not pass through the origin. Let us see, why?. Once one of the two electrons in
the n = 1 level is ejected, an electron in the next highest level will drop to the lower state to fill the
vacancy and in the process it emits the K
o
frequency. For this electron the electric field due to the
nucleus is screened by the remaining electron in the n = 1 level. Moseley estimated that the
effective nuclear charge for the K
o
transition is (Z 1)e. Thus Moseleys law for the frequency of
the K
o
line is
o
K
f = a(Z 1) (18)
when a = RC
4
3
where R is the Rydberg constant c is the speed of light.
The wavelength of K lines is given by
( )
(

=
2
2
1
1 1
1
n
Z

where n = 2, 3, 4, (19)
Example 8
Find the cut-off wavelength of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube operating at 30 kV.
Solution
For minimum wavelength, the total kinetic energy should be converted into an X-ray
photon.
Thus,
=
3
10 30
12400 12400

= =
E E
hc
= 0.41
Example 9
Show that the frequency of K
|
X-ray of a material equals to the sum of frequencies of K
o
and L
o
X-rays of the same material.
Solution
L
o
K
|
K
o
M
K
L
The energy level diagram of an atom with one electron knocked out is shown above.
Energy of K
o
X-ray is E
Ko
= E
L
- E
K
of K
|
X-ray is =

K
E E
M
- E
K

and, of L
o
X-ray is E
Lo
= E
M
- E
L
thus, =

K
E E
Ko
+ E
Lo
or

L K K
f f f + =
4. RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactive decay is a random process: Each decay is an independent event, and one cannot tell
when a particular nucleus will decay. When a given nucleus decays, it is tranformed another
nuclide, which may or may not be radioactive. When there is a very large number of nuclei in a
sample, the rate of decay is proportional to the number of nuclei, N, that are present
N
dt
dN
= (20)
Where is called the decay constant. This equation may be expressed in the form dt
N
dN
=
and integrated
} }
=
t N
N
dt
N
dN
o
0

to yield
t
N
N
o
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
ln
where N
o
is the initial number of parent nuclei at t = 0. The number that survive at time t is
therefore
N = N
o
e
-t
(21)
This function is plotted in Fig.(11)
N
N
o
0.5 N
o
0.37 N
o
T
1/2 1/

Fig.(11)The number of radioactive nuclei in a sample

as a function of time. The half-life is the
time required for the number to fall to 50%
of any initial value (not just t = 0).

t
The time required for the number of parent nuclei to fall to 50% is called the half-life, T, and may
be related to as follows. Since
0.5 N
o
= N
o
T
e

we have T = ln|2| = 0.693. Therefore

T =

693 . 0
(22)
It takes one half-life to drop to 50% of any starting value. The half-life for the decay of the free
neutron is 12.8 min. Other half-lives range from about 10
-20
s to 10
16
years.
Since the number of atoms is not directly measurable, we measure the decay rate or activity (A)
A = -
dt
dN
. On taking the derivative of equation we find
A = N = N
o
e
-t
= R
o
e
-t
(23)
where A = N is the initial activity. The activity is characterized by the same half-life. The SI unit
for the activity is the becquerel (Bq), but the curie (Ci) is often used in practice.
1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegration per second (dps)
1 curie = 3.7 10
10
dps
1 rutherford = 10
6
dps
Mean life of a radioactive sample is defined as the average of the lives of all nucleus.
T
av
=
693 . 0
1
0
T
N
dt e N
o
t
o
= =
}

(24)
Example 10
The half-life of Cobalt - 60 is 5.25 years. How long after its activity have decreased to
about one-eigth of its original value ?
Solution
The activity is proportional to the number of undecayed atoms.
In each half-life, half the remaining sample decays.
Since
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
8
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
|
=
`
, therefore, three half-lives or 15.75 years are required for the
sample to decay to
1
8
th its original strength.
Example 11
A count rate-meter is used to measure the activity of a given sample. At one instant the
meter shows 4750 counts per minute. Five minutes later it shows 2700 counts per minute.
(a) Find the decay constant
(b) Also, find the half life of the sample
Solution
Initial velocity A
i
= 4750
0
= =
=
o
t
N
dt
dN
(i)
Final velocity A
f
= 2700
5
= =
=
N
dt
dN
t
(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get
t
o
N
N
=
2700
4750
(iii)

