Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
'
N o t i o n s o f w i t c h c r a f t have h a u n t e d and fascinated the h u m a n m i n d fi h e i g h t o f w i t c h c r a f t persecutions in s i x t e e n t h - a n d s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n 5 0 , 0 0 0 people were executed, they were accused o f acts i n c l u d i n g m black m a g i c and devil worshipping :ction ters a selection o f the best historical writ :gan, a n d the social and cultural c o f historical perspectives is collect recent research o n the r in w i t c h trials, ideas a b o u t the
possession, a n d reasons for the decline o f w i t c h trials. T h e m a j o r t h e m e s and debates in the study o f w i t c h c r a f t are b r o general i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h places the extracts in a critical c o n t e x t , wide range o f i m p o r t a n t w o r k in a single, accessible v o l u m e , The essential reading for a n y o n e intrigued by this c o m p l e x a n d fascinatin The Witchcraft Casement, Reader includes the w o r k o f W o l f g a n g Behringer, R o Clark, Norman Cohn, Owen Davies, Malcol Lou
Stuart
is L e c t u r e r
liversity C o l l e g e Worcester.
11 N e w Fetter Lane, L o n d o n E C 4 P 4 E E 2 9 West 35th Street, N e w York N Y 10001 www, routledge .com Printed in Great Britain
' * Franc'
ISBN
0-415-21493-9
9 '780415
214933
Darren Oldridge
NEWCASTLE 202
UNIVERSITY 0214 3 8 Vv 6 0 .
LIBRARY
>vy,
First published 2 0 0 2 bv R o u t l e d g e 11 N e w F e t t e r Lane, London E C 4 P 4 E E Simultaneously published in the U S A and Canada by Routledge 2 9 W e s t 35th S t r e e t , N e w Y o r k , N Y 1 0 0 0 1 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor S^Francis Group
Individual chapters the original copyright holders Selection and editorial m a t t e r 2 0 0 2 D a r r e n Oldridge T y p e s e t in Perpetua and Bell Gothic by F l o r e n c e Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, D e v o n Printed and bound in Great Britain bv T J International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. N o part of this b o o k mav be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in anv form or bv anv e l e c t r o n i c , mechanical, o r o t h e r means, n o w k n o w n or hereafter invented, including photocopying and r e c o r d i n g , o r in anv information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue r e c o r d for this b o o k is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging p. c m . Includes bibliographical r e f e r e n c e s and i n d e x . 1. W i t c h c r a f t History. B F 1 5 6 6 . W 7 3 9 5 2001 1 3 3 . 4 ' 3 ' 0 9 dc21 ISBN 0 - 4 1 5 - 2 1 4 9 2 - 0 (hbk) ISBN 0 - 4 1 5 - 2 1 4 9 3 - 9 (pbk) 2001048166 I. Oldridge D a r r e n , 1966in Publication Data
Contents
Acknowledgements
General I n t r o d u c t i o n
Darren Oldridge
Richard WITCH
TRIALS
Norman THE
Cohn HERETICS
D E M 0 N I Z A T I O N OF M E D I A E V A L
EXPERIENCE
Wolfgang WEATHER,
WITCH-HUNTS
IN C L I M A T E ,
SOCIETY
AND
MENTALITY
E. THE
William
Monter OF J U R A WITCHCRAFT
SOCIOLOGY
viii
CONTENTS
David
16
Brian
WITCHCRAFT IN SOUTHERN
PART
THREE
HEARTLAND
DEVIL
Carlo
18
H.C. THE
Erik DEVIL
DECIPHERING
Eva THE
19
Moshe A
DIVINE
10
Robert SATANIC
PART
SEVEN
W i t c h c r a f t and Gender
11 Stuart Clark MISRULE AND THE MEANING OF WITCHCRAFT 20 Christina WAS Larner WOMAN-HUNTING? INVERSION,
WITCH-HUNTING
21
Marianne
PATRIARCHAL
22
Jim
Sharpe PROCESS
PROTESTANT
13
Edmund
23
Clive
WOMEN:
CENTURY:
JAKOB
PART
14 Gary K. Waite THE DEVIL AND THE INQUISITOR: AND MAGICAL ANABAPTISTS, BELIEFS 24 BETWEEN
EIGHT
Reading Confessions
Lyndal OEDIPUS Roper AND THE DEVIL
DIABOLICAL
CONSPIRACIES
PART
FIVE
25
Malcolm
OF M A R G A R E T
MOORE
CONTENTS
26
Louise
AND
Jackson
WIVES AND MOTHERS: IN WITCHCRAFT PERSECUTION CONFESSIONS S E V E NT E E NT H-C E NT U R Y 353
WITCHES,
WOMEN'S
ENGLAND
367
Acknowledgements
Levack
OF WITCH TRIALS 373
END
28
Gabor
THE
Klaniczay
OF WITCHES AND THE RISE OF VAMPIRES 387
DECLINE
29
Owen
Davies
AND OF THE DECLINE OF WITCHCRAFT: 399
URBANIZATION AN
EXAMINATION
LONDON
T h e author and publishers wish t o thank the following for their permission to r e p r o duce copyright material: ' W i t c h T r i a l s in M e d i a e v a l E u r o p e ' f r o m European Witch Trials: Their Foundations in of
413
Maier-Katkin
MAKING OF A MYTH 419
Popular
and Learned
Culture
13001500
right N o r m a n C o h n 1 9 7 S , 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 5 1 7 8 , published by P i m l i c o and r e p r i n t e d bv p e r m i s s i o n o f T h e R a n d o m H o u s e G r o u p Ltd and P F D o n b e h a l f o f P r o f e s s o r Norman Cohn; 'The Experience of Bewitchment' from (HarperCollins 1996), pp. 6395, History, Witches and by Neighbours permission by of Robin Briggs reproduced
31
Patrick
THE
Casement
NOT TO KNOW 433
WISH
H a r p e r C o l l i n s Publishers L t d , Felicity Bryan and t h e a u t h o r ; ' W e a t h e r , H u n g e r and F e a r ' b y W o l f g a n g B e h r i n g e r f r o m German 1 3 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 127, b y p e r during the Reformation by E. and mission of T h e G e r m a n History Society; 'The Sociology of Jura Witchcraft' reprinted f r o m Witchcraft mission of the in France and Switzerland: Cornell The Borderlands Press; Bishop William M o n t e r (copyright publisher 1 9 7 6 C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y ) , p p . 1154-1, u s e d b y p e r University 'Witchcraft to Witch Narratives of the by David Gentilcore author; 31 the Today,
Index
437
F o l k l o r e M o t i f s in S o u t h e r n I t a l y ' f r o m From (Manchester University Press 'Heartland o f the W i t c h c r a z e ' (February 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. by H. C.
1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 238
E r i k M i d e l f o r t f r o m History
2736, by permission
'Deciphering Witchcraft,
edited
( O x f o r d University Press
1 9 9 3 ) , pp.
1 2 1 3 5 , o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 8 7 b y I n s t i t u t e t f o r R a t t s h i s t o r i s k F o r s k n i n g u n d e r by p e r m i s s i o n o f O x f o r d University Press and the Institutet for Rattshistorisk Forskning; ' T h e Alternative W o r l d of the W i t c h e s ' S a b b a t ' f r o m Between the Living and the Dead b y E v a P o c s ( 1 9 9 9 ) , p p . 7 3 1 0 5 , b y p e r University Press; Modern 'Satanic M y t h s and European Witchcraft, Cultural edited by mission o f the Central European
R e a l i t i e s ' b v R o b e r t M u c h e m b l e d f r o m Early
Xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xiii
o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 8 7 b y I n s t i t u t e t f o r R a t t s h i s t o r i s k F o r s k n i n g u n d e r t h e t i t l e Hdxomas Institutet Europa 14001700, by permission Forskning; of Oxford University Press and the of for Rattshistorisk 'Inversion, Misrule and the Meaning
History;
M a k i n g o f a M y t h ' b y P h i l i p J e n k i n s a n d D a n i e l M a i e r - K a t k i n f r o m The
G r u y t e r 1 9 9 1 ) , ch. 8 , r e p r o d u c e d by permission o f Aldine D e G r u y t e r , N e w Y o r k ; 'The W i s h N o t to K n o w ' by Patrick Casement from Abuse, of Tavlor & Francis. E v e r y effort has b e e n m a d e t o obtain p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e c o p y r i g h t m a t e r i a l . I f a n y p r o p e r a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t has n o t b e e n m a d e , w e w o u l d i n v i t e h o l d e r s t o i n f o r m us o f t h e o v e r s i g h t . copyright edited by Valerie Sinason ( R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. 2, p p . 2 2 - 5 , by permission
mission o f O x l o r d University Press; 'Protestant Witchcraft, Catholic W i t c h c r a f t ' , S t u a r t C l a r k 1 9 9 7 , r e p r i n t e d f r o m Thinking Modern Europe in Early by Stuart Clark ( 1 9 9 7 ) by permission o f O x f o r d Century' Century Journal, 2 5 ( 2 ) ( 1 9 9 4 ) , pp. 32340, copyRadical
right 1 9 9 4 by T h e Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, I n c . , reproduced by per' B e t w e e n the Devil and the Inquisitor' by Gary K. W a i t e f r o m Studies, edited by W e r n e r O . Packull and Geoffrey L. Dipple (Ashgate Witchcraft by and Religion permission by Christina of Blackwell edited by
1 9 9 9 ) , c h . 8 , p p . 1 2 0 4 0 ; ' T h e C r i m e o f W i t c h c r a f t in E a r l y M o d e r n E u r o p e ' a n d 'Was Witch-Hunting Woman-Hunting?' from Larner (Blackwell 1984), pp. 3567 and 7991 Studies
P u b l i s h e r s L t d ; ' S t a t e - B u i l d i n g a n d W i t c h H u n t i n g in E a r l y M o d e r n E u r o p e ' b y B r i a n L e v a c k f r o m Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe: in Culture and Belief, Jonathan B a r r y , M a r i a n n e H e s t e r and G a r e t h R o b e r t s ( C a m b r i d g e University Press 1 9 9 6 ) by permission o f C a m b r i d g e University Press and Brian Levack; ' T h e Devil in R e n a i s s a n c e F r a n c e ' b y D a v i d N i c h o l l s f r o m History p p . 2 5 3 0 , b y p e r m i s s i o n o f History H . C . E r i k M i d e l f o r t f r o m Religion 11 o f Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies, Today; and Culture Today, 30 (November 1980), and Reformation, vol. ' T h e Devil and the G e r m a n P e o p l e ' by in the Renaissance
Journal Publishers 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 9 9 1 1 9 , by permission o f T r u m a n State Sixteenth Century Journal, 2 7 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 9 6 ) , pp. 1 0 3 9 - 5 5 , ' c o p y r i g h t
Press; 'A Divine Apparition o r D e m o n i c Possession?' bv M o s h e Sluhovsky f r o m Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, Inc., reproduced by permission; R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and W i t c h - H u n t i n g ' by Marianne H e s t e r f r o m Modern Europe: Studies in Culture and Belief,
1 9 9 6 by T h e 'Patriarchal in Early
Witchcraft
and G a r e t h R o b e r t s ( C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 2 8 8 3 0 8 , by p e r m i s sion o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s a n d M a r i a n n e H e s t e r ; ' W o m e n , W i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e L e g a l P r o c e s s ' b y J i m S h a r p e f r o m Women, Crime and the Courts, edited by J e n n y and K e r m o d e and Garthine W a l k e r ( U C L Press 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 1 0 6 2 4 , by permission o f T a y l o r & F r a n c i s ; ' W o m e n : W i t c h e s a n d W i t n e s s e s ' b y C l i v e H o l m e s f r o m Past Present, a n d t h e D e v i l ' f r o m Oedipus and the Devil 1 4 0 ( 1 9 9 3 ) , pp. 4578, by permission o f O x f o r d University Press; 'Oedipus by Lyndal R o p e r ( R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. Crime and the Courts, edited by Women's
1 0 , p p . 2 2 6 4 8 , b y p e r m i s s i o n o f T a y l o r & F r a n c i s ; ' W i t c h c r a f t a n d P o w e r in E a r l v M o d e r n E n g l a n d ' b y M a l c o l m G a s k i l l f r o m Women, J e n n y K e r m o d e and Garthine W a l k e r ( U C L Press 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. 6 , by permission o f Taylor & Francis; ' W i t c h e s , W i v e s and M o t h e r s ' by Louise Jackson f r o m History Review, 4 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 9 5 ) , by permission o f Louise Jackson; Europe T r i a l s ' b y B r i a n L e v a c k f r o m The Witch Hunt in Early Modern ' T h e End of W i t c h (2nd edition copySupernatural of
right Longman G r o u p Ltd 1 9 9 5 ) , reprinted by permission o f Pearson Education L t d ; ' T h e D e c l i n e o f W i t c h e s a n d t h e R i s e o f V a m p i r e s ' f r o m The Uses of by permission of Princeton University Press; of Social 'Urbanization History, Power b y G a b o r K l a n i c z a y ( c o p y r i g h t 1 9 9 0 P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) , r e p r i n t e d and the Decline W i t c h c r a f t ' b y O w e n D a v i e s f r o m Journal 30 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp. 597617,
General Introduction
OST
P E O P L E
I N T E R E S T E D
s u b j e c t by s t o r i e s a n d i m a g e s f r o m p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . W i t c h e s e n j o y a Witch Project;
a n d t h e y a r e t h e s u b j e c t of a n e c l e c t i c If y o u v i s i t t h e ' M i n d ,
S p i r i t ' d e p a r t m e n t of a n y l a r g e b o o k s h o p , y o u w i l l n o r m a l l y find a d i s p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n of p u b l i c a t i o n s under the heading of ' W i t c h c r a f t ' . The texts displayed c o v e r a r a n g e of t o p i c s l o o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e h i s t o r y a n d p r a c t i c e of m a g i c , i n c l u d i n g w o r k s by t h e n e o - p a g a n m o v e m e n t , a c a d e m i c t e x t s , m o d e r n e d i t i o n s of m u c h o l d e r books like the Malleus Maleficarum, and reprints of e c c e n t r i c but still popular reflects on p u b l i c a t i o n s l i k e M o n t a g u e S u m m e r s ' History of Witchcraft. This mixture
t h e e x t r e m e l y d i v e r s e r a n g e of i n t e r e s t s t h a t c o n v e r g e on t h e s u b j e c t , a n d i n d i c a t e s its f a s c i n a t i o n f o r a w i d e a u d i e n c e . It is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t , p e r h a p s , t h a t b o o k s t h e s u b j e c t a r e c o m m o n l y d i s p l a y e d in a s e c t i o n of t h e i r o w n . R a t h e r l i k e J a c k t h e Ripper, the Kennedy a s s a s s i n a t i o n and the search f o r the H o l y G r a i l , the t o p i c has e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a s a g e n r e in its o w n r i g h t , c o m b i n i n g e l e m e n t s of h i s t o r y , m y t h , and religious speculation. T h e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t in w i t c h c r a f t is n o t h i n g n e w . A t t h e t i m e of t h e m o s t intense w i t c h tises on the persecutions problem of in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e r e satanic magic to ballads recounting the activities was of that a l r e a d y a large m a r k e t f o r p u b l i c a t i o n s on the subject, r a n g i n g f r o m learned t r e a individuals entirely a c c u s e d of t h e c r i m e . In s o m e
1
i n s t a n c e s , d e m a n d w a s so g r e a t
fictitious
P o p u l a r t a l e s of w i t c h c r a f t c o n t i n u e d t o magical
c i r c u l a t e in t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , w h i l e a c a d e m i c w o r k s on t h e subject generally assumed a more sceptical tone. These texts attributed b e l i e f s t o t h e f o l l y a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n of t h e ' v u l g a r ' m a s s e s , a n d v i e w e d t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of w i t c h e s a s a t o k e n of a less e n l i g h t e n e d a g e . B y t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a m o r e r o m a n t i c v i e w of t h e s u b j e c t h a d e m e r g e d in s o m e q u a r ters. Championed by t h e English Egyptologist Margaret Murray, the idea that w i t c h c r a f t w a s a n a n c i e n t f e r t i l i t y c u l t s u p p r e s s e d by t h e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h a t t r a c t e d considerable publicity and some academic support.
2
Gardner,
it is a l t o g e t h e r less s i m p l e t o d i s c o u n t t h e i d e a t h a t n o n - C h r i s t i a n
reli-
g i o u s p r a c t i c e s e x i s t e d in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , a n d w e r e s o m e t i m e s in m o d i f i e d f o r m in t h e w o r k of h i s t o r i a n s like C a r l o
' w i t c h - h u n t i n g ' w a s c o i n e d in A m e r i c a , w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of d e v i a n t g r o u p s by p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s . T h i s v i e w w a s e x e m p l i f i e d in A r t h u r M i l l e r ' s play The Crucible, w h i c h w a s b a s e d l o o s e l y on t h e S a l e m w i t c h t r i a l s of have survived into the present age, 1 6 9 2 . A l l t h e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t d r a w n to the t o p i c .
o b s e s s i o n s on t h e v i c t i m s of t o r t u r e r a i s e s p r o f o u n d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s of w i t c h t r i a l s . W h i l e t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o s e c u t i o n s w e r e n o r m a l l y s i n c e r e in t h e i r m o t i v e s , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e y s o m e t i m e s i m p o s e d t h e i r o w n v i e w s of t h e c r i m e t h e c o u r s e of i n t e r r o g a t i o n s . S o m e c o n f e s s i o n s w e r e e n t i r e l y f a l s e . In 1 6 2 8 in the
a n d a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e v a r i o u s b o o k s t h a t c o m p e t e f o r t h e a t t e n t i o n of r e a d e r s
In t h i s
i n s t a n c e , t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o use t o r t u r e w a s s u f f i c i e n t t o e n s u r e a c o n v i c t i o n , w h a t e v e r t h e o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e c a s e . T h e f a c t t h a t t h i s w a s p o s s i b l e p r e s e n t s h i s t o r i a n s w i t h s o m e a w k w a r d p r o b l e m s . Is it n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u m e t h a t a n y t h i n g ' r e a l ' lay b e h i n d a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t ? on popular support, since the authorities were capable t h r o u g h t h e use of t o r t u r e alone? finders c a n be v i e w e d a s Did witch trials of securing depend convictions
C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s c l a i m f e a t u r e s m o s t o f t e n in t h e w o r k of n e o - p a g a n s a n d s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d ' w i t c h e s ' , w h o w i s h t o t r a c e t h e l i n e a g e of t h e i r b e l i e f s b a c k t o t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . T h i s a s p i r a t i o n is s u m m e d up n e a t l y in t h e t i t l e of a b o o k by V i v i a n n e C r o w l e y , Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age (1989).