The decay constant is given by

=
t
o
N
N
t
log
303 . 2
or = log
5
303 . 2
2700
4750
= 0.113 min
-1
Half life of the sample is
T = min 14 . 6
113 . 0
693 . 0 693 . 0
= =

Example 12
The mean lives of a radio active substance are 1600 and 400 years for o - emission and
| - emission respectively. Find out the time during which three fourth of a sample will
decay if it is decaying both by o - emission and | - emission simultaneously.
Solution
When an substance decays by o and | emission simultaneously, the average disintegration
constant
av
is given by

av
=
o
+
|
where
o
= disintegration constant for o - emission only

|
= disintegration constant for | - emission only
Mean life is given by T
m
= 1/

av
=
o
+
|
or
400
1
1600
1 1 1 1
+ = + =

T T T
m
= 3.12 10
-3

av
t = 2.303 log
t
o
N
N
(3.12 10
-3
)t = 2.303 log
25
100
t = 2.303 4 log
10 12 . 3
1
3

= 443.5 years
There are two types of radioactivity, natural radioactivity observed in unstable elements in nature
and artificial radioactivity observed in artificially obtained isotopes.
Example 13
The half-life of radium is 1620 years. How many radium atoms decay in 1s in a 1g sample
of radium. The atomic weight of radium is 226 kg/mol.
Solution
Number of atoms in 1 g sample is
N =
( )
0 001
226
6 02 10 2 66 10
26 21
.
. .
|
\

|
.
| = atoms.
The decay constant is
=
( )( )
11
7
2 / 1
10 35 . 1
10 16 . 3 1620
693 . 0 693 . 0

=

=
T
s
-1
Taking one year = 3.16 10
7
s

Now, ( )( )
10 21 11
10 6 . 3 10 66 . 2 10 35 . 1 = = =
A
A

N
t
N
s
-1
Thus, 3.6 10
10
nuclei decay in one second.
Natural radioactive processes are of two kinds:
(1) decay associated with the emission of o particles, viz. nuclei He
4
2
of helium. Alpha
particles are heavy positively charged particles having a mass
m
o
~ 4 amu and a charge q
o
= +2e. The velocity of o-particles is relatively
low: v
o
= (c/30 - c /15), where c is the velocity of light.
(2) decay (beta-minus-decay) associated with the emission of electrons formed at the
instant of decay.
Both processes are accompanied by -
radiation, i.e. the flow of photons
having a very small wavelength, and
hence a very high energy. Like other
electromagnetic waves, -rays propagate
at a velocity of light. The penetrability
of -rays is 0-100 times higher than the
penetrability of |-rays and 1000-10000
times higher than the penetrability of
o-rays. It also exceeds the penetrability
of X-rays.
In a magnetic field, a beam of o-, |-,
and -rays splits into three parts.

Lead
Fig.(12) In a magnetic field, rays are
undeviated and | - particles are
the most deviated.
Nuclei possessing the artificial radioactivity are obtained by bombarding stable nuclei of
heavy elements by -particles, neutrons, or (sometimes) protons and other particles.
Nuclear transformations occur in two stages in this case. First a particle hits a target
nucleus and causes its transformation into another, unstable (radioactive), nucleus. This
newly formed nucleus spontaneously emits a particle and is transformed either into a
stable nucleus or into a new radioactive nucleus. Artificial radioactivity obeys the same
laws as natural radioactivity.
Radioactive processes occur in accordance with the laws of conservation of energy,
momentum, angular conservation, electric charge, and mass number (amount of
nucleons).
In -decay, the mass number of the nucleus decreases by four and the charge decreases by
two units, as a result of which two electrons are removed from the atomic shell. The
element transforms into another element with the atomic number which is two units lower.
In
-
-decay, a neutron in the nucleus transforms into a proton. Such a transformation of the
neutral neutron into the positive proton is accompanied by the birth of an electron, i.e. by
|-radiation. The mass number of the nucleus does not change in this process, while the
charge increases by +e and atomic number increases by one.

5. ATOMIC NUCLEUS
The atomic nucleus consists of two types of elementary particles, viz. Protons and neutrons.
These particles are called nucleons.
The proton (denoted by p) has a charge +e and a mass m
p
~ 1.6726 10
-27
kg, which is
approximately 1840 times larger than the electron mass. The proton is the nucleus of the simplest
atom with Z = 1, viz. the hydrogen atom.
The neutron (denoted by n) is an electrically neutral particle (its charge is zero). The neutron
mass m
n
~ 1.6749 10
-27
kg. The fact that the neutron mass exceeds the proton mass by about 2.5
electron masses is of essential importance. It follows from this that the neutron in free state
(outside the nucleus) is unstable (radioactive). During the time equal on the average to 12 min, the
neutron spontaneously transforms to the proton by emitting an electron (e
-
) and a particle called
the antineutrino ( v
~
). This process can be schematically written as follows:
n p + e
-
+ v
~
.
The most important characteristics of the nucleus are the charge number
Z (coinciding with the atomic number of the element) and the mass number A. The charge
number Z is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus, and hence it determines the nuclear
charge equal to Ze. The mass number A is equal to the number of nucleons in the nucleus (i.e. to
the total number of protons and neutrons).
Nuclei are symbolically designated as
A
Z
X or
Z
X
A
where X stands for the symbol of a chemical element. For example, the nucleus of the oxygen
atom is symbolically written as
18
8
O or
8
O
18
.
Most of the chemical element have several types of atoms differing in the number of neutrons in
their nuclei. These varieties are called isotopes. For example, oxygen has three stable isotopes:
16
8
O ,
17
8
O and
18
8
O . In addition to stable isotopes, there also exist unstable (radioactive) isotopes.
Atomic masses are specified in terms of the atomic mass unit or unified mass unit (u). The mass
of a neutral atom of the carbon isotope
6
C
12
is defined to be exactly 12 u.
1u = 1.66056 10
-27
kg = 931.5 MeV
Example 14
(a) Calculate the value of 1 u from Avogadros number.
(b) Determine the energy equivalent of 1u.
Solution
(a) One mole of C
12
has a mass of 12 g and contains Avogadros number, N
A
, of atoms.
By definition, each C
12
has a mass of 12 u.
Thus, 12 g corresponds to 12 N
A
u which means
1u =
23
10 022045 . 6
1 g 1

=
A
N
or 1u = 1.66056 10
-27
kg

(b) From Einstein relation E = mc

2
E = (1.66056 10
-27
) (3 10
8
)
2
= 1.4924 10
-10
J
Since 1eV = 1.6 10
-19
J
E = 931.5 MeV
Hence 1u = 931.5 MeV
The shape of nucleus is approximately spherical and its radius is approximately related to
the mass number by
R ~ 1.2 A
1/3
fm
where 1 fermi (fm) = 10
-15
m
Example 15
Find the mass density of the oxygen nucleus
8
O
16
.
Solution
Volume V = ( ) A R
3 3
2 . 1
3
4
3
4
= = 1.16 10
-43
m
3
Mass of oxygen atoms (A = 16) is approximately 16 u.
Therefore, density is =
v
m
or =
( )( )
43
27
10 16 . 1
10 66 . 1 16

= 2.3 10
17
kg/m
3
This is 10
14
times the density of water.
Binding Energy
The rest mass of the nucleus is smaller than the sum of the rest masses of nucleons
constituting it. This is due to the fact that when nucleons combine to form a nucleus, the
binding energy of nucleons is liberated. The binding energy is equal to the work that must
be done to split the nucleus into particles constituting it.
The difference between the total mass of the nucleons and the mass of the nucleus is called
the mass defect of the nucleus:
Am = [Zm
p
+ (A Z)m
n
] m
nuc
.
Multiplying the mass defect by the square of the velocity of light, we can find the binding
energy of the nucleus:
BE = Amc
2
= [(Zm
p
+ (A Z)m
n
) m
nuc
]c
2
J (25)
If the masses are taken in atomic mass unit, the binding energy is given by
BE = [Zm
P
+ (A Z)m
n
m
nuc
]931.5 MeV (26)
Dividing the binding energy by the number A of nucleons in the nucleus, we obtain the
binding energy per nucleon. Fig.(13) shows the dependence of the binding energy per
nucleon BE/A on the mass number A of the nucleus. Nucleons in nuclei with mass
numbers from 50 to 60 have the highest binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon
for these nuclei amounts to 8.7 MeV and gradually decreases with increasing A. For the
heaviest natural element uranium it amounts to 7.5 MeV. Figure shows that when a
heavy nucleus (with A ~ 240) splits into two nuclei with A = 120, the released energy is of