3
T h e p o p u l a r s t e r e o t y p e s of p a g a n c u l t s a n d e v i l w i t c h t h e best w a y t o e x p l a i n a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t
s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n s of p o s i t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o a c a d e m i c h i s t o r i a n s . F o r m a n y s c h o l a r s , is t o a s s u m e t h a t s o m e of t h e p r a c t i c e s d e s c r i b e d by e a r l y m o d e r n d e m o n o l o g i s t s w e r e b a s e d o n r e a l a c t i v i t i e s o r a s p e c t s of f o l k r e l i g i o n . T h i s p r i n c i p l e is o f t e n used t o a c c o u n t f o r a l l e g a t i o n s of h a r m f u l m a g i c , b u t c a n be e x t e n d e d t o e x p l a i n d e t a i l s of t h e w i t c h e s ' s a b b a t . T h u s C a r l o G i n z b u r g a n d E v a P o c s a r g u e in t h i s b o o k t h a t t h e o r i g i n s of t h e s a b b a t c a n be f o u n d in f o l k b e l i e f s . On t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , s o m e h i s t o r i a n s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t all t h e e l e m e n t s in w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s l e a r n e d f a n t a s i e s . T h e r e is no r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t a n y c h a r g e s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s w e r e b a s e d o n f o l k t r a d i t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o M . J . K e p h a r t , ' w h e n w e a l r e a d y k n o w t h a t it w a s p e r f e c t l y easy t o f a b r i c a t e a c c u s a t i o n s of s o r c e r y , h e r e s y a n d s u n d r y d i s g u s t i n g None of the writers in t h i s collection go quite so f a r , but the behaviours
7
male-dominated in
A n o t h e r t h e m e in p o p u l a r a c c o u n t s is t h e c r e d u l i t y a n d ' s u p e r -
s t i t i o n ' of t h o s e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o a c c e p t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of h a r m f u l m a g i c
t h e p a s t , a n d r e a c t e d ' h y s t e r i c a l l y ' t o t h e n o n - e x i s t e n t t h r e a t of a w i t c h c u l t . T h i s n o t i o n is l i n k e d t o t h e t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e t h a t m o s t w i t c h t r i a l s t o o k p l a c e in t h e Middle Ages, when western society was somehow less r a t i o n a l t h a n it is t o d a y . Middle T h e s e i d e a s a r e c o m b i n e d in t h e c o m m o n E n g l i s h p h r a s e , ' I f I'd l i v e d in t h e
A g e s t h e y ' d h a v e b u r n t m e a s a w i t c h ' . A t h i r d c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n is t h e b e l i e f t h a t w i t c h - h u n t s w e r e p u r s u e d by r u t h l e s s a n d s a d i s t i c m e n w h o s t o p p e d a t n o t h i n g t o s e c u r e c o n v i c t i o n s f o r t h e c r i m e . In t h i s v e r s i o n , a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t inevitably to torture, enforced confession and death. It w o u l d be t e m p t i n g a t t h i s p o i n t t o e x p l o d e t h e s e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n s . The led
from in
w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s . T h e m a j o r i t y of h i s t o r i a n s o c c u p y g r o u n d s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y t r y t o s t r i k e a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t w i t c h t r i a l s r e f l e c t e d t h e r e a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d b e l i e f s of o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p r o s e c u t i o n s w e r e s i m p l y i m p o s e d by e l i t e g r o u p s . T h e a t t e m p t t o l y i n g t h e m e s of w i t c h c r a f t research, and recurs in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s find t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s is one of t h e u n d e r throughout t h i s b o o k . T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n w i l l e x p l o r e s o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in g e t t i n g t h e b a l a n c e r i g h t . It w i l l a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e p o p u l a r i m a g e of w i t c h c r a f t a s a n ' i r r a t i o n a l ' b e l i e f , w h i c h h a s a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of h i s t o r i a n s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s p r o v i d e a b r i e f s u r v e y of w h a t is k n o w n a b o u t w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s in Europe. in r e c e n t y e a r s . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e issues in d e t a i l , h o w e v e r , it is n e c e s s a r y t o
England named
Gerard
Nonetheless,
it w o u l d
be w r o n g t o d i s m i s s t h e s e p o p u l a r
assumptions
e n t i r e l y . D e s p i t e t h e i r o b v i o u s s h o r t c o m i n g s , t h e y d o e n c a p s u l a t e s o m e s e r i o u s issues in t h e h i s t o r y of w i t c h c r a f t . W h i l e it is e a s y t o d i s c r e d i t t h e c l a i m s o f M u r r a y a n d
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
Poland England
a n d H u n g a r y in t h e s a m e p e r i o d . T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s h a v e t h w a r t e d m o s t a t t e m p t s t o E u r o p e a n w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s is n o w f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n p r o s e c u t i o n o c c u r r e d in K i l k e n n y in I r e l a n d in 1 3 2 4 , w h e n a n a r i s t o c r a t i c K y t e l e r , w a s a c c u s e d of p r a c t i s i n g h a r m f u l magic and participating in Alice diabolical idea idea a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u f f e r e d r e l a t i v e l y f e w p e r s e c u t i o n s , b u t t h e s a m e c a n be s a i d f o r C a t h o l i c I t a l y a n d S p a i n . E q u a l l y , t h e f e r o c i t y of s o m e w i t c h p a n i c s in C a t h o l i c France was matched of by events but in Presbyterian witch Scotland. Intense place persecutions in relatively o c c u r r e d in r e g i o n s s u f f e r i n g s u s t a i n e d w a r f a r e in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , l i k e t h e principalities Germany; major panics also took peaceful regions like As well as these Scandinavia. regional variations, there were differences between social
g r o u p s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g of w i t c h c r a f t i t s e l f . A l l t h o s e w h o a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s a c c e p t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m h a r m f u l m a g i c , o r maleficium, m o s t o f t e n i n v o l v i n g d i s e a s e , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of c r o p s o r d i s t u r b a n c e s in t h e w e a t h e r . A l l e g a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d m a d e up t h e b u l k o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n s l e v e l l e d by o r d i n a r y people against suspected witches. The emphasis in t h e s e allegations was over-
T h e y s a c r i f i c e t o d e m o n s , a d o r e t h e m , seek o u t a n d a c c e p t r e s p o n s e s f r o m t h e m , do h o m a g e to t h e m , and m a k e w i t h t h e m a w r i t t e n a g r e e m e n t or a n o t h e r k i n d of p a c t t h r o u g h w h i c h , by a s i n g l e w o r d , t o u c h o r s i g n , t h e y m a y p e r f o r m w h a t e v e r e v i l d e e d s o r s o r c e r y t h e y w i s h a n d be t r a n s p o r t e d to or away f r o m wherever they wish . . . In t h e i r s o r c e r y t h e y a r e n o t a f r a i d t o use t h e m a t e r i a l s o f b a p t i s m , t h e e u c h a r i s t , a n d o t h e r s a c r a m e n t s . T h e y m a k e i m a g e s of w a x o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s , w h i c h by t h e i r i n v o c a t i o n s t h e y b a p t i s e o r c a u s e t o be b a p t i s e d . S o m e t i m e s t h e y m a k e a r e v e r s a l of t h e h o l y c r o s s , u p o n w h i c h o u r s a v i o u r h a n g e d f o r us. Not h o n o u r i n g the mysteries, they s o m e t i m e s inflict upon the representations a n d o t h e r s i g n s of t h e c r o s s v a r i o u s s h a m e f u l t h i n g s by e x e c r a b l e m e a n s .
8
w h e l m i n g l y o n t h e h a r m c a u s e d by t h e w i t c h , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n s of t h e i r p o w e r . In c o n t r a s t , u n i v e r s i t y - t r a i n e d l a w y e r s a n d c h u r c h m e n t e n d e d t o s t r e s s t h e s a t a n i c n a t u r e of t h e w i t c h ' s m a g i c , a n d i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e i r a b i l i t i e s d e r i v e d f r o m a p a c t w i t h t h e D e v i l . T h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t f o l k t r a d i t i o n s l i n k e d maleficium the Devil, p a r t i c u l a r l y in E n g l i s h w i t c h c r a f t a n d c a s e s i n v o l v i n g d e m o n i c s i o n ; b u t e v e n in t h e s e c a s e s , t h e v i c t i m s o f w i t c h c r a f t w e r e f a r m o r e w i t h t h e e f f e c t s of maleficium P r i m a r y a l l e g a t i o n s also tended to focus on individuals with posses-
idea that witchcraft was a collective enterprise involving nocturnal gatherings for Devil w o r s h i p , desecration and m u r d e r w a s generally confined to the higher of E u r o p e a n s o c i e t y . T h i s i d e a p l a y e d a c e n t r a l r o l e in t h e w o r k s of l e a r n e d d e m o -
This account
lacks the
i d e a of i n f a n t i c i d e a n d c a n n i b a l i s m t h a t f e a t u r e d
promi-
nologists like H e n r i Boguet, J e a n B o d i n a n d K i n g J a m e s V I of S c o t l a n d , but w a s mostly absent f r o m the a l l e g a t i o n s brought by European villagers against their n e i g h b o u r s . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a t r i a l , h o w e v e r , it w a s e a s y f o r t h e s e e s t e d in t h e s a t a n i c a s p e c t s of w i t c h c r a f t t h a n s i m p l e maleficium. disparate
sixteenth century.
w a v e of t r i a l s began, this t i m e e x t e n d i n g beyond G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e to S w i t z e r l a n d a n d E n g l a n d . A n o t h e r o u t b r e a k o c c u r r e d t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e c e n t u r y , e x t e n d i n g t o F l a n d e r s a n d S c o t l a n d . A f t e r a p e r i o d of r e s p i t e in t h e e a r l y 1 6 0 0 s , a f i n a l w a v e of s e v e r e p e r s e c u t i o n s b e g a n a r o u n d 1 6 2 0 a n d c o n t i n u e d in m u c h of E u r o p e n u m b e r a n d i n t e n s i t y . In 1 6 9 2 t h e f a m o u s e p i s o d e in S a l e m , one of t h e l a s t w i t c h p a n i c s in t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d . It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e r e w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s p a t t e r n . T h e r e w e r e r e l a t i v e l y f e w t r i a l s in I t a l y , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a n d t h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e period, and E n g l i s h t r i a l s t e n d e d t o be s m a l l - s c a l e u n t i l a s p e c t a c u l a r e r u p t i o n of p e r s e c u t i o n in 1 6 4 5 . In c o n t r a s t , G e r m a n y Spain affairs suffered until in the last q u a r t e r of the seventeenth century. Subsequently, w i t c h t r i a l s declined
The confession
of Frangoise
Secretain
ideas, and the p r o b l e m it p r e s e n t s f o r t h e inter-
T h e c o n f l a t i o n of t h e s e v a r i o u s
Maillat.
S e c o n d , t h a t she h a d l o n g s i n c e g i v e n h e r s e l f t o t h e D e v i l , w h o a t
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
in
into
the that
t h e f o r m s o m e t i m e s o f a d o g , s o m e t i m e s of a c a t , a n d s o m e t i m e s o f a F o u r t h , t h a t she h a d c o u n t l e s s t i m e s been t o t h e s a b b a t a n d a s s e m b l y of w i t c h e s n e a r t h e v i l l a g e of C o y r i e r e s in a p l a c e c a l l e d C o m b e s by t h e w a t e r ; a n d t h a t she w e n t t h e r e o n a w h i t e s t a f f w h i c h she p l a c e d b e t w e e n her legs. F i f t h , t h a t a t t h e s a b b a t she h a d d a n c e d , a n d h a d b e a t e n w a t e r t o cause hail. Sixth, that she and Groz-Jacques Bocquet had caused Loys had M o n n e r e t t o d i e by m a k i n g h e r e a t a p i e c e of b r e a d w h i c h t h e y d u s t e d w i t h a p o w d e r g i v e n t o t h e m by t h e D e v i l . S e v e n t h , t h a t she h a d c a u s e d s e v e r a l c o w s t o d i e , a n d t h a t she d i d so by t o u c h i n g t h e m w i t h h e r h a n d o r w i t h a w a n d w h i l e s a y i n g c e r t a i n words.
9
o u t l i n e n a r r a t i v e p r o v i d e d by o f f i c i a l s o f t h e c o u r t s . In t h i s c a s e , it a p p e a r s
S e c r e t a i n m i x e d d e t a i l s f r o m l o c a l f o l k l o r e i n t o h e r s t o r y . T h e i m a g e of S a t a n a s ' a b i g b l a c k m a n ' , o r a s a d o g o r c a t , w a s r e m i n i s c e n t of p o p u l a r t a l e s a b o u t t h e D e v i l . T h e t e n d e n c y of w i t c h e s t o c r a f t s t o r i e s o f d e m o n i c e n c o u n t e r s f r o m l o r e is n o t e d by D a v i d G e n t i l c o r e from some event in h e r o w n life, in C h a p t e r 6 . W h i l e w e c a n d o no m o r e like the confessions discussed by Roper s p e c u l a t e on t h e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t S e c r e t a i n ' s f a n t a s y folkthan and
derived
e a c h a p p e a l i n g t o d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l a c t o r s in t h e d r a m a o f a p r o s e c u t i o n it e v e n h a r d e r in t e r m s of a s i n g l e c a u s e t h a t s h a p e d t h e b e h a v i o u r
e x p l a i n the p h e n o m e n o n
It is i m p o s s i b l e t o k n o w f o r c e r t a i n t h e o r i g i n of t h e s e b i z a r r e d i s c l o s u r e s . A s L o u i s e J a c k s o n p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 6 , a c o n f e s s i o n t e x t is ' a p a l i m p s e s t m a d e of d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s of d e t a i l a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a d d e d one o n t o p of a n o t h e r as d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s of a c c u s a t i o n a n d c o n f e s s i o n ' . of m e a n i n g a p p e a r t o be p r e s e n t in B o g u e t ' s d o c u m e n t . a c t s o f maleficium allegations poisoning against a woman Secretain. She was accused
1 0
sixteenth
century
religion
practised widely
Europe
to ensure and
S e c o n d , she c l a i m e d t o h a v e a t t e n d e d t h e s a b b a t a n d i n d u l g e d in s e x w i t h t h e D e v i l . T h e a l l e g a t i o n s of p o i s o n i n g a n d k i l l i n g l i v e s t o c k w e r e c o m m o n in c a s e s of s u s p e c t e d b e w i t c h m e n t in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r a n c e , a n d m u c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y Europe. The more* of c l a i m that S e c r e t a i n was responsible for a d e m o n i c possession was a little unusual; but possession w a s closely associated w i t h w i t c h c r a f t
f e r t i l i t y of harvests. M e n a n d w o m e n w o u l d g a t h e r at s a c r e d sites to offer devotion to 'ancient had s u r v i v e d the advent Christianity, p a r t i a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d by t h e m e d i a e v a l c h u r c h . T h e r e l a t i v e t o l e r a n c e o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o w a r d s t h i s p r a c t i c e e n d e d in t h e late M i d d l e A g e s , w h e n t h e o l d g o d s w e r e c o n d e m n e d as d e m o n s a n d t h e i r w o r s h i p p e r s w e r e r e d e f i n e d a s w i t c h e s . T h i s i n t e r pretation Demons is n o w u n s u s t a i n a b l e . A s Norman C o h n p o i n t e d o u t in Europe's Inner ( 1 9 7 5 ) , M u r r a y ' s evidence was drawn entirely f r o m witchcraft confessions flying at
in t h e f o l k l o r e
F r a n c e , G e r m a n y a n d E n g l a n d . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , B o g u e t r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e first allegation against Secretain came f r o m 8-year-old Loyse M a i l l a t , whose parents s u s p e c t e d p o s s e s s i o n w h e n she w a s s t r u c k by a m y s t e r i o u s s i c k n e s s . In c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e a c t s of m a l i c i o u s m a g i c , t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s a b b a t w e r e p r o b a b l y n o t p a r t of t h e o r i g i n a l allegations. If t h e y w e r e reflect introduced Boguet's in t h e c o u r s e of own Secretain's with the sexual interrogation, this would certainly preoccupation
w h i c h she e d i t e d s e l e c t i v e l y t o c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e d r e a l e v e n t s . W h e n t h e s e c o n f e s s i o n s a r e r e a d in f u l l , c o m p l e t e w i t h d e t a i l s of w i t c h e s n i g h t a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a n i m a l s , it b e c o m e s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e y a r e n o t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a c c o u n t s of a c t u a l h a p p e n i n g s . M o r e o v e r , C o h n o b s e r v e d t h a t a l l e g a t i o n s s i m i l a r to those m a d e a g a i n s t w i t c h e s had been levelled at erings involving cannibalism and m u r d e r . A p a r t f r o m the allegations dissenting themselves such g r o u p s s i n c e a n t i q u i t y , w h e n C h r i s t i a n s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e a c c u s e d of n o c t u r n a l g a t h 1 2
s u b j e c t , w h i c h he d e s c r i b e d a t l e n g t h e l s e w h e r e in h i s t e x t . S i m i l a r l y , t h e types. Even the lurid detail that his s e m e n was cold reflected the
relationship between the accused w o m a n and the Devil owed m u c h to learned stereotheological since he assumption that Satan's earthly b o d y w a s c o m p o s e d of l i f e l e s s m a t t e r ,
1 1
a n d o c c a s i o n a l c o n f e s s i o n s e x t r a c t e d by f o r c e -
t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e t h a t
p o s s e s s e d no p h y s i c a l b o d y of his o w n .
meetings ever t o o k place. C o h n ' s a r g u m e n t s have achieved general acceptance since t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , a n d h a v e been r e i n f o r c e d by m u c h n e w r e s e a r c h . M o s t of Spain in t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , find strikingly, region were 1610, G u s t a v H e n n i n g s e n ' s w o r k o n A l f o n s o S a l a z a r , a n i n q u i s i t o r in t h e B a s q u e has s h o w n t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s unable to p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e of a l l e g e d s a b b a t s w h e n t h e y c a r e f u l l y
searched
f o r it. A f t e r a g r o u p o f y o u n g w o m e n c o n f e s s e d t o a t t e n d i n g a s a b b a t in
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
Salazar
conducted
an exhaustive
investigation
of t h e i r
supposed
1 3
activities,
and
c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d be r e g a r d e d o n l y as d e l u s i o n s .
Agrarian
cults
and
fairies
S o m e l i t t l e t i m e a g o , t h e r e w a s a m a n of O r g e l e t w h o b r o u g h t his w i f e t o t h i s p l a c e a n d a c c u s e d h e r of b e i n g a w i t c h , s a y i n g a m o n g other t h i n g s t h a t w h e n t h e y w e r e in bed t o g e t h e r o n e T h u r s d a y n i g h t he n o t i c e d t h a t his w i f e w a s a b s o l u t e l y s t i l l , w i t h o u t e v e n b r e a t h i n g ; w h e r e u p o n he b e g a n t o s h a k e her, b u t c o u l d n o t w a k e n h e r . . . T h i s l a s t e d f o r t w o o r three hours until the c o c k c r o w e d ; a n d then his wife suddenly awoke, a n d w h e n he a s k e d h e r w h a t w a s a m i s s , she a n s w e r e d t h a t she w a s so t i r e d f r o m t h e w o r k she h a d d o n e t h e d a y b e f o r e t h a t she w a s w e i g h e d d o w n w i t h s l e e p a n d f e l t n o t h i n g of w h a t h e r h u s b a n d h a d d o n e t o h e r . T h e m a n t h e n s u p p o s e d t h a t she h a d been t o t h e s a b b a t , f o r he n e i g h b o u r s , w h o m she h a d t h r e a t e n e d , h a d been d y i n g . had a l r e a d y h a d s o m e s u s p i c i o n of h e r b e c a u s e t h e c a t t l e of s o m e of t h e i r
1 6
I a m a benandante
fight
four times
y e a r , t h a t is d u r i n g t h e e m b e r d a y s , a t n i g h t ; I g o i n v i s i b l y in s p i r i t a n d t h e b o d y r e m a i n s b e h i n d ; w e g o f o r t h in t h e s e r v i c e of C h r i s t , a n d t h e w i t c h e s [ g o f o r t h ] in t h e n a m e of t h e Devil; we fight
1 4
each other,
we
w i t h b u n d l e s of f e n n e l a n d t h e y w i t h s o r g h u m
stalks.
On t h e b a s i s of t h i s r i c h b o d y of m a t e r i a l , G i n z b u r g h a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e s y s t e m of t h e benandante.
M e m b e r s h i p of t h e g r o u p w a s d e t e r m i n e d a t b i r t h , w h e n t r a v e l l e d in s p i r i t o n c e r t a i n n i g h t s of t h e
certain individuals were born with their 'cauls', or a m n i o t i c sacs, still intact around t h e i r b o d i e s . A s a d u l t s , t h e benandante y e a r - t h e ' e m b e r d a y s ' in D e c e m b e r - t o m e e t w i t h a s s e m b l i e s of e v i l s p i r i t s t h e y d e s c r i b e d as w i t c h e s . T h e i r p u r p o s e w a s t o fight t h e w i t c h e s , a r m e d w i t h t h e b u n c h e s of f e n n e l m e n t i o n e d in t h e d e p o s i t i o n , w i t h t h e o u t c o m e of t h i s c o m b a t the fate torture, of t h e next harvest. details None of t h e s e t e s t i m o n i e s consistent were obtained of and their were remarkably over a period deciding through several
n i g h t w e r e a l s o r e c o r d e d in G e r m a n y in t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h o u g h c r e d e n c e w a s g i v e n t o t h i s i d e a in t h e r e g i o n ' s d e m o n o l o g i c a l
1 8
support
f r o m a n o t h e r b o d y of e v i d e n c e . T h i s r e l a t e s t o s o - c a l l e d ' f a i r y c u l t s ' in e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e . L i k e t h e b e l i e f t h a t w i t c h e s c o u l d t r a v e l a t n i g h t in s p i r i t f o r m , r e f e r e n c e s t o f a i r i e s o c c u r q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y in c o n n e c t i o n t o w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y h a d no p l a c e in t h e l e a r n e d s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e w i t c h . A g a i n , it is u n l i k e l y t h a t these details were i m p o s e d by l a w y e r s o r t h e o l o g i a n s , w h o o f t e n a p p e a r in E n g l a n d in 1 4 9 9 . fairies'. These to h a v e f o u n d t h e m i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . A n e a r l y e x a m p l e of f a i r y b e l i e f s w a s p r e s e r v e d in t h e r e g i s t e r o f t h e a r c h d e a c o n ' s c o u r t of N o r w i c h for consorting with spirits they described Three m e m b e r s of t h e C l e r k f a m i l y f r o m S u f f o l k w e r e c o n v i c t e d of ' h e r e t i c a l as ' g r a c i o u s Marion depravity' creatures to
d e c a d e s . It a p p e a r s t h a t G i n z b u r g h a s u n c o v e r e d a n a g r a r i a n c u l t r e l a t e d t o w i t c h c r a f t , w h o s e m e m b e r s p e r c e i v e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r n o c t u r n a l f o e s in v e r y d i f f e r e n t t e r m s f r o m t h o s e u n d e r s t o o d by t h e m e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r p r o s e c u t i o n . M o r e o v e r , he d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e benandante w e r e g r a d u a l l y r e d e f i n e d by t h e i n q u i s i t i o n as s a b b a t - a t t e n d i n g w i t c h e s , a n d t h i s n e w d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w a s e v e n t u a l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h t h e y l i v e d . A t a regional level, then, G i n z b u r g ' s w o r k reveals t h a t a f e r t i l i t y cult did exist, a n d its a c t i v i t i e s p r o v o k e d a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t f r o m t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e c o m e s m o r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l , h o w e v e r , w h e n he t r i e s t o e x t e n d t h i s m o d e l t o o t h e r a r e a s of Europe. His argument is p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 8 . S u p p o r t Klaniczay, for who G i n z b u r g ' s thesis has c o m e f r o m the v e r s i o n , c u l t m e m b e r s , o r taltos, of t h e w e a t h e r .
1 5
Fairies continued to
figure
in E n g l i s h w i t c h t r i a l s u n t i l t h e to
to death w i t h the c o n f e s s i o n t h a t they have been t r a n s p o r t e d w i t h the f a i r i e s such a hill, w h i c h o p e n i n g , they w e n t in, and there s a w a f a i r q u e e n ' . He o n l y e x p l a i n s u c h c l a i m s by a s s u m i n g t h e y w e r e s a t a n i c d e l u s i o n s . s i d e of E u r o p e , G u s t a v
2 1
h a s i d e n t i f i e d s i m i l a r b e l i e f s in t h e c o n f e s s i o n s o f w i t c h e s in t h a t c o u n t r y . In t h i s t r a v e l l e d in s p i r i t t o r i v a l taltos for control compelling F o r those s y m p a t h e t i c to G i n z b u r g ' s case, the most and were generally
On t h e
e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m d e t a i l s in w i t c h c r a f t c o n f e s s i o n s t h a t c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e a s s u m p t i o n s of d e m o n o l o g i s t s , r e j e c t e d by e d u c t a t e d w r i t e r s on t h e s u b j e c t . It is d i f f i c u l t t o see h o w t h e s e d e t a i l s c o u l d h a v e been i m p o s e d f r o m a b o v e ,
l i s h e d in S i c i l y d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e r e , m e n a n d w o m e n f r o m
b a c k g r o u n d s were organised into ' c o m p a n i e s ' , whose m e m b e r s believed they were conveyed through the a i r to attend joyful gatherings w i t h fairies, and travelled with
10
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
11
t h e c r e a t u r e s a s t h e y p e r f o r m e d g o o d d e e d s in t h e h o m e s of t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s . T h e s e e v e n t s w e r e r e i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e i n q u i s i t i o n as s a b b a t s .
2 2
T h e r o l e of f a i r y
beliefs notion
in E u r o p e a n w i t c h c r a f t is a s u b j e c t t h a t a w a i t s f u l l e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , b u t it is p o s s i b l e t h a t such p o p u l a r ideas p r o v i d e d the r a w m a t e r i a l f r o m w h i c h the learned of a w i t c h c u l t w a s f o r m e d . There are, however, some serious weaknesses in t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F i r s t of
f a c e of h e r v i s i t o r ' s p e r s i s t e n c e . T h e n e x t m o r n i n g , h e r y o u n g d a u g h t e r L o y s e w a s a f f l i c t e d w i t h a s t r a n g e illness t h a t w e a k e n e d her l i m b s a n d t w i s t e d her m o u t h 'in a very s t r a n g e m a n n e r ' . S o m e days later, her parents began to suspect bewitchfor m e n t a n d t o o k h e r t o a p r i e s t , w h o c o n f i r m e d t h e d i a g n o s i s of p o s s e s s i o n . It w a s d u r i n g t h e g i r l ' s e x o r c i s m t h a t she n a m e d S e c r e t a i n a s t h e p e r s o n r e s p o n s i b l e her s u f f e r i n g .
2 6
a n d F r a n c e , b u t t h e r e is l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y w e r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a c o h e r e n t b o d y of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . A s R i c h a r d M u c h e m b l e d p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 1 0 , t h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t h i s t o r i a n s c a n t a k e f r a g m e n t s f r o m p o p u l a r t r a d i t i o n a n d from them a composite belief-system critics that of never existed have as a whole. Such a p p r o a c h can ignore the specific c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of w i t c h e s occurred. Second, Ginzburg in w h i c h t h e infer an
T h e d y n a m i c s o f t h i s s t o r y w e r e f a i r l y t y p i c a l of v i l l a g e - l e v e l c a s e s In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e , t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e
a r g u e d t h a t the
c o n c e p t of w i t c h c r a f t c o u l d h a v e a r i s e n w i t h o u t a n y r e f e r e n c e t o p o p u l a r
G o u g e a s s e r t e d in 1 6 2 6 t h a t A m e r i c a n t r i b e s m e n ' e x c e l l e d in
2 3
c o n f l i c t a n d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of s u f f e r i n g h a v e p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t r o l e in a t t e m p t s
M a n y e l e m e n t s of
t h e s a b b a t c o u l d h a v e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e f a n t a s y of a n ' a n t i - s o c i e t y ' w h i c h in C h a p t e r
t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y is m o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E n g l i s h r e s e a r c h . In t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s , t h e s t u d i e s of K e i t h T h o m a s a n d A l a n M a c f a r l a n e s u g g e s t e d t h a t a c c u s a tions typically occurred when a relatively wealthy neighbour. villager felt obliged to refuse of away. largely c h a r i t y t o a less f o r t u n a t e One c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s w a s a f e e l i n g
T h e s e i m a g i n a r y r e v e r s a l s of a c c e p t e d b e h a v i o u r p r o v i d e
a p l a u s i b l e , a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e f o r t h e m y t h of t h e s a b b a t . A t a m o r e b a s i c l e v e l , it is p r o b l e m a t i c t o a r g u e t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e of f e r t i l i t y cults gave rise to w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s . Even if s u c h c u l t s e x i s t e d in Renaissance intolsimilar E u r o p e , t h i s in i t s e l f c o u l d n o t e x p l a i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a w i t c h p a n i c . It w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n w h y o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e s c h a n g e d f r o m i n d i f f e r e n c e t o erance, and why popular beliefs were demonised at this p a r t i c u l a r time. A
T h e s t r e n g t h of t h i s a p p r o a c h is t h a t it p r o v i d e s a p l a u is c o n s i s t e n t
s i b l e a c c o u n t of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of l o c a l a c c u s a t i o n s , w h i c h
m u c h o f t h e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e ; its p r i n c i p a l w e a k n e s s is t h a t it is less a p p l i c a b l e t o l a r g e - s c a l e w i t c h p a n i c s s u c h a s t h o s e in E a s t A n g l i a in 1 6 4 5 , a n d in S c o t l a n d and central E u r o p e d u r i n g the seventeenth century. M o r e o v e r , the e c o n o m i c changes e x p e r i e n c e d in E n g l a n d w e r e n o t m i r r o r e d in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , l i k e S c o t l a n d , w h i c h s u f f e r e d m o r e i n t e n s e p e r s e c u t i o n s . T h e o t h e r k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n f o r w i t c h t r i a l s ' f r o m b e l o w ' - b a s e d o n t h e n e e d of e a r l y m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s t o m a k e sense of n a t u r a l c a l a m i t i e s - h a s been a d v a n c e d m o s t p e r s u a s i v e l y by t h e G e r m a n h i s t o r i a n W o l f g a n g B e h r i n g e r . In C h a p t e r 4, B e h r i n g e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e m o s t s a v a g e p e r i o d o f w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s f r o m 1 5 6 0 c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e c l i m a t i c p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n as t h e ' l i t t l e ice a g e ' , w h i c h c a u s e d c r o p f a i l u r e s a c r o s s m u c h of E u r o p e u n t i l t h e m i d d l e y e a r s of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s w e a t h e r p a t t e r n w a s c o r r e c t l y p e r c e i v e d as a b n o r m a l by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , w h o f o u n d it e a s y t o a t t r i b u t e t o w i t c h e s i n t e n t o n destroying
o b j e c t i o n c a n be m a d e t o o t h e r a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n w i t c h t r i a l s in t e r m s of p o p u l a r b e l i e f s . If, f o r e x a m p l e , one a r g u e s t h a t t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s w e r e c a u s e d by f e a r s of maleficium a m o n g the European p o p u l a t i o n , it w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o s h o w fifteenth that these fears increased f r o m the late century onwards, or that the authorities prosecutions were imposed 'from
were prepared to take t h e m more seriously for some reason. These points relate to t h e m u c h w i d e r q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r w i t c h c r a f t to that question. a b o v e ' o r s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a r e s p o n s e t o p o p u l a r c o n c e r n s . W e c a n n o w t u r n
12
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INTRODUCTION
13
w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e p o p u l a r c l a m o u r f o r a c t i o n caused the p o l i t i c a l elites of central Europe to move against those b e l i e v e d t o be r e s p o n s i b l e . A s Behringer of a c k n o w l e d g e s , h o w e v e r , t h e h a r d s h i p s i n d u c e d by t h e ' l i t t l e ice a g e ' c a n n o t p r o v i d e a complete explanation for Europe's witch trials. F o r a start, the first wave panics commenced some eighty years earlier. Furthermore, large-scale witch-hunts o f t e n o c c u r r e d w h e n t h e l e a r n e d c o n c e p t of c o l l e c t i v e w i t c h c r a f t w a s i n v o l v e d , s i n c e t h e i d e a of a w i t c h c u l t e n c o u r a g e d t h e c o u r t s t o p u r s u e t h e a l l e g e d of c o n v i c t e d w i t c h e s . Regions where this concept was absent f r o m confederates learned witch
these developments c a m p a i g n s against satanic w i t c h c r a f t could c o n f i r m their agents a s t h e c h a m p i o n s of t r u e r e l i g i o n . I n d e e d , t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s w a s s o m e t i m e s v i e w e d a s a h e l l i s h e n d o r s e m e n t of t h e a u t h o r i t y of r u l i n g g r o u p s . A s Catholic demonologist is p u r s u i n g a v o c a t i o n defender'.
3 1
Nicholas in w h i c h
t h e p i o u s m a g i s t r a t e , w h o s h o u l d s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e m ' w i t h c o n f i d e n c e , k n o w i n g he T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t w a s a d v a n c e d in P r o t e s t a n t S c o t l a n d , w h e r e t h e V I f r o m a p l o t t o d e s t r o y h i m by w i t c h c r a f t
d e l i v e r a n c e of J a m e s policies.
b e l i e f s e x p e r i e n c e d r e l a t i v e l y f e w t r i a l s , d e s p i t e t h e e f f e c t s of c l i m a t i c c h a n g e . T h i s w a s t h e c a s e in D e n m a r k a n d E n g l a n d u n t i l t h e 1 6 4 0 s . In t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e n o t i o n of t h e s a b b a t a c h i e v e d p r o m i n e n c e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e d u r i n g t h e E a s t A n g l i a n t r i a l s of 1 6 4 5 , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d by f a r t h e l a r g e s t w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n in While England.
2 8
p r e s e n t e d a s a v i n d i c a t i o n of his f a i t h a n d a t a c i t e n d o r s e m e n t of his e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
3 2
T h e p o l i t i c s of r e l i g i o u s d i v i s i o n n o t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s of e a r l y modern E u r o p e , b u t a l s o h e l p e d s h a p e t h e b e h a v i o u r of Protestant and Catholic c l e r g y . T h i s w a s e v i d e n t in c a s e s of d e m o n i c p o s s e s s i o n . L y n d a l p o w e r of t h e Roman church. Similarly, Moshe Sluhovsky R o p e r has s h o w n 19
B e h r i n g e r ' s w o r k s h o w s t h e m a j o r r o l e p l a y e d by p o p u l a r c o n c e r n s
in
s o m e w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s , it is h a r d t o see h o w t r i a l s c o u l d h a v e s p r e a d w i t h o u t t h e a c t i v e s u p p o r t of r u l i n g e l i t e s . T h i s i m p r e s s i o n is s u p p o r t e d by t h e p a t t e r n of d e c l i n e in p r o s e c u t i o n s f r o m a r o u n d 1 6 8 0 . A t t h e level of r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s , of maleficium a n d it a p p e a r s t h a t s i m i l a r b e l i e f s p e r s i s t e d in m u c h of m a i n l a n d witch beliefs were flourishing In t h e s a m e p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , e d u c a t e d Europeans were allegations c o n t i n u e d t o be m a d e in E n g l a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Europe. Indeed,
2 9
t h a t G e r m a n J e s u i t s in t h e l a t e r s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y used e x o r c i s m s t o v a l i d a t e t h e
3 3
n o t e s in C h a p t e r
in p a r t s of D e n m a r k a n d S p a i n a s late a s t h e 1 9 6 0 s . increasingly
reluctant to
a c c e p t t h e r e a l i t y of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t , a n d t h e c o u r t s in m o s t c o u n t r i e s c e a s e d t o r e c o g n i s e it as a c r i m e . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , it a p p e a r s t h a t m a j o r p a n i c s e n d e d w h e n local authorities ceased to regard witchcraft satanic witchcraft. maleficium as a p r o b l e m . By the same token, about about p r o s e c u t i o n s e n d e d e a r l i e r in r e g i o n s l i k e S p a i n w h e r e e l i t e s w e r e s c e p t i c a l T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n , of c o u r s e , t h a t p o p u l a r a n x i e t i e s
Lauderdale
w a s a s k e d by a p r i e s t if t h e p o w e r of t h e J e s u i t e x o r c i s t s c o u l d p e r s u a d e h i m t o
3 5
P u r i t a n e x o r c i s t s in E n g l a n d w e r e c a u g h t in a t w o - w a y
c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e i r C a t h o l i c r i v a l s a n d t h e h i e r a r c h y of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h , w h i c h f e a r e d t h a t s u c c e s s f u l d i s p o s s e s s i o n s c o u l d b o l s t e r t h e a u t h o r i t y of n o n c o n f o r m i n g m i n i s t e r s . T h i s c o n f l i c t w a s e p i t o m i s e d in t h e 1 5 9 0 s by t h e e x o r c i s t J o h n Darrel, who claimed that papists and their 'secret friends' - including some by c a s t i n g o u t d e v i l s ' . sion was often frequently English b i s h o p s - ' d o w h a t t h e y c a n [ s o ] t h a t t h e t r u e c h u r c h of C h r i s t m a y n o t h a v e c r e d i t
3 6
c o u l d n o t s o m e t i m e s p r o v o k e j u d i c i a l a c t i o n , as h a p p e n e d in s i x t e e n t h -
attributed
a t t e n d e d by a l l e g a t i o n s
D a r r e l ' s a c t i v i t i e s led t o a s e r i e s of w i t c h t r i a l s
The effects
of religious
division
in a satanic The
A n o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e R e f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e a t t e m p t by l o c a l e l i t e s , b o t h C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t , t o i m p o s e C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s on t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e . A s Edmund Europe'. Kern remarks in C h a p t e r 1 3 , this entailed an a t t a c k on folk ideas and p r a c t i c e s a s p a r t of ' a n o v e r a l l m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t t o r e f o r m t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e of
3 7
F r o m t h e 1 5 2 0 s o n w a r d s , one m a j o r f a c t o r t h a t e n c o u r a g e d b e l i e f
c o n s p i r a c y w a s t h e d i v i s i o n of E u r o p e i n t o C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t f a c t i o n s .
c h u r c h , they
r e a d i l y e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s of d e m o n i c a c t i v i t y . S e v e r a l of t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h i s b o o k d e s c r i b e t h i s p r o c e s s , w h i c h o c c u r r e d in a g r e a t v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s : t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n of a g h o s t a s t h e D e v i l in 1 5 6 0 s F r a n c e ( C h a p t e r 1 9 ) ; t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n of t h e benandante ( C h a p t e r 8 ) ; t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n of f o l k m a g i c a s d i a b o l i s m
14
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
15
in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r i a ( C h a p t e r 1 3 ) ; a n d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of ' v i s i o n a r y ' w o m e n in I t a l y ( C h a p t e r 6 ) . S u c h e v e n t s w e r e s y m p t o m s of a g e n e r a l c l i m a t e of a n x i e t y a b o u t t h e D e v i l ' s p o w e r in t h e w o r l d , a n d in s o m e c a s e s t h e y led d i r e c t l y t o a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t . One s u c h i n s t a n c e w a s r e c o r d e d in 1 6 8 8 w h e n a g r o u p devout Protestants w r o t e to the English divine, Richard Baxter, concerning Mr Gibs, of an who a
how as a
of t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h i s b e l i e f o p e r a t e d , a n d m a k e a c a s e f o r t h e e s s e n t i a l r a t i o n a l i t y of s u c h t h i n k i n g in t h e e a r l y period.
week. A f e w days later, however, this m e d i c a t i o n a r o u s e d the s u s p i c i o n of the boy's G o d - f e a r i n g m a s t e r , w h o b e l i e v e d t h a t it m i g h t be a c h a r m . H e m a d e t h e b o y r e m o v e t h e b a g so he c o u l d i n s p e c t its c o n t e n t s , w h i c h t u r n e d o u t t o be a p a p e r inscribed w i t h m a g i c a l w o r d s . O n c e it w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t G i b s w a s a ' c u n n i n g m a n ' r a t h e r than a legitimate physician, C r a b ' s master and parents began to suspect w i t c h c r a f t . A s a r e s u l t , t h e y a c c u s e d t h e h e a l e r o f maleficium when the boy's fits returned.