the order of 1 MeV per nucleon i.e. 240 MeV per parent nucleus. It should be mentioned
for comparison that when a carbon atom is oxidized (burnt) to CO
2
, the energy of the order
of 5 eV is liberated, which is smaller than the energy released in fission of a uranium
nucleus by a factor of 50 millions.
56
Fe
1
3
5
7
9
80 40
120 160 200
A
Fig.(13) The average binding energy per nucleon as
a function of atomic number A. The
maximum value occurs at Fe
56
.
240
(MeV)
nucleon
BE
238
U
It also follows from Fig(13) that the fusion (synthesis) of light nuclei into one should be
accompanied by the liberation of a huge energy. For example, the fusion of two nuclei of
heavy hydrogen
2
1
H (this nucleus is called a deuteron) into a helium nucleus
4
2
He
would yield an energy equal to 24 MeV.
The forces binding nucleons in a nucleus manifest themselves at distances < 10
-15
m.
In order to bring together two positively charged deuterons to such a distance, their
Coulomb repulsion should be overcome. For this, the deuterons must have a kinetic energy
equivalent to their mean energy of thermal motion at a temperature of the order of 10
9
K.
For this reason, the fusion reaction of nuclei is also called a thermonuclear reaction.
Actually, some thermonuclear reactions may occur at a temperature of the order of 10
7
K.
This is due to the fact that there is always a certain number of nuclei whose energy
considerably exceeds the mean value.
Example 16
Find the binding energy of
6
12
C? Also find the binding energy per nucleon.
Solution
One atom of C
12
6
consists of 6 protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons. The mass of the
uncombined protons and electrons is the same as that of six
1
1
H atoms (if we ignore the
very small binding energy of each proton-electron pair).
Mass of six
1
1
H atoms = 6 1.0078 = 6.0468 u
Mass of six neutrons = 6 1.0087 = 6.0522 u
Total mass of component particles = 12.0990 u
Mass of
6
12
C atom = 12.00004
Mass defect = 0.0990 u
Binding energy = (931)(0.099) = 92 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = MeV 66 . 7
12
92
=

Example 17
A neutron breaks into a proton and electron. Calculate the energy produced in this reaction
in MeV. Mass of an electron = 9 10
-31
kg, Mass of proton = 1.6725 10
-27
kg, Mass of
neutron 1.6747 10
-27
kg. Speed of light = 3 10
8
m/s.
Solution
o
n
1

1
H
1
+
-1
e
o
Mass defect (Am) = [Mass of neutron (mass of proton + mass of electron)]
= [1.6747 10
-27
(1.6725 10
-27
+ 9 10
-31
)]
= 0.0013 10
-27
kg
Energy released Q = Am c
2
Q = (0.0013 10
-27
) (3 10
8
)
2
= 1.17 10
-13
J
=
19
13
10 6 . 1
10 17 . 1

= 0.73 10
6
eV = 0.73 MeV
NUCLEAR REACTION
A nuclear reaction in which a collision between particle a and nucleus X produces Y and particle b
is represented as a + X Y + b
The reaction is sometimes expressed in the shorthand notation X(a, b)Y.
Reactions are subjected to the restrictions imposed by the conservation of charge, energy,
momentum and angular momentum.
Energy of A Reaction
K
1
m
1
Initial
K
2
m
2
a X
K
3
m
3
Final
K
4
m
4
Y b
Initial energy: E
i
= m
1
c
2
+ m
2
c
2
+ K
1
+ K
2
Final energy: E
f
= m
3
c
2
+ m
4
c
2
+ K
3
+ K
4
Since E
i
= E
f
(energy conservation)
[(m
1
+ m
2
) - (m
3
+ m
4
)]c
2
= (K
3
+ K
4
) - (K
1
+ K
2
)
The energy, that is released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction is called the Q - value or
disintegration energy of the reaction.
Q = [(m
1
+ m
2
) - (m
3
+ m
4
)]c
2
J (27 a)
or Q = [(m
1
+ m
2
) - m
3
+ m
4
)] 931.5 u (27 b)
If Q is positive, rest mass energy is converted to kinetic mass energy, radiation mass -
energy or both, and the reaction is exoergic.
If Q is negative, the reaction is endoergic. The minimum amount of energy that a
bombarding particle must have in order to initiate an endoergic reaction, is called
Threshold Energy E
th
.
E
th
= -Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
+1
2
1
m
m
(28)
where m
1
= mass of the projectile
m
2
= mass of the target.