3 8
T h e d e s i r e of P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a t h o l i c s t o r e f o r m p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n w a s a c c o m p a n i e d by a n x i e t i e s a b o u t s e x u a l c o n d u c t . In p a r t , t h i s a r o s e f r o m t h e a b o l i t i o n of m o n a s t i c i s m a n d p r i e s t l y c e l i b a c y in P r o t e s t a n t r e g i o n s , w h i c h m e a n t t h a t h o u s e holds became the focus for religious devotion; this, in t u r n , encouraged new s t a n d a r d s of ' G o d - f e a r i n g ' b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n the f a m i l y . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , the desire t o e n f o r c e s e x u a l m o r a l i t y r e f l e c t e d t h e need t o m a i n t a i n s o c i a l o r d e r in a t i m e of p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s c h a n g e , s i n c e t h e s t a b i l i t y of h o u s e h o l d s w a s v i e w e d as e s s e n t i a l t o t h e w e l f a r e of s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e . In s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Augsburg, Lyndal assumed to and R o p e r h a s c h r o n i c l e d t h e r i s e of ' t h e h o l y h o u s e h o l d ' , in w h i c h p a r e n t s development family trends have
4 0
t i a l l y as a t h e o r y of c a u s a t i o n . W h e n t h e d a u g h t e r of H u m b e r t e a n d C l a u d e Frangoise S e c r e t a i n as t h e p e r s o n r e s p o n s i b l e
o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e l i e v e t h e i r c h i l d ' s s u f f e r i n g by a c t i n g a g a i n s t h e r . In t h i s r e s p e c t , a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t p l a y e d a s i m i l a r r o l e t o t h e less c o m m o n p r a c t i c e of p r o s ecuting animals for crimes against people and their
4 2
property,
which
s p o r a d i c a l l y in e a r l y m o d e r n G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e .
They supplied an e x p l a n a t i o n it a f f e c t e d t o in r u r a l
f o r a n o t h e r w i s e a r b i t r a r y event, a n d a l l o w e d t h o s e w h o m
m u n i t i e s w h o s e l i v e l i h o o d s d e p e n d e d l a r g e l y on f o r c e s b e y o n d h u m a n c o n t r o l , s u c h as t h e w e a t h e r , p h y s i c a l i l l n e s s , a n d t h e h e a l t h of l i v e s t o c k a n d c r o p s . T h e t e n d e n c y t o a t t r i b u t e m i s f o r t u n e t o o n e ' s n e i g h b o u r s w a s a l s o e n c o u r a g e d by a s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h m o s t p e o p l e w o r k e d a n d l i v e d in e x t e n d e d h o u s e h o l d s comprising profound social f a m i l y members, servants or apprentices. Such a r r a n g e m e n t s created a tial to emotional and physical wellbeing. The link between
life, s u c h as p r o s t i t u t e s ,
regulation Germany,
of m a r r i a g e . as well as
Similar accom-
France
England.
A s C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r
p a n i e d by a rise in p r o s e c u t i o n s f o r ' s e c r e t c r i m e s ' l i k e i n f a n t i c i d e , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d a n a t t a c k on t h e f a m i l y . In t h e c o n t e x t of t h e s e w i d e r c o n c e r n s , it is e a s y t o see h o w t h e i d e a of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t - w h i c h i n v o l v e d a s e c r e t c u l t d e v o t e d t o s e x u a l i t y a n d t h e m u r d e r of i n f a n t s w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s . In a p a t r i a r c h a l was able to gain support a m o n g illicit educated
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In 1 6 3 4 , f o r e x a m p l e , he n o t e d t h a t one of his p a t i e n t s , J o a n Fellow, was afflicted with acute insomnia and 'light-headedness', adding that 'her m o t h e r in l a w h a t h used h e r v e r y u n k i n d l y ' . On o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , N a p i e r It is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e c o m m o n it is p l a u s i b l e t o a r g u e t h a t t h e d i a g n o s i s of maleficium attributed
4 3
E u r o p e a n s . It is a l s o r e l e v a n t , p e r h a p s , t h a t w o m e n w e r e t h e p r i n c i p a l t a r g e t s of c u l t u r e , d i s o r d e r l y w o m e n w e r e p e r c e i v e d as such t h e m a i n d a n g e r t o f a m i l y l i f e , a n d t h e a t t a c k o n w i t c h e s m i g h t be v i e w e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o t h e p r o s e c u t i o n of o t h e r f e m a l e e n e m i e s of t h e ' h o l y h o u s e h o l d ' , as p r o s t i t u t e s , u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s a n d w o m e n a c c u s e d of While the impact of religious division offers an infanticide. explanation for 'any
modern Equally,
attractive
in s u c h c a s e s h a d a s o u n d
E u r o p e a n w i t c h t r i a l s , it is h e l p f u l t o r e m e m b e r
m e d i c a l b a s i s . M e d i c a l s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t m a n y a d u l t s l i v i n g in t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n societies have a high natural resistance to disease, since those lacking this quality o f t e n p e r i s h in i n f a n c y . A s a r e s u l t , s i c k n e s s f r e q u e n t l y a r i s e s f r o m a w e a k e n i n g of t h e i m m u n e s y s t e m , w h i c h c a n be t r i g g e r e d by s t r e s s f u l s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . m a y w e l l h a v e r e f l e c t e d t h e r e a l o r i g i n of t h e v i c t i m ' s s y m p t o m s in t h e i r relationship with another person.
4 4
If t h e
The
learned
fantasy
of
the
sabbat,
the
various
consequences
of
the
s a m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r e v a i l e d in p r e - i n d u s t r i a l E u r o p e , m a n y c h a r g e s of w i t c h c r a f t strained
R e f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e s o c i a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e d f e a r s of maleficium in s o m e p a r t s of E u r o p e : a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s in t h e
16
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
17
The idea of w i t c h c r a f t c o u l d also e x p l a i n m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t w e r e o t h e r w i s e v e r y h a r d t o d e f i n e o r c o m p r e h e n d . T h i s p o i n t is e s p e c i a l l y d e p r e s s i o n . A s Roy P o r t e r has noted, successful e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r these sometimes appear to have been as effective as those of relevant t o c o n d i t i o n s l a t e r d e f i n e d as p s y c h o l o g i c a l ' d i s o r d e r s ' , s u c h a s s c h i z o p h r e n i a a n d syndromes today. r e m a i n e l u s i v e , a n d t h e e f f o r t s of e x o r c i s t s t o r e l i e v e t h e s y m p t o m s of s c h i z o p h r e n i c s psychiatrists
4 5
S i m i l a r p r a c t i c e s w e r e r e c o r d e d in F r a n c e , I t a l y , E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n , a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y t y p i c a l of p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a c r o s s w e s t e r n g o o d a n d b a d p u r p o s e s , m a k e s it l i k e l y t h a t maleficium In 1 5 6 6 , t h e Europe.
5 0
The general
accepboth
t a n c e o f m a g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y c o u l d be u s e d f o r E n g l i s h m a g i c i a n J o h n W a l s h d e s c r i b e d h o w the w o r d s of
c o u l d be r e v e r s e d t o c r e a t e h a r m f u l s p e l l s , t h o u g h he d e n i e d e v e r d o i n g s u c h t h i n g s . Likewise, the visitors to W e i s b a d e n c l a i m e d that spells were p e r f o r m e d 'to h a r m on others or to do good, to m a k e things better or w o r s e ' . ities in m i n d , t h e a u t h o r of a recent study of popular
5 2
W i t c h c r a f t a l s o p r o v i d e d a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r less s e v e r e h a l l u c i n a t o r y
experiences English
work has
t h a t a r e s t i l l v e r y c o m m o n . M a l c o l m G a s k i l l p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 5 t h a t b e r e a v e d p e o p l e o f t e n h a v e v i s i o n s o f t h e d e a d , a n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w a s d e s c r i b e d in witchcraft awake extreme to confessions find in 1 6 4 5 . A n o t h e r a r e a o f e x p e r i e n c e of ' s l e e p p a r a l y s i s ' and sometimes to attributed immobilised, was linked to in w h i c h w a s sleep d i s t u r b a n c e . T h e s y n d r o m e themselves sensations of f e a r witchcraft individuals or and Thus Henri
culture
suffer
hallucinations
readily
maleficium.
Boguet described how a bewitched man was paralysed w a s e v e n u n a b l e t o c a l l t o his n e i g h b o u r s f o r h e l p . t o r m e n t e d in h e r s l e e p ' by a w i t c h ' s f a m i l i a r had sent s p i r i t s to a t t a c k h i m at n i g h t .
4 6
in his b e d o n e n i g h t ,
s o c i a l p r a c t i c e m a k e s it e n t i r e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t m e n a n d w o m e n the acts.
In 1 5 9 2 , a s i m i l a r
affliction 'strangely
w a s v i s i t e d o n L a d y C r o m w e l l o f H u n t i n g d o n s h i r e in E n g l a n d , w h o w a s in t h e s h a p e of a c a t .
4 7
A s late as
1 8 7 1 , a m a n f r o m D o r s e t w a s t r i e d f o r a s s a u l t i n g a n o l d w o m a n w h o m he b e l i e v e d
4 8
In t h e s e a n d s i m i l a r c a s e s , it a p p e a r s t h a t Given
The credibility
of a witch
cult
in e a r l y
W h i l e it is r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o a c c e p t t h e r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r f e a r s of maleficium
t h a t m o s t of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e s t i l l l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d , t h i s c a n be r e g a r d e d a s a
t h e c o n t e x t of p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n a s a w h o l e . S i n c e t h e late 1 9 6 0 s , r e s e a r c h E u r o p e has shown that m a g i c a l spread a m o n g the peasant p o p u l a t i o n . P o p u l a r magic, often m i x e d with
elements
of o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n , w a s e m p l o y e d f o r a w i d e r a n g e of p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s . In lence of s u c h a c t i v i t i e s :
t h e L u t h e r a n i n s p e c t o r s of t h e p r o v i n c e of W e i s b a d e n in G e r m a n y n o t e d t h e p r e v a -
investigations Maleficarum
of
V i e w e d in t h i s l i g h t , t h e Malleus
T h e use o f s p e l l s is so w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e p e o p l e h e r e t h a t n o t
t h e e x i s t e n c e of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t , s i n c e t h e g e n u i n e n e s s of its c l a s s i c a l s o u r c e s w a s b e y o n d q u e s t i o n . It is s t r i k i n g t h a t a l l e g a t i o n s of c o l l e c t i v e w i t c h c r a f t d i d n o t l e a d t o p r o s e c u t i o n s on t h o s e o c c a s i o n s w h e n t h e a u t h o r i t i e s s o u g h t c o r r o b o r a t i n g e v i d e n c e f o r c o n f e s s i o n s , a s w a s t h e c a s e in S p a i n in 1 6 1 0 , a n d a c r o s s m u c h of w e s t e r n E u r o p e f r o m a r o u n d 1 6 8 0 . O n c e t h e c i t a t i o n of c l a s s i c a l s o u r c e s w a s no l o n g e r r e g a r d e d a s s u f f i c e n t e v i d e n c e , it w a s m u c h h a r d e r f o r a c a d e m i c s t o p r o v e t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e c r i m e ; b u t t h i s e m p h a s i s on e m p i r i c a l i n q u i r y w a s n o t w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a m o n g s c h o l a r s u n t i l t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . B e l i e f in t h e w i t c h c u l t w a s a l s o e n c o u r a g e d by c h a n g e s in i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p r i n t f r o m t h e late fifteenth century a l l o w e d i n f o r m a t i o n about w i t c h c r a f t to spread quickly reproduced and in w i d e l y a m o n g t h e l i t e r a t e m i n o r i t y of t h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n . It a l s o h e l p e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e m y t h of a s a t a n i c c u l t , s i n c e a c c o u n t s of t r i a l s w e r e d e m o n o l o g i e s t h a t w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y used by t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o n d u c t i n g f u r t h e r p r o s e c u t i o n s . T h e r e s u l t w a s a l a r g e l y s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l a n d s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e d e x a c t l y t h e k i n d of c o n f e s s i o n s t h a t c o u l d be f e d b a c k
m a n or w o m a n begins, undertakes, does or refrains f r o m doing a n y t h i n g . . . w i t h o u t e m p l o y i n g some p a r t i c u l a r blessing, incantation, spell, or o t h e r s u c h h e a t h e n i s h m e a n s . . . W h e n e v e r a n a r t i c l e of c l o t h i n g has b e e n m i s l a i d a n d c a n n o t be f o u n d , w h e n s o m e o n e f e e l s s i c k l y o r a c o w a c t s q u e e r , t h e y r u n a t o n c e t o t h e s o o t h s a y e r t o a s k w h o h a s s t o l e n it o r p u t a b a d s p e l l o n it, a n d t o f e t c h s o m e c h a r m t o use a g a i n s t t h e enchanter . . . w i t h the of Christ, A l l t h e p e o p l e h e r e a b o u t s e n g a g e in s u p e r s t i t i o u s God, the Holy Trinity, c e r t a i n angels, the verses f r o m the pracVirgin New tices with f a m i l i a r and unfamiliar words, names, and rhymes, especially n a m e s of M a r y , the twelve apostles, the three kings, n u m e r o u s saints, the w o u n d s his s e v e n w o r d s on t h e c r o s s [and] T e s t a m e n t . . . These are spoken secretly or openly, they are w r i t t e n on s c r a p s of p a p e r , s w a l l o w e d o r w o r n a s c h a r m s .
4 9
18
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
19
of
Witchcraft
(Robert
Hale, London 1 9 8 4 ) . F o r a non-religious work making Witches Daly, (Crescent, Gyn/Ecology: New York The 1981). of Radical
similar
R e m y o b s e r v e d t h a t w i t c h e s often d e s c r i b e d h o w they s m e a r e d an o i n t m e n t on t h e i r b o d i e s t o e n a b l e t h e m t o fly t o t h e s a b b a t . H e n o t e d t h a t ' t h e y a r e e v e n p a r t i c u l a r i n d e s c r i b i n g its c o l o u r , w h i c h p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e m a t t e r is n o d r e a m , b u t visible and perceptible to the e y e s ' .
5 5
Metaethics
Feminism
1978). moveOxford
F o r a fascinating account of the origins a n d c l a i m s of the m o d e r n w i t c h c r a f t ment, 1989). see T . H. L u h r m a n n , Persuasions to the Witches' Craft (Blackwell,
W i t h t h e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s i g h t , it is t e m p t i n g t o 6
Alan
Kors
and Edward
Peters,
e d s , Witchcraft
in Europe:
Documentary
History
Press,
i m p a c t o f t h e i n t e r n e t c a n n o t be a d e q u a t e l y p r e d i c t e d t o d a y . This late leads to one f i n a l p o i n t a b o u t the r a t i o n a l i t y of w i t c h b e l i e f s . century, men a set of strikingly in similar ideas attracted and the During support the of The
twentieth
Witchcraft, Examen
highly
educated
and
women
northern
America
western
Europe.
trans.
Montague
Summers
(John
Rodker,
L o n d o n 1 9 2 9 ) , 5. L o u i s e J a c k s o n , C h a p t e r 2 6 in this c o l l e c t i o n . The means by w h i c h t h e Devil, as a d i s e m b o d i e d at length i n t h e Malleus spirit, w a s able to copulate with
acceptable
issue
Maleficarum.
controversy,
and
is e x a m i n e d
in d e t a i l
10. While
it is p o s s i b l e t h a t
s a t a n i c cults do exist,
it is u n d e n i a b l e t h a t m a n y
of the s p e c i f i c a l l e g a t i o n s
Europe's
Demons, The
152-60. Advocate: Press, Reno Basque 1980). and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Witchcraft and the Spanish
psychotherRobert of
Henningsen,
Witches'
This
has
led h i s t o r i a n s
like
Robin
Briggs and
(University of N e v a d a Battles:
Witchcraft
is a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e m y t h
15
Gabor
Klaniczay,
of
it h a v e are
among capacity
our to 16 17 18
N J 1 9 9 0 ) , ch. 8. 46-7. 39. ' T h e Devil's Change, Studies Wonderfull Children: Child Witch Trials in E a r l y Modern
contemporaries'.
If
these
claims
Examen,
b e l i e v e in s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t w a s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d .
Equally,
t h e p u r s u i t o f s a t a n i c c h i l d a b u s e r s s h o w s t h a t t h e b u s i n e s s o f w i t c h - f i n d i n g c a n be c o n d u c t e d by p e r f e c t l y r e a s o n a b l e a n d m e t h o d i c a l p e o p l e , m o t i v a t e d c h i e f l y by t h e i r compassion for the apparent victims of a t e r r i b l e crime. When the horrors they
Germany', 19 20
and
Discoverie
( 1 6 1 9 ) , r e p r i n t e d in B a r b a r a
R o s e n , e d . , Witchcraft
in s u p e r s t i t i o n
or hysteria.
social 21 22
Press 1 9 9 2 ) , 3 7 7 .
recur even
Ankarloo and
and Gustav
e d s , Early
Modern
European
Witchcraft:
Peripheries
1 9 9 3 ) , c h . 7.
Gouge, Examen,
Notes
1 Fictitious accounts of English w i t c h c r a f t included later editions of the story of M o t h e r S h i p t o n , s u c h a s The Strange 2 Margaret Murray, The Witch and Cult Wonderful in Western History Europe of Mother Shipton (1682). 1921).
24 25 26 27
Macfarlane, 1999);
Witchcraft Thomas,
in
Tudor
and and
Stuart
England
(Clarendon,
Oxford
London
Keith
Religion
the Decline
of Magic
M u r r a y ' s t h e o r y of a w i t c h c u l t w a s e c h o e d in e a r l y e d i t i o n s of C h r i s t o p h e r H i l l ' s t e x t b o o k Reformation to Industrial Revolution (2nd edn, Penguin, Harmondsworth 1969), 28
Nicolson,
London
see J e n s European
trials
in E n g l a n d , see (Hamish
1550-1750
L o n d o n 1 9 9 6 ) , c h . 5. Witchcraft, Henningsen, Magic Witches' and Culture, 1736-1951 12-13. (Manchester University
sixteenth a n d seventeenth centuries. Vivianne Crowley, New Age (Aq uarian, Wellingborough
Davies,
1 9 8 9 ) , 5 1 . See also
D o r e e n V a l i e n t e , An
Press 1 9 9 9 ) ;
Advocate,
20
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
30
views
on witchcraft
Oberman,
Luther:
Man
(Fontana, 242-3.
102-6.
31 32 33
Scotland Oedipus
(Routledge, 181-2.
34 35
Boguet,
B a x t e r , w h i c h he p u b l i s h e d in
PART ONE
36 37 38
John
Darrel,
of Maist.
Dorrell
Edmund Lyndal
(Clarendon, Oxford 39 Thomas Anthony University 40 41 Baxter, Robin Robisheaux, Fletcher, Press,
1989). 'Peasants Sex and Pastors', and Social History, in England, 6 (1986), 1500-1800 281-300; (Yale
Mediaeval Origins
Gender,
Subordination 1995).
Certainty, Briggs,
'Many
Reasons
Why: Witchcraft
and the
Problem
of
Multiple Witchcraft
E u r o p e , see E s t h e r
110 (1986), 6 - 3 7 .
R I T I N G icler Ralph
IN of
T H E
L A S T
Q U A R T E R the
Coggeshall
described
43 44
Bodleian
unnamed
Thought
astonished member of
Mass.
was a humble
45 46 47 48 49
leader w a s t r i e d a l o n g s i d e her, a n d w a s
also
T h e o l d e r w o m a n e s c a p e d her p u n i s h m e n t , however, t h r o u g h
the i n t e r v e n t i o n of a
demon:
report
is t a k e n Past
Reformation', 50
and
Present,
67 (1975), 6 2 - 3 .
W h e n the to drag
fire
about error me of
F o r a n e x c e l l e n t c o l l e c t i o n o f s o u r c e s r e l a t i n g t o p o p u l a r a n d l e a r n e d m a g i c , see P. G. Maxwell-Stuart, London The Occult in Early Modern Europe: A Documentary History
them
(Macmillan, 51 52 53 Rosen,
1999).
Witchcraft,
70-1.
t h r e a d f r o m h e r b o s o m a n d t h r e w it o u t o f a l a r g e w i n d o w , b u t
keeping
Strauss, 'Success and Failure', 6 3 . Barry 130. Reay, Popular Cultures in England, 1550-1750 (Longman, London 1998),
t h e e n d o f t h e t h r e a d in h e r h a n d s ; t h e n in a l o u d v o i c e , a u d i b l e t o a l l , she s a i d ' C a t c h ! ' A t the w o r d , she w a s lifted f r o m the e a r t h r i g h t e v e r y o n e ' s e y e s a n d f o l l o w e d t h e b a l l o u t C o f ] t h e w i n d o w in r a p i d before flight,
54
Sydney Damned
Anglo, Art
'Evident
Authority
Evidence',
in A n g l o ,
e d . , The
London 1976), 1 - 3 1 .
55 56
w i t h e r she w a s t r a n s p o r t e d , t h e o n l o o k e r s c o u l d into allegations in B r i t a i n w a s c o n d u c t e d by involved in a This bizarre story underlined Ralph's conviction that of ' r i t u a l ' were satanism. Philip
of Health
investigation
Jean
L a Fontaine
in 1 9 9 2 . T h i s f o u n d t h a t e l e m e n t s
the
ultimate
source
of
all
Devil. The
reinforced doctrines
'The Demonology
of S a t a n i s m ' , Scare
a n d D. G .
in t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s a c c o u n t . H e r e he o f f e r e d a b r i e f e x p o s i t i o n of t h e
B r o m l e y , e d s , The Satanism
(Lexington
Books,
1991), 3 5 - 6 .
e a r l y t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . A t t h e e n d of t h i s p a s s a g e ,
rumour
PART
SEVEN
W i t c h c r a f t and Gender
A W A Y
IN
THE
TURGID,
relentlessly
misogynistic
pages
of
(1486) and
A n d w h a t , t h e n , is t o be t h o u g h t of t h o s e w i t c h e s w h o . . . s o m e t i m e s c o l l e c t m a l e o r g a n s in g r e a t n u m b e r s , as m a n y as t w e n t y o r t h i r t y m e m b e r s t o g e t h e r , a n d p u t t h e m in a b i r d ' s nest, o r s h u t t h e m up in a b o x , w h e r e they m o v e t h e m s e l v e s like living m e m b e r s , a n d eat oats a n d c o r n , as has been seen by m a n y a n d is a m a t t e r of c o m m o n r e p o r t ? . . . For a certain man tells that, when he h a d lost his m e m b e r , he
anxieties popular of
t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e r a n g e of s o u r c e s , e a c h of w h i c h a d d e d w e i g h t t o t h e i r t h a t s u c h m a t e r i a l w a s a v a i l a b l e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t e r e o t y p e of t h e f e m a l e
a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s a n d t h e d a n g e r s t h e y p o s e d . T h e
w a s by no m e a n s c o n f i n e d t o t h e l e a r n e d e l i t e . On t h i s p o i n t t h e d e m o n o l o g i s t s w e r e
268
PART
SEVEN:
WITCHCRAFT
AND
GENDER
PART
SEVEN:
WITCHCRAFT
AND
GENDER
269
a t one w i t h o r d i n a r y women.
of w i t c h e s
were
w o m e n a n d m e n c o u l d e n g a g e in i d e n t i c a l t y p e s of b e h a v i o u r b u t w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t outcomes: women who asked their neighbours for food and were turned away could s u b s e q u e n t l y be a c c u s e d of maleficium, w h i l e t h i s w a s less l i k e l y t o h a p p e n t o m e n . F o r H e s t e r , t h e w i t c h t r i a l s of t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d w e r e p a r t of a w i d e r m o v e m e n t t o r e c o n s t i t u t e g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s d u r i n g a t i m e of s o c i a l c h a n g e . T h e y h a d t h e e f f e c t of m a r g i n a l i s i n g w o m e n i n v o l v e d in c e r t a i n t r a d e s - s u c h as b r e w i n g a l l o w i n g m e n t o a s s u m e m o r e a u t h o r i t y in e x p a n d i n g a r e a s of t h e e c o n o m y . One o b j e c t i o n t o Hester's work is t h a t it t r i e s t o e x p l a i n w i t c h t r i a l s as t h e it is o p e n t o t h e c h a r g e of overgenerand
T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is r e f l e c t e d in t h e s u r v i v i n g r e c o r d s of w i t c h t r i a l s . T h e b e s t recent estimates suggest that three-quarters of t h o s e e x e c u t e d f o r w i t c h c r a f t in E u r o p e were w o m e n , t h o u g h the figures varied c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m place to place. M e n a n d w o m e n a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n e q u a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o a c c u s a t i o n s in p a r t s of F r a n c e , w h i l e m e n o u t n u m b e r e d w o m e n as w i t c h c r a f t s u s p e c t s in s o m e on the periphery of t h e c o n t i n e n t like Iceland and Estonia.
3
These figures
o u t w e i g h e d , h o w e v e r , by t h o s e f r o m
o u t c o m e of a s i n g l e c a u s e : t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g of g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s d u r i n g a p e r i o d of change. Like all monocausal explanations, a l i s a t i o n : did the e c o n o m i c circumstances that allegedly encouraged gender conflict in E n g l a n d a p p l y t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s e c u t i o n s ? A s L a r n e r p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 0 , a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w i t c h t r i a l s as ' w o m a n - h u n t i n g ' f o r c e s its proponents to e x p l a i n 'why w o m e n appeared p a r t i c u l a r l y threatening to p a t r i a r c h a l o r d e r a t t h i s t i m e , a n d w h y t h e y c e a s e d t o be so t h r e a t e n i n g a b o u t 1 7 0 0 ' . T h i s is a d i f f i c u l t t a s k , s i n c e p e r s e c u t i o n s t o o k p l a c e in so m a n y d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t s . T h e s a m e o b j e c t i o n c o u l d , of c o u r s e , be l e v e l l e d a g a i n s t L a r n e r ' s o w n v i e w t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s a r o s e f r o m t h e ' p o l i t i c i s a t i o n of r e l i g i o n ' in t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d (see C h a p t e r 1 5 ) . B o t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n v o l v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e of g e n e r a l i s a t i o n ; a n d r e a d e r s w i l l h a v e t o d e c i d e w h i c h , if e i t h e r , of t h e s e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s t h e y find m o s t c o n v i n c i n g . A n alternative, less a m b i t i o u s a p p r o a c h is t o e x a m i n e t h e r e c o r d s of s p e c i f i c 22, were
c e n t of t h e a c c u s e d w e r e w o m e n , a n d r e g i o n s l i k e H u n g a r y , D e n m a r k a n d E n g l a n d , w h e r e 9 0 per cent of w i t c h e s were f e m a l e . T h e potential influence of sexual stereotypes on prosecutions w a s illustrated in a list of ' p r e s u m p t i o n s against witches' d r a w n up f o r j u s t i c e s of t h e p e a c e ( J P s ) in Y o r k s h i r e in 1 5 9 2 : t h e f i r s t p r e s u m p tion was 'that they are most c o m o n l y weeke w o m e n ' .
4
S u c h records have obliged h i s t o r i a n s to evaluate the relationship between w i t c h h u n t i n g a n d g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d . B u t d e s p i t e t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o t h i s issue, t h e r e is s t i l l no c o n s e n s u s a m o n g a c a d e m i c s in t h e f i e l d . One i m p o r t a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r e p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 2 0 by C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r , h o l d s t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s w e r e a i m e d p r i m a r i l y a g a i n s t witches r a t h e r t h a n w o m e n as s u c h , t h o u g h t h e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n of w o m e n m a d e t h e m u n u s u a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o p r o s e c u tions. A c c o r d i n g to L a r n e r ' s f a m o u s f o r m u l a t i o n , w i t c h c r a f t was ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' but n o t ' s e x - s p e c i f i c ' , s i n c e it w a s n e v e r d e n i e d t h a t m e n a s w e l l a s w o m e n c o u l d be g u i l t y of t h e c r i m e . S h e a r g u e s t h a t a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n w i t c h - h u n t s in t e r m s t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of w o m e n by m e n d i s t r a c t h i s t o r i a n s f r o m t h e w i d e r p o l i t i c a l r e l i g i o u s c o n t e x t of t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s : it is n e c e s s a r y f i r s t t o e x p l a i n w h y especially vulnerable to accusations. This a p p r o a c h c o m p l e m e n t s argument represented encouraged in C h a p t e r 15 of t h i s book that the Reformation of and
c a m e t o a c c e p t t h e r e a l i t y of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t , t h e n t o c o n s i d e r w h y w o m e n w e r e Larner's politics
f a m i l y , i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l o f f e n c e s , i n f a n t i c i d e a n d w i t c h c r a f t . In e a c h of t h e s e a r e a s , w o m e n were more exposed to accusations than men. M a r i a n n e H e s t e r o f f e r s a s t i m u l a t i n g c r i t i c i s m of L a r n e r ' s w o r k in C h a p t e r 2 1 . S h e a r g u e s t h a t w i t h c r a f t i n v o l v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t w e r e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d as ' f e m i n i n e ' , s u c h a s v e n g e a n c e , lust a n d p r i d e ; a n d t h i s m e a n t t h a t t h e c r i m e J a c k s o n , w h o p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 6 t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t was a a l w a y s c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h w o m e n . T h i s a r g u m e n t c o m p l e m e n t s t h e v i e w s of L o u i s e involved r e v e r s a l of a c c e p t e d f e m a l e r o l e s : w i t c h e s w e r e p o i s o n e r s i n s t e a d of p r o v i d e r s of f o o d , h a r m e r s i n s t e a d of h e a l e r s , a n d c h i l d k i l l e r s i n s t e a d of c h i l d p r o t e c t o r s . T h u s a t y p i c a l w i t c h w a s t h e m i r r o r - i m a g e of a ' g o o d w o m a n ' , w h i l e p o s s e s s i n g a n e x c e s s of a r c h e t y p a l l y f e m a l e v i c e s . A l l of t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i d e a of w i t c h c r a f t s t r o n g l y i m p l i e d f e m a l e c u l p a b i l i t y , e v e n t h o u g h it w a s p o s s i b l e f o r m e n t o be i n v o l v e d a s well. Hester suggests t h a t v i l l a g e r s a n d m a g i s t r a t e s m i g h t have been l o o k i n g for not w i t c h e s r a t h e r t h a n w o m e n , b u t t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c r i m e i n c l i n e d t h e m t o l o o k f o r f e m a l e s u s p e c t s . M o r e o v e r , t h e s o c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of w o m e n w e r e e n o u g h in t h e m s e l v e s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r t a r g e t i n g a s w i t c h e s . In s o m e instances,
s e n t e d a n a t t e m p t by m e n t o c o n t r o l i n d e p e n d e n t w o m e n , a n d s e e k s t o r e l o c a t e t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e f e m a l e c o m m u n i t y cium were most frequently expressed. T h e t h e m e s r a i s e d in S h a r p e ' s c h a p t e r a r e r e v i e w e d witchcraft, normally and were often prominent in v i l l a g e - l e v e l accusations in C h a p t e r 2 3 by Clive the w a s in t h i s w o r l d of f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , he s u g g e s t s , t h a t a n x i e t i e s a b o u t malefi-
Holmes, who acknowledges that ordinary women frequently voiced concerns about attempts to deal with to the courts. Like t h r e a t of h a r m f u l m a g i c . F o r stopped short Holmes, however, women's encounters with formal witches Robin in
of t a k i n g
270
PART
SEVEN:
WITCHCRAFT
AND
GENDER
PART
SEVEN:
WITCHCRAFT
AND
GENDER
271
a c t i v i t i e s r e a c h e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of l o c a l m a g i s t r a t e s . were generally
Notes
1 Heinrich Summers 2 Kramer and James Dover Sprenger, Publications, Malleus Maleficarum, 1971), 121. wickedness later trans. Montague
less i n c l i n e d t o m o v e b e y o n d t h i s s t r a t e g y of a c c o m m o d a t i o n
seek l e g a l r e m e d i e s t h a n m e n . H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s in t r i a l s suggesting t h a t these acts were not accused. M e n , on the other instrumental in t h e p r o c e e d i n g s recent a c t s of
( 1 9 2 8 ; repr.
New York
prosecuting
3
w r i t e r s that w o m e n ' s weaknesses made t h e m m o r e susceptible to the Devil's t e m p t a tions. A l l e g a t i o n s of c a u s i n g i m p o t e n c e w e r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a r e in w i t c h trials. Briggs,
in t h e l e g a l d r a m a , a n d m a d e t h e into
H o l m e s s e e k s t o r e t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t he c a l l s ' t h e m i s o g y n o u s
dimension
4 5
A r c h i v e s of the Y o r k s h i r e A r c h a e o l o g i c a l
DD146/12/2/10. encour-
T h e i d e a t h a t m i d w i v e s w e r e c o m m o n l y a c c u s e d of w i t c h c r a f t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a g e d b y t h e e x c e s s i v e r e l i a n c e o f h i s t o r i a n s o n t h e Malleus that midwife witches abducted infants for ritual Maleficarum, Surviving
sacrifices.
suggest, however, that m i d w i v e s were not p a r t i c u l a r l y prone to accusations. See H a r l e y , ' H i s t o r i a n s a s D e m o n o l o g i s t s : T h e M y t h o f t h e M i d w i f e - W i t c h ' , Social of Medicine and 3(1), (1990), 1-26; Lyndal Modern Magic Roper, Europe in Sixteenth Oedipus and the Devil:
Sexuality
Religion
(Routledge, and
London 1994),
o w n r e p u t a t i o n s . I n d e e d , t h e i d e a of w i t c h c r a f t
Witchcraft 1987),
Seventeenth-Century
t h o s e w h o f e l l u n d e r s u s p i c i o n of t h e c r i m e as w e l l as t h e i r a c c u s e r s : t h e s u p p o s e d p o w e r s of t h e P e n d l e w i t c h e s p r o b a b l y a f f o r d e d t h e m m o r e i n f l u e n c e in t h e i r c o m m u nity t h a n they w o u l d Geoffrey otherwise have enjoyed. T h i s idea has been developed by S c a r r e , w h o argues t h a t the c o n s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d by p a t r i a r c h a l culture
London
For
usually
their that
w o m e n t h a n f o r m e n n o t b e c a u s e , as c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t h o u g h t ,
Scarre's
interpretation
r e s t o r e s t h e a g e n c y of w o m e n w h o t h o u g h t t h e m s e l v e s b u t p l a c e s t h i s in t h e c o n t e x t of w i d e r s o c i a l
to
be c a p a b l e of maleficium,
restraints.
A s i m i l a r p i c t u r e h a s e m e r g e d f r o m t h e s t u d y of w i t c h c r a f t c o n f e s s i o n s in r e c e n t y e a r s : t h e s e t e x t s r e v e a l h o w s o m e w o m e n c a m e t o i n t e r n a l i s e t h e i d e a of w i t c h c r a f t a s a n a c t of s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n , b u t d i d so in a c u l t u r e t h a t a l l o w e d t h e m o n l y a l i m i t e d r a n g e of a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s by w h i c h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r o w n f e e l i n g s a n d a c t i o n s . T h e s t u d y of t h i s m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e s a f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e b e t w e e n g e n d e r a n d w i t c h c r a f t ; a n d t h i s w i l l be p i c k e d up in P a r t 8 . relationship
C h a p t e r
20
Christina Larner
WOMAN-
m e m b e r o f t h e l o c a l L a b o u r P a r t y t o p r o t e s t t h a t this w a s s e x i s t . T h e y c h a n g e d i t t o ' D i t c h t h e B i t c h ' , a n d t h e s c h o o l g i r l g a v e u p . T h e s a m e w e e k t h e d e a t h o f an e l d e r l y w o m a n f r o m s t a r v a t i o n w a s r e p o r t e d in t h e p r e s s . It w a s n o t e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n t h e bane o f the social w o r k d e p a r t m e n t for vears, refusing offers o f h e l p , asserting h e r p r i v a c y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d a b u s i n g all t h o s e w h o c a m e n e a r h e r . T h e r e p o r t a l s o n o t e d that the local children called h e r 'the w i t c h ' . O n l y t h e children? A n d w h a t do M a r g a r e t T h a t c h e r a n d a p a u p e r i s e d e s c a p e e f r o m t h e w e l f a r e s t a t e h a v e in c o m m o n ? T h e s t e r e o t y p e w i t c h is an i n d e p e n d e n t a d u l t w o m a n w h o d o e s n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e m a l e i d e a o f p r o p e r f e m a l e b e h a v i o u r . S h e is a s s e r t i v e ; s h e d o e s n o t r e q u i r e o r give love ( t h o u g h she m a y e n c h a n t ) ; she does n o t n u r t u r e m e n o r c h i l d r e n , n o r c a r e f o r t h e w e a k . S h e has t h e p o w e r o f w o r d s t o d e f e n d h e r s e l f o r t o c u r s e . In addition, she m a y have o t h e r , m o r e mysterious p o w e r s which do n o t derive f r o m the established order. All w o m e n threaten m a l e h e g e m o n y with their exclusive therefore, p o w e r t o give life; and social o r d e r d e p e n d s o n w o m e n c o n f o r m i n g t o m a l e ideals o f f e m a l e b e h a v i o u r . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a n y w o m a n as a w i t c h w i l l , set against h e r n o t only m a l e s , b u t also c o n f o r m i n g f e m a l e s and their children. T o what e x t e n t , t h e n , was the European w i t c h - h u n t ( b e t w e e n the late Middle Ages and t h e beginning o f the eighteenth c e n t u r v ) a response t o a perceived threat t o t h e s o c i a l o r d e r t h r o u g h s o m e c h a n g e in t h e s t a t u s o r p o w e r o f w o m e n ? D u r i n g those years, several thousands o f people, mostlv peasant w o m e n , w e r e put through a c o m p l e x judicial process administered bv m e n , and e x e c u t e d for witchcraft. W a s this a t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d a t t a c k o n w o m e n as s u c h ? T h e c a s e t h a t t h e w i t c h - h u n t w as a w o m a n - h u n t is a s t r o n g o n e . In t h e
r
HEN
THE
ORGANISERS
o f an u n e m p l o y m e n t r a l l v s u g g e s t e d
'Ditch
t h e W i t c h ' [ M a r g e r e t T h a t c h e r ] as a b a n n e r s l o g a n , i t w a s l e f t t o a s c h o o l g i r l
first
p l a c e , t h e s t e r e o t y p e o f a w i t c h in C h r i s t i a n E u r o p e has a l w a y s b e e n t h a t o f a w o m a n . In t w e l f t h - c e n t u r v R u s s i a , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in o n e d i s t r i c t b e c a m e anxious about the prevalence o f witchcraft and began to round up the entire female p o p u l a t i o n . In 1 4 9 2 , in L a n g e n d o r f in t h e R h i n e l a n d , t h e v a r r e s t e d all b u t t w o o f t h e
274
CHRISTINA
LARNER
WAS
WITCH-HUNTING
W 0 MA N-HUNTING?