Example 18
Neon - 23 beta decays in the following way :
+ +

e Na Ne
o
1
23
11
23
10
Find the minimum and maximum kinetic energy that the beta particle e
o
1
can have. The
atomic masses of
23
Ne and
23
Na are 22.9945 u and 22.9898 u, respectively.
Solution
Reactant Products
Ne
23
10
22.9945 - 10m
e
Na
23
11
22.9898 - 11 m
e
1
o
e -m
e
Total 22.9945 10 m
e
Total 22.9898 10 m
e
Mass defect = 22.9945 - 22.9898 = 0.0047 u
Q = (0.0047)(931) = 4.4 MeV
The | - particle and neutrino share this energy. Hence the energy of the |-particle can
range from 0 to 4.4 MeV.
Example 19
How much energy must a bombarding proton possess to cause the reaction.
n Be H Li
1
0
7
4
1
1
7
3
+ +
Solution
Since the mass of an atom include the masses of the atomic electrons, the appropriate
number of electron masses must be subtracted from the given values.
Reactants Products
Li
7
3
7.01600 - 3 m
e
Be
7
4
7.01693 - 4m
e
H
1
1
1.0783 - 1 m
e
n
o
1
1.0866

Total 8.02383 - 4m
e
Total 8.02559 - 4m
e
The Q-value of the reaction
Q = -0.00176 u = 1.65 MeV
The energy is supplied as kinetic energy of the bombarding proton. The incident proton
must have more than this energy because the system must possess some kinetic energy
even after the reaction, so that momentum is conserved.
With momentum conservation taken into account, the minimum kinetic energy that the
incident particle can be found with the formula.
E
th
= - ( ) 89 . 1 65 . 1
7
1
1 1 = |
.
|

\
|
+ = |
.
|

\
|
+ Q
M
m
MeV
Example 20
In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 g for U
235
(235.0439 u) in 24 hours by a slow
neutron (1.0087 u). Assume that
35
Kr
92
(91.8973 u) and
56
Ba
141
(140.9139 amu) are
produced in all reactions and no energy is lost.
(a) Write the complete reaction
(b) Calculate the total energy produced in kilowatt hour. Given 1 u = 931 MeV.

Solution
The nuclear fission reaction is
92
U
235
+
o
n
1

56
Ba
141
+
36
Kr
92
+ 3
o
n
1
Mass defect Am = [(m
u
+ m
n
) (m
Ba
+ m
Kr
+ 3m
n
)]
Am = 256.0526 235.8373 = 0.2153 u
Energy released = 0.2153 931 = 200 MeV
Number of atoms in 1 g =
235
10 02 . 6
23

= 2.56 10
21
Energy released in fission of 1 g of U
235
is Q = 200 2.56 10
21
= 5.12 10
23
MeV
= (5.12 10
23
) (1.6 10
-13
) = 8.2 10
10
J
= kWh
10 6 . 3
10 2 . 8
6
10

= 2.28 10
4
kWh
Example 21
It is proposed to use the nuclear fusion reaction:
1
H
2
+
1
H
2
=
2
He
4
in a nuclear reactor of 200 MW rating. If the energy from above reaction is used with a
25% efficiency in the reactor, how many grams of deuterium will be needed per day. (The
masses of
1
H
2
and
2
He
4
are 2.0141 and 4.0026 u respectively).
Solution
Energy released in the nuclear fusion is
Q = Amc
2
= Am(931)MeV
Q = (2 2.0141 4.0026) 931MeV = 23.834 MeV = 23.834 10
6
eV
Since efficiency of reactor is 25%
So effective energy used = 25 / 100 23.834 10
6
1.6 10
-19
J = 9.534 10
-13
J
Since the two deuterium nucleus are involved in a fusion reaction, therefore, energy
released per deuterium is
2
10 534 . 9
13

For 200MW
power per day
number of deuterium nuclei required =
13
6
10
2
534 . 9
86400 10 200

= 3.624 10
25
Since 2g of deuterium constitute 6 10
23
nuclei, therefore amount of deuterium required is
g =
23
25
10 6
10 624 . 3 2

= 120.83 g/day
6. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The emission of electrons from a metallic surface when irradiated by electromagnetic radiation is
called the phenomenon of photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called as photoelectrons.