275
adult w o m e n . O n the island o f C o l l , o f f the w e s t coast o f S c o t l a n d , a m a n c l a i m e d t o h a v e b e e n a t t a c k e d b v a w i t c h w h o h a d t u r n e d h e r s e l f i n t o an a n g r y s h e e p . H e said t h a t , i f all t h e w o m e n in C o l l w e r e p l a c e d t o g e t h e r in a p e n , his d o g w o u l d be able to sniff out w h i c h o f t h e m was the w i t c h . If you are looking for a w i t c h , v o u a r e l o o k i n g f o r a w o m a n , a n d it c o u l d b e any w o m a n . W h e t h e r anonvmous or publicly identified, a witch threatens the established o r d e r . It w a s n o t f o r n o t h i n g t h a t M a r g a r e t L i s t e r o f F i f e w a s d e s c r i b e d in h e r i n d i c t m e n t in 1 6 6 2 as 'a w i t c h , a c h a r m e r a n d a l i b b e r ' . T h e last t e r m s e e m s t o h a v e had m u c h t h e s a m e p e j o r a t i v e m e a n i n g it c a r r i e s t o d a y : a l i b e r a t e d woman who w h o insists o n m a k i n g an i s s u e o f i t . W i t c h e s a r e c o n s p i c u o u s . T h e w o m e n
w a s d e f e n d i n g h e r s e l f a g a i n s t t h e a c c u s a t i o n s o f J e a n S p r o t in D u m f r i e s in 1 6 7 1 , she a r g u e d t h a t J e a n s h o u l d n o t b e a c c e p t e d as a w i t n e s s s i n c e she w a s as g r e a t a w i t c h h e r s e l f . S h e c o u l d t e l l f o r t u n e s f r o m t h e way A more a person walked. floated suggests that, since male a b s u r d a r g u m e n t w h i c h has b e e n
s u s p e c t s a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d w i t h t h e s a m e h a r s h n e s s as f e m a l e s o n c e t h e y r e a c h e d t h e c o u r t s , n o bias a g a i n s t w o m e n c a n b e d e t e c t e d in t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . T h i s ignores the crucial p r o c e s s through w h i c h t h o s e w h o w e r e put on trial w e r e s e l e c t e d in t h e first p l a c e . It d o e s , h o w e v e r , d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l o b j e c tion that the c r i m e o f witchcraft, while s e x - r e l a t e d , was n o t sex-specific. A b o u t 2 0 per cent o f suspects w e r e male. T h e r e are o t h e r reasons for doubting w h e t h e r the w i t c h - h u n t was a straightf o r w a r d , thinly disguised w o m a n - h u n t . T h o s e w h o w e r e p r o s e c u t e d for witchcraft w e r e n o t , e x c e p t during certain mass panics, r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d (anv m o r e m a l e s w h o w e r e p r o s e c u t e d f o r c r i m e s o f v i o l e n c e in this p e r i o d w e r e selected). T h e cursing and b e w i t c h i n g w o m e n w e r e the f e m a l e equivalent o f violent m a l e s . T h e y w e r e t h e d i s t u r b e r s o f s o c i a l o r d e r ; t h e y w e r e t h o s e w h o c o u l d n o t easilv c o o p e r a t e with o t h e r s ; they w e r e aggressive. W i t c h e s , like m a l e bullies, w e r e n o t ' n i c e p e o p l e ' . ' A n d w h e n I gave m y malison [the o p p o s i t e o f b e n i s o n j ' , o n e Scottish w i t c h said at h e r t r i a l , ' i t a l w a y s l i g h t e d ' . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p u r s u i t of w i t c h e s was n o m o r e a p e r s e c u t i o n o f w o m e n than the p r o s e c u t i o n o f killers and m a i m e r s w a s a p e r s e c u t i o n o f m e n . T h e p a r a l l e l is n o t e x a c t , b u t it is n o t a b s u r d . T h e p r i m e i n t e r e s t o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s at t h e t i m e w a s t h e p u r s u i t o f w i t c h e s as such. A witch to t h e m was a person w h o had r e n o u n c e d Christian baptism, given h i s / h e r s o u l t o t h e D e v i l , a n d w a s in c o n s p i r a c y w i t h o t h e r w i t c h e s t o o v e r t h r o w the social o r d e r . T h e p u r p o s e o f a w i t c h - h u n t was the prising out o f dangerous p e r s o n s w h o w e r e e n e m i e s o f G o d , the state and the p e o p l e . T h e fact that these ideological e n e m i e s t u r n e d out t o be 8 0 p e r cent f e m a l e could have added fuel t o the m i s o g y n y o f the age r a t h e r than b e a direct c o n s e q u e n c e o f it. D e s p i t e the longt e r m s t e r e o t y p e , sixteenth c e n t u r y d e m o n o l o g i s t s spent m u c h t i m e puzzling o v e r w h y w o m e n w e r e so m u c h m o r e w i c k e d than men. T h e o b j e c t i o n t o v i e w i n g w i t c h - h u n t i n g s i m p l y as w o m a n - h u n t i n g is t h a t it l e a d s us t o ask t o o n a r r o w a r a n g e o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t i t . W e m u s t ask w h y w o m e n a p p e a r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h r e a t e n i n g t o p a t r i a r c h a l o r d e r a t this t i m e , a n d w h v t h e v c e a s e d t o b e s o t h r e a t e n i n g a b o u t 1 7 0 0 . W a s it b e c a u s e o f a r i s e in t h e i r s t a t u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e ? W a s t h e r e a s u p e r f l u o u s f e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n ? W a s it ( p a r a d o x i c a l l y ) because the Christianization o f the peasantry through the R e f o r m a t i o n and C o u n t e r Reformation i n c r e a s e d the individual responsibilitv o f w o m e n for their spiritual opens l i v e s ? W a s it b e c a u s e t h e r e l i g i o n so d i f f u s e d w a s r e l e n t l e s s l v p a t r i a r c h a l ? T h e thought that witch-hunting was actuallv witch-hunting, h o w e v e r , o u t a f u r t h e r r a n g e o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e f u n c t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y as a p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y in this p e r i o d , t h e r o l e p l a v e d b v w i t c h - h u n t i n g in l a w and o r d e r c r i s e s , a n d t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f p a r a l l e l s w i t h o t h e r g r e a t , less s e x u a l l y - s p e c i f i c and purges o f past and p r e s e n t . persecutions than randomly
w e n t to the stake during the w i t c h - h u n t w e n t cursing, often for the c r i m e o f cursing. T h e ratio o f females to males put on trial for w i t c h c r a f t r e i n f o r c e s the t h e o r y that the w i t c h - h u n t was part o f the sex w a r . T h e actual n u m b e r o f those involved is p e r m a n e n t l y suggest that in inaccessible, areas at the but reliable centre figures for particular criminal in Germany, archives France, o f the witch-hunt,
Switzerland and Scotland, 8 0 per c e n t o f the accused w e r e f e m a l e . F o r areas on t h e p e r i p h e r v in E n g l a n d a n d R u s s i a , f o r e x a m p l e was n e a r e r 9 5 1 0 0 per cent. W h i l e I a m c o n s i d e r i n g d u b i o u s b u t n o t q u i t e p o i n t l e s s s t a t i s t i c s , it m i g h t b e w o r t h a d d i n g t h a t w i t c h c r a f t ( t h e u l t i m a t e in h u m a n e v i l ) w a s s e x - r e l a t e d t o f e m a l e s in j u s t t h e s a m e p r o p o r t i o n as s a n c t i t y ( t h e u l t i m a t e in h u m a n g o o d ) w a s s e x - r e l a t e d to males during the 'sanctity e p i d e m i c ' o f the later Middle Ages. W h e n t h e w i t c h - h u n t is p u t i n t o its c r i m i n a l c o n t e x t , t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s c o n s c i o u s l y s o u g h t t o t e r r o r i z e a n d i n t i m i d a t e w o m e n g a i n s f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h . U p t o this p e r i o d , w o m e n t e n d e d t o b e r e g a r d e d in l a w as t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e i r f a t h e r s o r t h e i r h u s b a n d s . In t h e sixteenth c e n t u r v , certain activities o f w o m e n w e r e m a d e into c r i m e s for the time. While were older women were for coming into the courts for The witchcraft offences women of or activity. against (including unofficial healing) and f o r k e e p i n g disorderly h o u s e s , y o u n g e r being prosecuted infanticide and p r o s t i t u t i o n . vounger w o m e n Women urban labouring, c a m e in t h e w a k e o f n e w p u n i t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o s e x u a l were also particularlv vulnerable to the new laws first the proportion of females
criminalization fighting
v a g a b o n d s . T h e r e is m u c h t o s u g g e s t t h a t in t h e l a w - a n d - o r d e r c r i s e s g e n e r a t e d b y the n e w regimes o f early m o d e r n E u r o p e , w o m e n w e r e a p r i m e symbol o f disorder. S o w h a t is t h e c a s e f o r a r g u i n g t h a t t h e w i t c h - h u n t w a s n o t d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y b y m e n a g a i n s t w o m e n ? O n e l i n e o f a r g u m e n t is t h a t , s i n c e w o m e n a c c u s e d o t h e r w o m e n a n d w e r e f r e q u e n t l y c h i e f w i t n e s s e s in t h e c o u r t s , t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g m i s o g vnous about witch-hunting. Male judges w e r e simply responding to pressures from b e l o w ; p r e s s u r e s w h i c h c a m e l a r g e l y f r o m w o m e n . T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g is b a s e d on a failure to recognize that a patriarchal social structure divides women. D e p e n d e n t for their livelihood on the goodwill o f m e n , m o s t w o m e n will n o t only c o n f o r m , b u t also attack w o m e n w h o by their n o n c o n f o r m i t y t h r e a t e n the s e c u ritv o f c o n f o r m i s t women. many accusations o f witchcraft w e r e between A t village l e v e l , n e v e r t h e l e s s ,
PATRIARCHAL
RECONSTRUCTION
AND
WITCH-HUNTING
277
C h a p t e r
21
e n v i r o n m e n t , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e a n s w e r t o w h o t h e w i t c h e s w e r e c a n b e f o u n d at the village level w h e r e allegations a r o s e . Essentially, T h o m a s argues that w i t c h c r a f t accusation was related t o failure t o carry o u t s o m e hitherto recognised social obliga t i o n ; a p o o r w o m a n w o u l d ask f o r c h a r i t y o r t o b o r r o w e s s e n t i a l s u p p l i e s ( o f t e n f r o m a n o t h e r , slightly b e t t e r off, w o m a n ) , b u t d e n i e d and eventually, i f m i s f o r t u n e h a p p e n e d t o t h e o n e w h o had d e n i e d h e r , w o u l d b e a c c u s e d o f using w i t c h c r a f t t o c a u s e t h e m i s f o r t u n e . T h i s c l a s s i c m o d e l o f w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n has s i n c e b e e n shown t o have a w i d e r application than m e r e l y for E n g l a n d / although o n e might q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r it actually explains w h y it w a s w o m e n w h o p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g s t t h e a c c u s e d . F o r T h o m a s , this s c e n a r i o o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s in a c o n t e x t o f c h a n g i n g , conflictual, m o r a l obligations does explain w h y t h e accused w e r e older, p o o r and often w i d o w e d w o m e n . H e points o u t that during t h e late T u d o r and earlv Stuart period, when formal witchcraft accusation w a s at its h e i g h t , village conflicts around neighbourliness g r e w especially acute. T h e erosion o f the manorial system w i t h l o s s o f c u s t o m a r y t e n a n c i e s a n d c o m m o n l a n d c r e a t e d p o v e r t y w h i l e at t h e same t i m e b r e a k i n g up old c o o p e r a t i v e village c o m m u n i t i e s . W i d o w s w e r e particularly adversely affected by these changes leaving t h e m vulnerable t o w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n . T h o m a s , l i k e M a c f a r l a n e , c l e a r l y shies a w a y f r o m s e e i n g this o u t c o m e
Marianne Hester
PATRIARCHAL AND
RECONSTRUCTION
WITCH-HUNTING
NE
OF T H E
MOST
CONSISTENT
f o r w o m e n as in a n y w a y r e l a t e d t o m a l e f e m a l e c o n f l i c t . H e a r g u e s t h a t b e c a u s e t h e m i s o g y n i s t i c o r ' b l a t a n t l y s e x u a l a s p e c t s ' o f w i t c h c r a f t c o m m o n in c o n t i n e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e s u c h as t h e Malleus Maleflcarum w e r e n o t a feature o f English trials, and especially because the accusations w e r e often from o n e w o m a n t o another rather than b e t w e e n w o m e n and m e n , ' t h e idea that w i t c h p r o s e c u t i o n s r e f l e c t e d a w a r between the sexes must be discounted'. about witchcraft and neighbourliness,
8
e a r l v m o d e r n w i t c h - h u n t s is h o w a c c u s a t i o n a n d p e r s e c u t i o n f o r w i t c h c r a f t In an a t t e m p t t o q u e s t i o n w h y t h e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e a c c u s e d this c h a p t e r seeks t o m o v e b e y o n d K e i t h of Magic Thomas's Focusing and the Decline ( 1 9 7 1 ) and also b e y o n d t h e d i c h o t o m y
2
o f wdtchcraft w e r e w o m e n , a n a l y s i s in Religion
o f 'sex-related versus sex-specific' set up by Christina Larner's w o r k . enon o f the witch-hunts w e have t o see male
o f p o s s i b l e l i n k s b e t w e e n e a r l y m o d e r n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s at t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l , b e l i e f s w o m e n ' s p o s i t i o n as d e p e n d e n t p o o r a n d e s p e c i a l l y as p o o r w i d o w s . B u t , d e s p i t e his c l a i m s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , h e d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y m a n a g e t o e x p l a i n w h y i t s h o u l d b e w o m e n r a t h e r t h a n m e n w h o a r e in this p o s i t i o n o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y , o f d e p e n d e n c y a n d p o v e r t y . T h i s is b e c a u s e his s o m e w h a t p o s i t i v i s t i c a p p r o a c h t o t h e m a t e r i a l detailing the accused and victims o f witchcraft does n o t allow him t o e x a m i n e the p r o c e s s o f g e n d e r i n g o f t h e social relations h e o t h e r w i s e so e l o q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e s . S i n c e Religion and the Decline of Magic w a s first p u b l i s h e d in t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s t h e
m a i n l y o n E n g l i s h m a t e r i a l , i t a r g u e s t h a t in o u r q u e s t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p h e n o m f e m a l e c o n f l i c t u a l r e l a t i o n s as a n integral part o f the process o f accusation and p e r s e c u t i o n . T h e accusation o f w o m e n w a s n o t m e r e l v a r e f l e c t i o n o f an a g e - o l d s t e r e o t y p e , n o r m e r e l y t h e b y - p r o d u c t o f a patriarchal society; the witch-hunts w e r e a part of, and o n e e x a m p l e of, the o n g o i n g m e c h a n i s m s for social c o n t r o l o f w o m e n within a general c o n t e x t o f social change and the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a patriarchal s o c i e t y .
3
It is g e n e r a l l y
t h a t E u r o p e in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d e x p e r i e n c e d a v a r i e t y o f m a j o r c h a n g e s in t e r m s o f d e m o g r a p h y , ideology, e c o n o m y , religions and political systems. ' c h a n g e ' a l o n e c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e w i t c h - h u n t s at this t i m e . turing o f society which created many uncertainties, Nonetheless, has r i g h t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c h a n g e is n o t a f e a t u r e u n i q u e t o t h i s p e r i o d , a n d t h a t
4
w o r k o f C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r has p r o b a b l y h a d t h e g r e a t e s t i m p a c t o n h i s t o r i a n s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f w h y it w a s l a r g e l y w o m e n w h o w e r e a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d . L a r n e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e w i t c h - h u n t s in e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e ( a n d e s p e c i a l l y in S c o t l a n d , t h e a r e a o f h e r r e s e a r c h e s ) w e r e s e x - r e l a t e d w i t h r e g a r d t o w o m e n b u t n o t s e x - s p e c i f i c . L a r n e r did n o t give p r e c i s e definitions f o r these t e r m s , but indicated that the t e r m ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' m e a n t that witch-hunts w e r e ' o n e degree r e m o v e d f r o m an a t t a c k o n w o m e n as s u c h ' . ' S e x - s p e c i f i c ' w o u l d b e a p p l i e d o n l v i f all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w i t c h w e r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o w o m e n , a n d in p r a c t i c e , she a r g u e d , this is n o t t h e c a s e b e c a u s e 'the t w o principal characteristics o f the w i t c h , t h a t is m a l i c e a n d a l l e g e d s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r , a r e h u m a n r a t h e r t h a n f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' . S h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t w h i l e t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e a c c u s e d a m i d those p r o s e c u t e d for witchcraft w e r e w o m e n , the witch-hunts w e r e n o t actually about w o m e n hunting, but w e r e m o r e to do with the imposition o f a Christian p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y . It w a s t h e a g e - o l d g e n d e r s t e r e o t v p e o f t h e w i t c h t h a t m a d e t h e m
tensions
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female relations.
W i t h i n this
context
w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s e r v e d in a d y n a m i c r a t h e r t h a n f u n c t i o n a l s e n s e as a m e a n s o f r e c r e a t i n g t h e m a l e s t a t u s q u o in t h e e m e r g i n g s o c i a l o r d e r . T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m ines s o m e o f the evidence for t h e relationship b e t w e e n witchcraft and patriarchal r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , in p a r t i c u l a r l i n k s b e t w e e n ' t h e f e m a l e ' a n d t h e w i t c h , t h e g e n d e r i n g o f expectations and meanings and m a l e - f e m a l e conflict with regard t o resources. Keith T h o m a s , talking o f course primarily about the English c o n t e x t , that ' t h e judicial r e c o r d s reveal t w o essential facts a b o u t a c c u s e d w i t c h e s : w e r e p o o r , and they w e r e usually w o m e n ' .
6
states they
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278
MARIANNE
HESTER
PATRIARCHAL
RECONSTRUCTION
AND
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279
sex-related. T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , s o m e p r o b l e m s with L a r n e r ' s d i c h o t o m y ol sexrelated versus sex-specific. For a start, Larner's own work is actually more a m b i g u o u s t h a n t h e d i c h o t o m y t h a t has a r i s e n f r o m it s u g g e s t s . A s she says w h e n d i s c u s s i n g t h e l i n k b e t w e e n w i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e t y p e o f p e r s o n a c c u s e d , t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p is d i r e c t : ' W i t c h - h u n t i n g is w o m e n h u n t i n g o r at l e a s t i t is t h e h u n t i n g o f w o m e n who h o w w o m e n ought to conduct t h e m s e l v e s ' .
9
seventeenth
W e n e e d t o m o v e b e y o n d the d i c h o t o m y set up by L a r n e r ' s w o r k so that w e m a y d e v e l o p a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d analysis o l w h y t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w e r e w o m e n , and t h i s r e q u i r e s a d e e p e r l o o k at m a l e f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s ( o r g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s ) d u r i n g t h i s period than most historians have so far a t t e m p t e d .
r 1 3
d o n o t fulfill t h e m a l e v i e w o f
Secondly, defining 'sex-specific' by r e f e r e n c e to a set o f characteristics which c a n s e e m i n g l y a p p l y t o o n l y o n e s e x i g n o r e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g e in t h e p e r c e p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f anv characteristics a t t r i b u t a b l e t o m e n o r w o m e n . N e i t h e r s e x has a m o n o p o l y o n a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r b e h a v i o u r e x c e p t as c o n s t r u c t e d a n d s p e c i f i e d at a n y p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w i t c h were of
1 0
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w i t c h s t e r e o t y p e d e v e l o p e d , and how
and w h y w i t c h - h u n t i n g
p r i o r t o , as w e l l as d u r i n g , t h e w i t c h - h u n t s w a s m a l e d o m i n a t e d o r p a t r i a r c h a l , with a resultant g e n d e r i n g o f social r e l a t i o n s , social s t r u c t u r e s and discourses manv different levels. W e n e e d in p a r t i c u l a r t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e dynamic
b e i n g p e r c e i v e d i n c r e a s i n g l y as f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n c l u d i n g a p e r c e p t i o n
nature o f patriarchy, w h e r e continuity o f inequality b e t w e e n m e n and w o m e n relies on changing f o r m s o f oppression o v e r t i m e . As I have p o i n t e d o u t e l s e w h e r e , societies that are m a l e dominated rely on constructions o f 'the f e m a l e ' which present w o m e n as b o t h d i f f e r e n t a n d i n f e r i o r t o m e n ; a n d s e x u a l i s a t i o n , o r ing, and t h e r e b y m a i n t a i n i n g , this d i f f e r e n c e . eroticisation, o f ' t h e f e m a l e ' i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s o v e r t i m e , is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in c o n s t r u c t 1 6
m a l i c e a n d u s e o f s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r as m o r e l i k e l y t o b e f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h i s l e a d s us t o a n o t h e r r e l a t e d p r o b l e m , t h a t o f p l a c i n g as c e n t r a l t o w i t c h h u n t i n g t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y and t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e s e x - r e l a t e d n e s s o f a c c u s a t i o n s is s e p a r a t e f r o m this a n d m e r e l y t o d o w i t h t h e a g e old stereotype of the witch. This misses the point (otherwise implicit in the q u o t a t i o n f r o m L a r n e r ) t h a t g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f C h r i s t i a n p o l i t ical i d e o l o g y , c o n s t r u c t i n g a n d b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h i s . It is n o t e n o u g h , t o u s e S c a r r e ' s w o r d s , ' t o sav t h a t m o r e w o m e n t h a n m e n w e r e t r i e d f o r w i t c h c r a f t b e c a u s e the stereotypical witch was a w o m a n ' .
1 1
from
Women
s e x - r e l a t e d v e r s u s s e x - s p e c i f i c has u n f o r t u n a t e l y s e t u p a d u a l i s m w h i c h it is o f t e n difficult to l o o k b e v o n d w h e r e historians t e n d to c o n c u r emphatically with h e r a r g u m e n t o f s e x - r e l a t e d n e s s , w h i l e n o t t h i n k i n g b e y o n d this a n d m e r e l y r i d i c u l i n g and marginalising the a r g u m e n t that the w i t c h - h u n t s w e r e indeed sex-specific. I f w e are t o u s e t h e t e r m s ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' a n d ' s e x - s p e c i f i c ' at a l l , t h e n w e s h o u l d use the t e r m s to reflect a m o r e c o m p l e x situation. I w o u l d suggest that the witchh u n t s w e r e n o t m e r e l y s e x - r e l a t e d o r m e r e l v s e x - s p e c i f i c , b u t at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d at d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s b o t h r e l a t e d t o a n d s p e c i f i c t o w o m e n . We may, for i n s t a n c e , c o n s i d e r b e l i e f s a m o n g s t t h e l e a r n e d e l i t e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a legal f r a m e w o r k f o r d e a l i n g w i t h w i t c h c r a f t , e s p e c i a l l y p r i o r t o t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , as s e x r e l a t e d ; w h i l e at a l o c a l l e v e l , a m o n g s t t h e p e a s a n t r y , b e l i e f s a n d a c t i v i t i e s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s w e r e in m o s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s s e x - s p e c i f i c . I f w e f o c u s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w i t c h c r a f t c o n s t r u c t a m o n g s t t h e l e a r n e d e l i t e in t h e c e n t u r i e s l e a d i n g up t o the w i t c h - h u n t s , w e see that u n e q u a l malefemale social relations w e r e also r e f l e c t e d in a n d c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e e m e r g i n g n o t i o n o f t h e w i t c h . O n e o f t h e r e s u l t s , a s e x u a l d o u b l e s t a n d a r d w i t h f e m a l e s e x u a l i t v p r e s e n t e d as i n f e r i o r t o t h a t o i m e n , is o b v i o u s in t e x t s s u c h as t h e Malleus Malefcarum.
11
procreative
In r e c e n t v e a r s t h e r e has b e e n a t r e m e n d o u s d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e t h e o r i s i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d in w h a t T h o m a s t e r m s t h e ' w a r b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s ' , t h a t is the oppressive relations, structures and discourses that characterise patriarchy for w o m e n . H o b b y , talking specifically about w o m e n ' s activities within the patriarchal c o n t e x t o f s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , has o u t l i n e d t h e m a n y w a y s w o m e n ' s lives w e r e c u r t a i l e d by c o m p a r i s o n t o t h o s e o f m e n , b u t also h o w w o m e n a c t e d w i t h i n this c o n t e x t as s u b j e c t s m a k i n g c h o i c e s , a l b e i t l i m i t e d o n e s : ' W o m e n find w a y s o f c o p i n g w i t h their o p p r e s s i o n and ways o f resisting it, b u t this capitulation o r resist a n c e is n o t f r e e o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n e d : it c a n n o r m a l l y o n l y o c c u r w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s and on t h e t e r m s o f t h e f r a m e w o r k set by the d o m i n a n t g r o u p , men'.
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D u r i n g this p e r i o d o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , t h e p a t r i a r c h a l i d e a l f o r w o m e n w a s t h a t they should b e quiet ( n o t scolds) and subservient t o their husbands ( n o t c u c k o l d i n g t h e l a t t e r ) . M a r r i a g e , as t h e site o f a h e t e r o s e x u a l , p r o c r e a t i v e s e x u a l i t y u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f m e n , w a s as e x p r e s s e d in m a n y s e r m o n s , p a m p h l e t s and o t h e r l i t e r ature at the t i m e take p l a c e .
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B u t in this p r e - w i t c h - h u n t p e r i o d t h e f o c u s o f p e r s e c u t i o n w a s t h o s e p e r s o n s c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h as ' h e r e t i c s ' , i n c l u d i n g b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n ; a l t h o u g h at a l o c a l and i n f o r m a l l e v e l , p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h o s e d e e m e d t o b e w i t c h e s was probablv m o r e specific to w o m e n even then. C o h n , for e x a m p l e , documents
n
i n s t a n c e s o f l o c a l l y n c h i n g s , s u p p o s e d l y o f w i t c h e s , t h a t all a p p e a r t o b e o f w o m e n .
Witchcralt
In m o s t o f t h e c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d b v w i t c h - h u n t s w e s e e an o r i e n t a t i o n o f p e r s e c u t i o n a w a v f r o m m e n , a n d a l s o a w a y f r o m t h e e l i t e , t o w a r d s w o m e n and in p a r t i c u l a r
a c c u s a t i o n m u s t b e s e e n in this c o n t e x t o f w i d e s p r e a d f e a r s t h a t w o m e n w e r e b y
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T h e w o m e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t m a y b e s e e n as v i c t i m s o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , b u t t h e c o n s t r u c t o f t h e f e m a l e as an a c t i v e l v s e x u a l , h e n c e s i n f u l b e i n g , u p o n w h i c h a c c u s a t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t r e l i e d , s h o w s us t h a t w o m e n w e r e b y n o m e a n s c o n s i d ered passive or compliant. Women were perceived to be morally weak by c o m p a r i s o n with m e n , b u t this c o u l d also m a k e t h e m appear u l t i m a t e l y stronger
o f ' t h e f e m a l e ' b e c a m e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e w i t c h . T h e p r o c e s s o f g e n d e r i n g is o f central i m p o r t a n c e : that is, the process o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and positioning o f w o m e n ( b y t h e m s e l v e s , o t h e r w o m e n a n d m e n ) as i n f e r i o r a n d s u b o r d i n a t e t o m e n , a n d t h e m a n y s u b t l e o r n o t so s u b t l e p r e s s u r e s u n d e r l y i n g s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d p o s i t i o n i n g . G e n e r a l b e l i e f s a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d w e r e l i n k e d t o s e x / g e n d e r in s u c h a w a y t h a t it w a s e x p e c t e d t h a t w o m e n a n d n o t m e n w o u l d u s e w i t c h c r a f t f o r r e t r i b u t i o n and t o cause h a r m that is, t h e r e was a g e n d e r i n g o f e x p e c tations and m e a n i n g s . D e l p h y has p o i n t e d out, w i t h r e g a r d t o social relations in F r e n c h peasant s o c i e t y , t h a t it is t h e s e x o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t d e t e r m i n e s h o w a t a s k is p e r c e i v e d rather than the nature o f the task i t s e l f .
2 4
than m e n . W o m e n ' s supposedly insatiable and i m m o r a l sexuality was likely t o lead t h e m i n t o a l l e g i a n c e w i t h t h e D e v i l w h o c o u l d fulfill t h e i r s e x u a l d e s i r e s e v e n b e t t e r , so it w a s f e a r e d , t h a n m e r e m o r t a l m e n . In t h e E n g l i s h t r i a l m a t e r i a l this a l l e g i a n c e w a s e x p l i c i t w i t h s o m e o f t h e l a t e r t r i a l s s u c h as t h e 1 6 4 5 t r i a l s i n E s s e x i n v o l v i n g M a t t h e w H o p k i n s , b u t a l s o i m p l i c i t in t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e f a m i l i a r a n d t h e w i t c h e s ' m a r k s in o t h e r t r i a l s .
2 1
C l i v e H o l m e s n o t e s t h a t T h o m a s C o o p e r , in a t e x t o f 1 6 1 7 ,
W e c a n s e e t h i s p r o c e s s c l e a r l v in t r i a l might
' m a d e an e x p l i c i t a t t e m p t t o c o n f l a t e t h e f a m i l i a r ' s s u c k i n g b l o o d f r o m t h e w i t c h with the continental discussion o f the coven and the w i t c h ' s relationship with Satan'. B e r n a r d ' s Guide to Grand-Jury Men, a d e c a d e l a t e r , p r o v i d e d a fullv a r g u e d t h e o r y by lawyer o f this link. A n d sexualisation o f t h e w i t c h e s ' m a r k was m a d e especially a p p a r e n t a f t e r 1 6 3 0 , w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h e d i t i o n o f The Country Justice a n d J P , M i c h a e l D a l t o n . In t h i s , D a l t o n c i t e s B e r n a r d ' w i t h e n t h u s i a s t i c a p p r o v a l ' , b u t also changes B e r n a r d ' s insistence that w i t c h e s ' m a r k s m a y b e found a n y w h e r e a l t h o u g h in ' v e r y h i d d e n p l a c e s ' Thereafter, to a more explicit focus on the genitals. witch's magistrates r e c o m m e n d e d that the pre-trial body search for
2 2
carry out similar activities b u t only w o m e n end up accused o f witchcraft, or w h e r e it is w o m e n w h o e n d u p a c c u s e d o f m e n ' s m i s d e m e a n o u r s . O n e p a t t e r n w e a r e all familiar w i t h f r o m the trial material involves the suspect asking s o m e o n e a n o t h e r h o u s e h o l d , usually a w o m a n , from for f o o d , o t h e r household items and even
m o n e y . W h e n refused this, the refuser o r her/his family subsequently suffers death o r i l l n e s s . T h e w o m a n m a k i n g t h e d e m a n d is t h e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t . B u t i f a m a n m a k e s d e m a n d s o f a w o m a n t h e n it still t h e w o m a n w h o is a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t as in t h e c a s e o f J o h n C h a u n d e l e r a n d E l l e i n e S m i t h e a t t h e 1 5 7 9 t r i a l in C h e l m s f o r d . T h e p a m p h l e t f o r t h e t r i a l t e l l s us t h a t E l l e i n e S m i t h e i n h e r i t e d s o m e m o n e y from Alice, her mother, which Alice's widowed husband, John Chaundeler, t h e n d e m a n d e d f o r h i m s e l f . It t r a n s p i r e s t h a t J o h n a n d E l l e i n e h a v e f a l l e n o u t o v e r his d e m a n d f o r t h e m o n e y . S u b s e q u e n t l y J o h n C h a u n d e l e r d i e s , a n d b e f o r e his d e a t h states that Elleine b e w i t c h e d h i m so that he was unable t o eat or digest m e a t . r e s u l t is t h a t s h e e n d s u p as t h e a c c u s e d . In a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e , f r o m t h e s a m e t r i a l , i t is T h o m a s P r a t w h o t a k e s M o t h e r S t a u n t o n ' s g r a i n b u t it is M o t h e r S t a u n t o n w h o e n d s u p a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t . T h e p a m p h l e t for the trial describes M o t h e r S t a u n t o n walking past T h o m a s P r a t ' s h o u s e w i t h s o m e g r a i n . H e w a n t s s o m e f o r his c h i c k e n s a n d t a k e s i t f r o m h e r . H e has p r e v i o u s l y e q u i v o c a t e d a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t s h e is a w i t c h , s t a t i n g at o n e t h a t she is n o t b u t h a v i n g o n a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n ' r a c e d h e r f a c e w i t h a N e d l e ' subsequently believed himself bewitched.
2 3
In t h e c i r c u l a r , s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g , g e n d e r d i s c o u r s e o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t p e r i o d w o m e n w e r e p e r c e i v e d as m o r e l i k e l y t o b e s e x u a l l y d e v i a n t t h a n m e n b e c a u s e in a G o d - f e a r i n g a n d d e e p l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s s o c i e t y , Daemonologie: T h e r e a s o n is e a s i e : f o r as t h a t s e x e is f r a i l e r t h a n m e n i s , so it is e a s i e r t o b e i n t r a p p e d in t h e s e g r o s s e s n a r e s o f t h e D e v i l l , as w a s w e l l p r o v e d t o b e t r u e , b y t h e S e r p e n t s d e c e i v i n g o f E v e at t h e b e g i n n i n g , makes him the h o m e l i e r with that sex ever s i n c e . Here we have a direct example o f the link b e t w e e n
2 3
women
w e r e b v d e f i n i t i o n ( l i k e E v e in t h e g a r d e n o f E d e n ) , s e x u a l l v d e v i a n t . A n d d e v i a n c e , w a s c o n s t r u e d as witchcraft. J a m e s V I o f S c o t l a n d ( l a t e r a l s o J a m e s I o f E n g l a n d ) w r o t e , f o r e x a m p l e , in his
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Staunton's grain t h r e e o r four dozen o f t h e m die, supposedly providing t h a t she has b e w i t c h e d t h e m . I h a v e a l r e a d v i n d i c a t e d t h a t T h o m a s in Religion and the Decline of Magic,
f e m a l e ' as d i f f e r e n t a n d i n f e r i o r t o m e n a n d ' t h e w i t c h ' . It w a s m e n w h o s t o o d t o g a i n b y t h e l i n k i n g o f w i t c h c r a f t a n d ' t h e f e m a l e ' b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e d t h e m w i t h a g r e a t e r m o r a l and social status than w o m e n , tially l u c r a t i v e c r a f t s a n d t r a d e s t h a n w o m e n . serving the material interests of men a n d a l s o , as I shall d i s c u s s further b e l o w , b e c a u s e it p r o b a b l y a l l o w e d t h e m g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s a n d p o t e n T h e b e l i e f in w i t c h c r a f t , as f o u n d patriarchal relations, and not d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , m u s t b e s e e n as a g e n d e r e d i d e o l o g y within m e r e l v , as T h o m a s s u g g e s t s , as a m e a n s o f d e a l i n g w i t h g u i l t a f t e r behaviour. T h e a g e - o l d f e m a l e s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e w i t c h d o e s n o t , as b o t h T h o m a s a n d L a r n e r i n d i c a t e , in i t s e l f e x p l a i n w h y w o m e n p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g s t t h e a c c u s e d d u r i n g the early m o d e r n period. W e have to look to the general c o n t e x t o f malefemale r e l a t i o n s , conflict and discourse to gain a b e t t e r understanding o f h o w the c o n s t r u c t 'unneighbourly'
others, does n o t agree that the witch-hunts m a y be linked directly t o malefemale c o n f l i c t o r s e x s t r u g g l e . S i n c e w e find f r o m t h e t r i a l m a t e r i a l , b o t h E n g l i s h a n d other E u r o p e a n , that w o m e n w h o w e r e accused o f witchcraft largely used witchcraft against o t h e r w o m e n , and that accusations w e r e often directed by women women attrib'incaa g a i n s t w o m e n , T h o m a s a r g u e s t h a t this s h o w s t h e r e w a s a c o n f l i c t between rather than a struggle b e t w e e n the sexes. O t h e r s have m o r e convincingly s o c i e t y , w h e r e a p p a r e n t u s e o f w i t c h c r a f t b e c a m e an a l t e r n a t i v e f o r w o m e n physical v i o l e n c e . . .
usually e m p l o y e d by m e n .
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Larner,
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Elizabeth Frauncis,
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v i o l e n c e , w o m e n a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o u s e v e r b a l v i o l e n c e as r e p r e s e n t e d b y c u r s i n g . T h o m a s g i v e s n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s o f c u r s i n g l e a d i n g t o an a c c u s a t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t , b u t , a l t h o u g h his e x a m p l e s a r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o f w o m e n , h e m a k e s n o m e n t i o n o f this fact. H e q u o t e s T h o m a s C o o p e r ' s ' s t o c k p a t t e r n ' o f t h e link b e t w e e n cursing and witchcraft accusation: ' W h e n a b a d - t o n g u e d w o m a n shall c u r s e a p a r t y , a n d
2 7
p r o c u r e , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s , s h e e p a n d a w e a l t h y h u s b a n d via t h e
cat-familiar
S a t a n . B y c o n t r a s t , in a 1 5 8 2 t r i a l at S t O s y t h , E l i z a b e t h B e n n e t ( w h o is said t o d e n y t h a t s h e h e r s e l f u s e d w i t c h c r a f t ) is s h o w n t o a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n h o w s h e t h i n k s an a c c u s a t i o n a g a i n s t a n o t h e r w o m a n , A l e s N e w m a n , c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d in m o r e ' r a t i o n a l ' t e r m s w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o w i t c h c r a f t . S h e is r e c o r d e d as s a v i n g t h a t A l e s w a s m e r e l y a n g r y at J o h n s o n , t h e c o l l e c t o r f o r t h e p o o r , b e c a u s e h e did n o t g i v e h e r t h e h a n d o u t s h e r e q u i r e d , a l t h o u g h w h a t she says e n d s u p b e i n g t i e d i n t o t h e evidence against Ales, because the words she uses t o signify a n g e r ' h a r d e d misdemeanour, not
3 1
Yet while
s p e e c h e s ' a r e at t h e s a m e t i m e c o n s t r u c t e d as a sign o f w o m e n ' s as c u r s i n g , a n d h e n c e w i t c h c r a f t . W e only o f language and m e a n i n g s , b u t o f e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t w o m e n ' s At a local level w e thus see w o m e n
S e e i n g w i t c h c r a f t as a f o r m o f n e g a t i v e p o w e r a v a i l a b l e t o w o m e n in a p a r t i c u l a r i n e g a l i t a r i a n c o n t e x t is an o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , b u t w e m u s t a l s o b e c a r e ful n o t t o l o s e sight o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f m a l e f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s t h a t s u c h u s e o f w i t c h c r a f t b v w o m e n e n t a i l s . It is t o o e a s y t o e n d u p b y f o c u s i n g o n w o m e n ' s a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r as a p r o b l e m r e l a t e d l a r g e l y t o w o m e n a n d w o m e n ' s c o m m u n i t i e s , t h a t is as w o m e n ' s p r o b l e m , r a t h e r t h a t as an o u t c o m e o f a w i d e r p a t r i a r c h a l c o n t e x t . H o l m e s provides s o m e interesting evidence o f m e n ' s and w o m e n ' s relative social positioning and the p r o c e s s o f formal w i t c h c r a f t accusation suggesting that w o m e n ' s accusations against each o t h e r w e r e indeed s e c o n d a r y to m e n bringing the c a s e s t o c o u r t . U s i n g d a t a f r o m t h e E n g l i s h h o m e c i r c u i t , h e a r g u e s t h a t i t was role. primarily m e n w h o b r o u g h t charges o f witchcraft, while w o m e n played a m o r e ancillary
2 9
s e e h e r e an e x a m p l e o f t h e g e n d e r i n g
behaviour.
to to
u s e w i t c h - l i k e b e h a v i o u r at t h e s a m e t i m e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e m as w i t c h e s w h e t h e r t h e y w a n t e d this o r n o t . A t a l o c a l l e v e l , u s e o f w i t c h c r a f t c a n b e s e e n as a p a r t o f t h e day t o d a y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ' w o m e n ' s c o m m u n i t y ' b u t c r u c i a l l y r e l y i n g o n w i d e r patriarchal g e n d e r e d n o t i o n s o f t h e w i t c h , and elite ideas a b o u t t h e unruliness o f w o m e n and the n e e d t o c o n t r o l t h e m . W i t c h c r a f t accusations m a y t h e r e f o r e , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , b e s i t u a t e d (as T h o m a s s i t u a t e s t h e m ) w i t h i n t h e w o m e n ' s c o m m u nity, b u t they w e r e integrally linked t o and served t o r e i n f o r c e o r r e c o n s t r u c t the m a l e status q u o . F i n a l l y I w a n t t o l o o k at t h e m a l e female conflict around r e s o u r c e s that f o r m e d
b e c o m i n g w i t c h e s , b u t also v u l n e r a b l e t o ' p o s s e s s i o n ' and t o b e c o m i n g b e w i t c h e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , w o m e n w e r e o f t e n t h e o n e s in c h a r g e o f t h e d o m e s t i c g o o d s t h e w i t c h r e q u e s t e d , a n d it w a s b e t w e e n w o m e n t h a t t h e r e l a t e d t r a n s a c t i o n s o f l e n d i n g a n d b o r r o w i n g w e r e likely t o take p l a c e . M a t e r i a l f r o m o t h e r societies and p e r i o d s also g i v e s us s o m e i m p o r t a n t c l u e s a b o u t t h e r o l e w o m e n m a y h a v e in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r w o m e n . W e find t h a t w i t h i n p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t i e s , w o m e n a r e o f t e n p l a c e d in t h e p o s i tion o f m o r a l g a t e k e e p e r s w h o socially c o n t r o l o t h e r w o m e n , and that t h e r e are vari o u s i d e o l o g i c a l , m a t e r i a l a n d p s v c h o l o g i c a l p r e s s u r e s o n t h e m t o d o s o . B y a c t i n g as m o r a l g a t e k e e p e r s t h e y m a v f e e l v a l u e d o r at l e a s t h a v e s o m e p o w e r , e v e n i f t h e i r a c t i o n s at t h e s a m e t i m e p l a c e b o t h t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r w o m e n m o r e firmly within p a t r i a r c h v . T h e r o l e w o m e n h a v e in c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d h i s t o r i c a l M i d d l e E a s t e r n a n d N o r t h African societies, for instance, of carrying out clitorectomies on other w o m e n is a c a s e in p o i n t . N a w a l El S a d a w i e x p l a i n s h o w o l d e r f e m a l e r e l a t i v e s ( m o t h e r s , g r a n d m o t h e r s ) are the ones w h o have the 'privilege' to carry out these operations, which r e i n f o r c e w o m e n ' s inferiority and sexual servitude to m e n .