For the investigation of the photoelectric

effect a schematic diagram of the
apparatus as used by Lenord (1902) is
shown in the fig.(14). Monochromatic
light from the lamp L illuminates a plate
P in an evacuated glass enclosure. A
battery maintains a potential difference
between P and a metal cylinder C, which
collects the photoelectrons. The potential
C can be varied to be either positive or
negative relative to P. When the
collector is positive with respect to the
plate, the electrons are attracted to it and
the ammeter (A) registers a current.
Lenard studied the dependence of
photoelectric current on the following
factors.
`
+
V
A
C
e
P
Fig.(14) Schematic diagram of apparatus used for the
investigation of the photoelectric effect.
L - lamp; P metal plate,
C conducting cylinder
L
(i) Intensity of incident radiation
(ii) Potential difference between the plate and the collector
(iii) Frequency of the incident radiation
The result of observations are as follows:
Effect of the intensity of Incident Radiation
When the collector is positive relative to the plate and
the potential difference is kept fixed, then for a given
frequency of radiation, the photoelectric current is
proportional to the intensity of the light, as shown in
fig.(15). It shows that the number of emitted
photoelectrons is proportional to the light intensity.
Furthermore, there is no threshold intensity.
Intensity (I) Wm
-2
i
(mA)
O
Fig.(15)
Effect of Potential Difference
When the frequency and intensity of radiation are kept constant and the positive potential
of collector relative to plate is gradually increased, then the photoelectric current i
increases with the potential difference V. At some value of the potential difference, when
all the emitted electrons are collected, thus increasing potential difference has no effect on
the current. The current has reached its maximum value, called the saturation current.
When the polarity of the battery is reversed, the electrons are repelled and only the most
energetic ones reach the collector, so the current falls. When the retarding potential
difference reaches a critical value, the current drops to zero. At this stopping potential V
o
,
only those electrons with the maximum kinetic energy are able to reach the collector.
eV
o
=
2
max
2
1
mv (29)

For a given frequency of light, the

saturation current depends on the
intensity of light. Larger the intensity;
higher the saturation current.
However, the stopping potential does
not change with the intensity. It is
clearly shown in fig. (16).
Effect of frequency
For a given intensity of radiation, the
stopping potential depends on the
frequency. Higher the frequency,
higher the value of stopping potential.
i
I
2
I
1
I
2
> I
1
V
O
V
o
Fig.(16) At positive accelerating potential differences,
the maximum current is determined by the
intensity of the radiation. However, the
stopping potential does not change with the
intensity.
The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the light source and the plate
material, but not on the intensity of the source. Certain combinations of light sources and
plate materials exhibit no photoelectric effect.
2
max
2
1
mv
Saturation
Current
V
O
V
o2
Fig.(17) For a given intensity, stopping potential
depends on frequency. If f
2
> f
1
, V
o2
> V
o1
.
V
o1
f
1
f
2
(1)
V
Fig.(18) The maximum kinetic energy is proportional
to the frequency of light.
f
o1
- threshold frequency of metal (1)
f
o2
threshold frequency of metal (2)
f
o1 f
o2
(2)
O
For a metal plate there exists a minimum frequency called threshold frequency (f
o
) below
which no electron is emitted however large the light intensity may be.
The threshold frequency is a characteristic of the metal plate.
Einsteins Theory of Photoelectric Effect
According to Einstein, the experimental results of photoelectric effect can be explained by
applying the quantum theory of light. He assumed that light of frequency f contain packets
or quanta of energy E = hf. On this basis, light consists of particles, and these are called
photons. The number of photons per unit area of cross-section of the beam of light per
second is proportional to its intensity. But the energy of photon is proportional to its
frequency and is independent of the light intensity.

In the process of photo emission a single photon gives up all its energy to a single
electron. As a result, the electron is ejected instantaneously. Since the intensity of light is
determined by the number of photons incident, therefore, increasing the intensity will
increase the number of ejected electrons.
The maximum possible kinetic energy |
.
|

\
|
2
max
mv
2
1
of the photoelectrons is determined by
the energy of each photon (hf) according to the Einstein equation (30)
W hf mv =
2
max
2
1
(30)
where the work function, (W), is the minimum energy needed to extract an electron from
the surface of the material.
In terms of threshold frequency, it is given by
W = hf
o
(31)
Using equation (31), we may write equation (30) as
2
max
mv
2
1
= hf hf
o
= h(f f
o
) (32)
Also, in terms of stopping potential,
eV
o
= h(f f
o
) (33)
Example 22
Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2000 causes photoemission from a surface. The stopping
potential is 2V.
(a) Find the work function in eV
(b) Find the maximum speed of the photoelectrons.
Solution
(a) Using Einstein relation
W =
o
eV
hc

or W = eV 2 . 4 2
2000
12400
=
(b) Since
o
eV mv =
2
max
2
1
v
max
=
( )( )
31
19
10 1 . 9
2 10 6 . 1 2 2

=
m
eV
o

or v
max
= 8.4 10
5
m/s
How to determine the photoelectric current?
Let P be the power of a point source of electromagnetic radiations, then intensity I at
a distance r from the source is given by
I =
2
4 r
P

(W/m
2
) (34)

If A is the area of a metal surface on which radiations

are incident, then the power received by the plate is
P' = IA = |
.
|

\
|
2
4 r
P

A (W) (35)
If f is the frequency of radiation, then the energy of
photon is given by
E = hf
Area (A)
r
Fig. 19
The number of photons incident on the plate per second (called photon flux) is given by
u =
(
(
(
(

=
hf
A
r
P
E
P
2
4
'

(36)
If f > f
o
(threshold frequency) and photon efficiency of the metal plate is q%, then the
number of photoelectrons emitted per second is given by
n =
100
4
100
2

(
(
(
(

=
u
hf
A
r
P
(37)
Finally, the photocurrent i is given by
i = ne (38)
where e is the charge of an electron (e = 1.6 10
-19
J)
Example 23
The intensity of sunlight on the surface of earth is 1400 W/m
2.
Assuming the mean
wavelength of sunlight to be 6000, calculate
(a) the photon flux arriving at 1 m
2
area on earth perpendicular to light radiations, and
(b) the number of photons emitted from the sun per second assuming the average radius of
Earths orbit is 1.49 10
11
m.
Solution
(a) Energy of a photon E =
19
0 3 . 3 eV 06 . 2
6000
12400

= = =

hc
J
Photon flux =
( )( )
19
10 3 . 3
1 1400
E
IA

= = 4.22 10
21
(b) n =
( )
E
R I
E
P
2
4
=
or n =
( )( )( )
19
2
11
10 3 . 3
10 49 . 1 4 1400

t
= 1.18 10
45

Objective Solved Examples

1. The intensity of X-rays from a Coolidge tube is
plotted against wavelength as shown in the figure.
The minimum wavelength found is
C
and the
wavelength of the K
o
line is
K
. As the accelerating
voltage is increased
(a)
K
-
C
increases
(b)
K
-
C
decreases
(c)
K
increases
(d)
K
increases
I

C

K

Solution
As the accelerating voltage is increased,
C
decreases while
K
remains the same.
(a)
2. The half-life of
215
At is 100 s. The time taken for the radioactivity of a sample of
215
At to
decay to 1/16
th
of its initial value is
(a) 400 s (b) 6.3 s
(c) 40 s (d) 300 s
Solution
For the decay of 1/16
th
of initial value, four half lives are required.
(a)
3. Which of the following processes represents a gamma-decay?
(a) b a X X
Z
A
Z
A
+ + +
1
(b) c X n X
Z
A
o Z
A
+ +

2
3 1
(c) f X X
Z
A
Z
A
+ (d) g X e X
Z
A
Z
A
+ +
1 1
Solution
In gamma-decay, the atomic and mass number do not change.
(c)
4. The attractive potential for an atom is given by
o
o
r
r
V V ln = ,
o
V and
o
r are constants and
r is the radius of orbit. The radius
n
r of the nth Bohr's orbit depends on principal quantum
number n as
(a)
n
r n (b)
n
r
2
1
n
(c)
n
r
2
n (d)
n
r
n
1
Solution
o
e o
r
r
V V log =
r
V
dr
dV
F
o

= =

r
V
r
mV
o
=
2
o
V mv =
2
t
=
2
nh
mvr
o
V
h n
mV
r V m
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
4 / t
=
2
r
2
n
r n
(a)
5. Volume V of a nucleus is related to the mass M as
(a) V M
3
(b) V
3
M
(c) V M (d) V
M
1
Solution
Radius of nucleus is given by
o
r A r
3 / 1
=
volume =
3
3
4
r t v A M
(c)
6. The ratio of radius of
100
Fm
257
atom (assuming Bohr's model to be valid) to the Bohr
radius is
(a) 257 (b) 100
(c)
4
1
(d) 4
Solution
Since the outermost orbit number is 5 and
n
r =
Z
n
2
H
r =
H
r
4
1
(c)
7. A stationary nucleus (mass number 220) decays by emitting an o-particle. The total
energy released is 5.5 MeV. The kinetic energy carried by the o-particle is
(a) 5.4 MeV (b) 5.6 MeV
(c) 4.9 MeV (d) 6.5 MeV
Solution
Applying law of conservation of linear momentum and using the energy released, velocity
of o-particle and daughter nucleus can be calculated.
Therefore, kinetic energy of o particle
=
220
4 220
5.5 MeV = 5.4 MeV.
(a)

8. After 280 days, the activity of a radioactive sample is 6000 dps. The activity reduces to
3000 dps after another 140 days. The initial activity of the sample in dps is
(a) 6000 (b) 9000
(c) 3000 (d) 24000
Solution
The half-life of the substance is 140 days. In 420 days, there will be three half-lives.
(d)
9. The energy of a photon is equal to the kinetic energy of a proton. The energy of the photon
is E. Let
1
be the de-Broglie wavelength of the proton and
2
be the wavelength of the
photon. The ratio
1
/
2
is proportional to
(a) E
o
(b) E
1/2
(c) E
-1
(d) E
-2
Solution

1
=
mE
h
2
and
E
hc
=
2
(b)
10. The figure shows the variation of
photocurrent with anode potential for a
photo-sensitive surface for three different
radiations. Let I
a
, I
b
and I
c
be the intensities
and f
a
, f
b
and f
c
be the frequencies for the
curves a, b and c respectively.
(a) f
a
= f
b
and I
a
= I
b
(b) f
a
= f
c
and I
a
= I
c
(c) f
a
= f
b
and I
a
= I
b
(d) f
b
= f
c
and I
b
= I
c

Photo current
O
a
b
c
Anode potential
Solution
The stopping potential for curves a and b is same.
f
a
= f
b
Also saturation current is proportional to intensity.
I
a
< I
b
(a)
11. A photon collides with a stationary hydrogen atom in ground state inelastically. Energy of
the colliding photon is 10.2 eV. After a time interval of the order of micro second another
photon collides with same hydrogen atom inelastically with an energy of 15 eV. What will
be observed by the detector?
(a) 2 photon of energy 10.2 eV
(b) 2 photon of energy of 1.4 eV
(c) One photon of energy 10.2 eV and an electron of energy 1.4 eV
(d) One photon of energy 10.2 eV and another photon of 1.4 eV

Solution
Due to 10.2 eV photon one photon of energy 10.2 eV will be detected.
Due to 15 eV photon the electron will come out of the atom with energy
(15 - 13.6) = 1.4 eV.
(c)
12. K
o
wavelength emitted by an atom is given by an atom of atomic number Z = 11 is .
Find the atomic number for an atom that emits K
o
radiation with wavelength 4.
(a) Z = 6 (b) Z = 4
(c) Z = 11 (d) Z = 44
Solution
( ) 1 11
1
1
=

= a
v
f
( ) 1
2
2
=

= Z a
v
f
By dividing,
1
10
1
2

1
10
4
1

=
Z
Z = 6
(a)
13. If a star can convert all the He nuclei completely into oxygen nuclei. The energy released
per oxygen nuclei is
[Mass of He nucleus is 4.0026 amu and mass of Oxygen nucleus is 15.9994 amu]
(a) 7.6 MeV (b) 56.12 MeV
(c) 10.24 MeV (d) 23.9 MeV
Solution
Mass defect = 4 4.0026 - 15.9994 = 0.011
Energy released by oxygen nuclei = 0.011 931 = 10.24 MeV
(c)