3 0
a p a r t o f t h e c o n t e x t u a l b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e e a r l y m o d e r n w i t c h - h u n t s , as a l r e a d y h i n t e d at b y t h e c a s e o f E l l e i n e S m i t h e ' s i n h e r i t a n c e a n d J o h n C h a u n d e l e r ' s c l a i m s on it. T h e r e appears to b e a link b e t w e e n m a l e individuals female relations, e c o n o m i c change o f malefemale conflict and witchcraft accusation even if w e c a n n o t always establish a direct link b e t w e e n accused o f witchcraft and specific instances a r o u n d r e s o u r c e s and l i v e l i h o o d s . In t a k i n g e a r l y m o d e r n E n g l a n d as o u r e x a m p l e , w e h a v e t o t h i n k o f a s o c i e t y w i t h a r a p i d i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n , and r e s u l t a n t p r e s s u r e on r e s o u r c e s ; with w o m e n outnumbering m e n , yet with decreasing means o f livelihood for women.
C o n v e n t s had b e e n c l o s e d during the R e f o r m a t i o n , and w o m e n w e r e b e i n g e x c l u d e d f r o m c r a f t s a n d t r a d e s s u c h as w e a v i n g a n d b r e w i n g as w e l l as f r o m t h e g u i l d s ; e n c l o s u r e o f c o m m o n l a n d ( a l r e a d y h a p p e n i n g in E s s e x at this t i m e ) ing the space for grazing for w o m e n ' s l i v e s t o c k . exacerbated earlier, the difficulties o f a g r o w i n g mass o f landless peasants, a m o n g s t o t h e r effects r e m o v 3 2
T h o m a s , as i n d i c a t e d
use
does link s o m e o f these e c o n o m i c changes t o the i m p o v e r i s h m e n t and d e p e n d e n c e o f c e r t a i n l o w e r - c l a s s w o m e n , and especially w i d o w s . T h i s m a y also b e u n d e r s t o o d by the m o r e widely a c k n o w l e d g e d c o n c e p t o f the feminisation o f ' p o v e r t y ' a c o n c e p t that also applies within the p r e s e n t global e c o n o m i c context.
5 3
o f witchcraft was a m e a n s (albeit negative) bv which w o m e n could increase their using more
c l o s e l y at w i t c h t r i a l m a t e r i a l , it is a l s o a p p a r e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e i s w e r e bv no means h e g e m o n i c among the w o m e n accused of witchcraft, or those p r o v i d i n g e v i d e n c e . In t h e t r i a l p a m p h l e t s f r o m E s s e x w e find t h a t , wdiile s o m e o f t h e w o m e n p r o b a b l y did b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y h a d o r c o u l d h a v e u s e d w i t c h c r a f t , o t h e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d as n o t s h a r i n g t h i s b e l i e f a n d a p p e a r e d t o b e m u c h m o r e sceptical a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t . F o r e x a m p l e , at t h e 1 5 6 6 t r i a l at C h e l m s f o r d o n e o f t h e a c c u s e d ,
A n u m b e r o f historians have d o c u m e n t e d h o w t h e p e r i o d o f pre-capitalism and early capitalism, that is, the early m o d e r n p e r i o d , saw a deterioration o f w o m e n ' s r o l e in p r o d u c t i o n .
3 4
Moreover,
Chris Middleton
i n d i c a t e s t h a t it w a s
specificin
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e m e r g e n t c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n (as h a d a l s o b e e n t h e c a s e capitalist
284
MARIAN NE
HESTER
PATRIARCHAL
RECONSTRUCTION
AND
WITCH-HUNTING
285
expense around
3 6
(p. 1 6 9 ) was linked t o her d e m i s e . For instance the earlv sixteenth-century The Tunning of Elynor Rummying and ridiculous old w o m e n ,
poem,
d e p i c t s t h e a l e w i f e E l y n o r R u m m y n g as a g r o t e s q u e
sphere,
w h o is o f d u b i o u s r e l i g i o u s a n d s e x u a l v i r t u e , a n d a
m a l e f e m a l e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t a k e s p l a c e in o r d e r t o e n s u r e m a l e d o m i n a n c e . c a n i n d e e d find s o m e e v i d e n c e o f a r e a l i g n m e n t o f m a l e
h i g h l y u n s c r u p u l o u s t r a d e s w o m a n ( p . 1 7 0 ) . S h e is a l m o s t a s t o c k figure in m i s o g y n i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e : 'a g r o t e s q u e o l d w i t c h - l i k e w o m a n ' , b u t a l s o a c o r r u p t t r a d e s w o m a n w h o sells h e r c u s t o m e r s a d u l t e r a t e d d r i n k a t h a r d d r i v e n p r i c e s in a d i s g u s t i n g a t m o s p h e r e (p. 1 7 1 ) . B e n n e t t argues that such popular representations u n d e r m i n e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a l e w i f e b y q u e s t i o n i n g h e r g e n e r a l t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s , w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e a l l o w i n g m e n t o b e s e e n in a m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v e l i g h t . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a l e w i f e as d i f f e r e n t a n d i n f e r i o r t o t h e m a l e b r e w e r o f t e n r e l i e d , l i k e the construction o f the witch, on her sexualisation or eroticisation, and, we in t h e e x a m p l e o f E l y n o r R u m m y n g , allusions t o h e r also b e i n g associated find, with
f e m a l e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s in
t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s d u e t o t h e m a j o r c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e in t h e e c o n o m y a t t h a t t i m e . E v i d e n c e o f w o m e n ' s w o r k , in a r e a s s u c h as b r e w i n g and weaving, suggests that t h e r e was a struggle b e t w e e n the sexes around making a living, w h i c h also had the effect o f ensuring that m e n r a t h e r than w o m e n o b t a i n e d the b e t t e r positions in, and thus c o n t r o l of, the e m e r g i n g capitalist e c o n o m i c structure. Overall, patriarchy was maintained within the developing economy, and w o m e n ' s relative dependence on m e n ensured. T h e c a s e o f b r e w i n g p r o v i d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e . B r e w i n g is a c k n o w l e d g e d as an i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , b e c a u s e b e e r , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r ale ( b r e w e d w i t h o u t h o p s ) , w a s t h e s t a p l e d r i n k o f m e n , w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n a t m o s t m e a l s . W o m e n d i d t h e b r e w i n g o f ale n e e d e d f o r i m m e d i a t e consumption by the h o u s e h o l d , and p r i o r t o the s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w o m e n also b r e w e d ale f o r s a l e . J u d i t h B e n n e t t has d o c u m e n t e d h o w t h e e x c l u s i o n o f w o m e n f r o m b r e w i n g t o o k p l a c e o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d , b u t it w a s d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries that b r e w i n g brewing finallv changed from a female to a male of the a policy pursued bv occupation. Excluding w o m e n f r o m b r e w i n g o c c u r r e d alongside the separation ( b y m e n ) f r o m t h e sale ( b y w o m e n ) o f b e e r , g o v e r n m e n t with the aim o f imposing stricter regulation and supposedly Bennett concludes:
w i t c h c r a f t : s h e e n t e r t a i n e d a c u s t o m e r w h o ' s e e m e d t o b e a w i t c h ' , she d r e s s e d u p ' a f t e r t h e S a r a c e n ' s g u i s e ' a n d l i k e an E g y p t i a n ' , a n d ' t h e D e v i l a n d s h e b e s i b ' [like b r o t h e r a n d s i s t e r ] ( p . 1 7 0 ) . It is d i f f i c u l t t o t e l l w h e t h e r ale w i v e s o r w o m e n who brewed beer were accused of witchcrait directly.
4 1
alewife and the w i t c h relied on similar t e r m s , and b o t h served t o justify the social c o n t r o l o f w o m e n and the m a i n t e n a n c e o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the patriarchal status quo s e c u r i n g m e n ' s d o m i n a n t position within t h e social o r d e r , and also o p e n i n g up n e w areas for m a l e c o n t r o l . F o r w o m e n during the early m o d e r n period m o r e likely to b e financially financial independence was genermarried
ally l i n k e d t o t h e i r m a r i t a l s t a t u s . W o m e n o n t h e i r o w n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i d o w s , w e r e independent than married w o m e n because financially. w o m e n w e r e d e e m e d s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e i r h u s b a n d s (as r e f l e c t e d in t h e l a w ) a n d under their husbands' control W i d o w s might inherit their husbands' occasionally activities.
4 2
simpli-
f y i n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t a x e s , as w e l l as i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e b e e r b r e w e d .
land, p r o p e r t y a n d / o r craft o r trade, and u n m a r r i e d w o m e n might All oi these changes w e r e v e r y s l o w and u n e v e n , p r o c e e d i n g o v e r the course o f several centuries and affecting different regions o f the c o u n t r v at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d in d i f f e r e n t w a y s . B u t t h e i r o v e r a l l e f f e c t clear; by 1 7 0 0 , b r e w i n g , w h i c h had b e e n a h o m e - b a s e d t r a d e was domii n h e r i t t h e i r f a t h e r s ' l a n d a n d p r o p e r t y o r e n g a g e in o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e
Thus during the period o f the witch-hunts w o m e n ' s w o r k was largely defined by the institution o f marriage. For e x a m p l e , a w o m a n could only practise a craft alongside h e r h u s b a n d , t a k i n g o n his c r a f t , o r in h e r o w n r i g h t as a w i d o w o r as a s i n g l e woman living in h e r father's household.
4 3
nated by w o m e n four centuries earlier, was b e c o m i n g a factory-based industry c o n t r o l l e d by a steadily shrinking g r o u p o f wealthy m a l e s .
3 7
Where
the
example
of brewing
is
c o n c e r n e d , B e n n e t t suggests that the masculinisation o f t h e b r e w i n g trade had the effect o f changing the e c o n o m i c balance b e t w e e n husbands and w i v e s , the wife very likely b e c o m i n g m o r e d e p e n d e n t on h e r husband. Unmarried women w e r e also
It w a s o n l y w i d o w s w h o r e t a i n e d a c c e s s t o b r e w i n g t h r o u g h i n h e r i t a n c e o f ale b e c a m e an
3 9
The women,
f r o m t h e i r h u s b a n d s . M i c h a e l R o b e r t s d o c u m e n t s h o w t h e selling
t o b e w i d o w s , w h o w e r e still a b l e t o b e b r e w e r s m i g h t t h e r e f o r e p o s e a t h r e a t t o the increasingly male m o n o p o l y o f the trade. T h e y w e r e vulnerable to misogynistic a t t a c k o r p o s s i b l y w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n as a r e s u l t . B y l o o k i n g a t m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n i n g s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w e find t h a t t h e p i c t u r e r e g a r d i n g w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n a n d women becomes more complex. O n the other hand, w o m e n accused o f witchwho were among the most c r a f t t e n d e d t o b e t h o s e , as i d e n t i f i e d b y T h o m a s ,
o c c u p a t i o n i n f o r m a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r p o o r w i d o w s d u r i n g this p e r i o d .
Sue
Wright
s i m i l a r l y p o i n t s o u t t h a t in t h e u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t o f T u d o r a n d S t u a r t S a l i s b u r y t h e r e w e r e n u m e r o u s w o m e n , e s p e c i a l l y w i d o w s , w h o w e r e l i c e n s e d as a l e h o u s e k e e p e r s ( t h e p o o r e n d o f t h e m a r k e t ) b u t few as i n n k e e p e r s ( t h e r i c h e r p a r t o f t h e m a r k e t ) .
r 4 0
v u l n e r a b l e in t h e e c o n o m y , t h a t i s , l a b o u r i n g w o m e n , w i d o w e d a n d p o s s i b l y o l d e r , a n d p o o r . B u t t h e y m i g h t a l s o b e a m o n g s t t h o s e in c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h m e n f o r w o r k in l u c r a t i v e a r e a s s u c h as b r e w i n g , t h a t i s , w o m e n c a r r y i n g o u t a c r a f t o r t r a d e , a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , w i d o w s , w h o w e r e m o r e a b l e t o d o s o . D e p e n d e n t o r in
286
MARIANNE
HESTER
PATRIARCHAL
RECONSTRUCTION
AND
WITCH-HUNTING
287
r e l a t i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t at t h e h e a r t o f t h e discussion see C . K a r l s o n , The Devil the Shape 16 17 of a Woman (New York 1988). and Wicked Witches (London 1992). Society; M . H e s t e r , Lewd Women
in
ally in
a less
advantageous
situation
than
men
within
the
changing
economy,
especially within t h e peasantry and a m o n g s t artisans and traders amongst w h o m witchcraft accusations predominated.
w e r e particularly r e l e v a n t t o t h e e m e r g i n g capitalist e c o n o m y and also the g r o u p T o c o n c l u d e , by e x a m i n i n g the p r o c e s s e s involving g e n d e r i n g o f social relat i o n s , e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d d i s c l o s u r e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i t c h in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d w e m a y s u r m i s e t h a t w i t c h - h u n t i n g b e c a m e s e x - s p e c i f i c at t h i s t i m e , s e r v i n g as o n e m e a n s o f maintaining and r e c o n s t r u c t i n g male d o m i n a n c e and m a l e p o w e r women. vis-a-vis was P a t r i a r c h y , p o t e n t i a l l y u n d e r t h r e a t in t h e r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g s o c i e t y ,
M . Hester, 'The dynamics of male domination 13 ( 1 9 9 0 ) ; H e s t e r , Lewd Women. Revenge (London 1935). D701640 and
using t h e w i t c h c r a z e in s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y E n g l a n d as case s t u d y ' , Forum, 18 19 E . H o b b y , Virtue of Necessity S e e A m u s e n , An Ordered B . W r i g h t , Middle 20 the church (London 1 9 8 8 ) , 8. S. S h e p h e r d , The Women's Renaissance England Marriage in Elizabethan Sex Hair and Sharp ( U r b a n a , 111. 1 9 8 6 ) ; L .
Society;
M a r t i n I n g r a m p r o v i d e s e x t e n s i v e e x a m p l e s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f such cases f r o m courts: 1987); Courts, E. H. (Cambridge lists m a n y 1972). 56. original indictments
o u t c o m e s : Before 21 22 23 24 25
the Bawdy
Court ( L o n d o n
of Darkness, of God,
Notes
1 2 3 In C h a p t e r 5 o f this c o l l e c t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , E . W i l l i a m M o n t e r suggests that sex remains the m o s t important feature o f m o s t witchcraft accusations. S e e C h a p t e r 2 0 f o r L a r n e r ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n ' s e x - s p e c i f i c ' and ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' witchcraft. M o n t e r suggests that acts such as i n f a n t i c i d e w e r e also a f o c u s f o r p r o s e c u t i o n o f w o m e n in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than had b e e n t h e case p r e v i o u s l y . It thus appears t h a t d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries t h e r e w e r e a v a r i e t y o f a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l s e x u a l b e h a v i o u r in p a r t i c u l a r and w o m e n specifically, t h r o u g h b o t h f o r m a l w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n and b y legal r e t r i b u t i o n against o t h e r s e x u a l d e v i a n c e . 4 5 6 7 B . L e v a c k , The Witch-hunt Satan in Early Modern Europe (London 1 9 8 7 ) , 139-42. of S e e S. D . A m u s s e n , An Ordered K e i t h T h o m a s , Religion J . P . D e m o s , Entertaining F r a n c e ' , Sixteenth 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 T h o m a s , Religion, C . L a r n e r , Enemies K l a i t s , Servants, 1987), 51. H . K r a m e r and J . S p r e n g e r , Malleus M e r c h a n t , The Death of Nature N o r m a n C o h n , Europe's Inner Demons Maleficarum 1980). 1975). sex-specific, (London ( N u r e m b e r g 1 4 9 6 ) . S e e also C . (London G . S c a r r e , Witchcraft Society ( O x f o r d 1 9 8 8 ) , and J . K l a i t s , Servants of Magic (Harmondsworth 1973), 520.
173-40.
Laura G o w i n g ,
in h e r discussion o f
s l a n d e r litigation in early m o d e r n L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e s h o w s c r a t c h i n g t h e face and e s p e c i a l l y t h e n o s e o f a w o m a n was a p u n i s h m e n t i n d i c a t i n g that she w a s a w h o r e . S e e ' L a n g u a g e , p o w e r and t h e l a w ' , in J . K e r m i d e and G . W a l k e r , e d s , Crime and the Courts (London 1994). W e can s p e c u l a t e that t o ' r a c e Women, [Mother
S t a u n t o n ' s ] face w i t h a n e d l e ' similarly s y m b o l i s e d that she was b e i n g p r e s e n t e d in s e x u a l i s e d t e r m s ; w o m e n a c c u s e d as w i t c h e s w e r e o f t e n p r e s e n t e d as s e x u a l l y deviant. 26 27 See M o n t e r , Chapter 5. T h o m a s , Religion, 5 1 2 . S e e M . I n g r a m , ' S c o l d i n g w o m e n c u c k e d o r w a s h e d ' , in Women, The Crime and the Courts, p . 4 8 , f o r a discussion convicted specifically of of K e r m o d e and W a l k e r , 28 Thomas, Religion, 512.
c u r s i n g and in p a r t i c u l a r s c o l d i n g as a specifically f e m a l e o f f e n c e . punishment of women s c o l d i n g appears t o parallel w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n in t h a t it b e c a m e m o r e s e v e r e in t h e s a m e p e r i o d as w i t c h c r a f t b e c a m e a m a j o r f e m a l e c r i m e , that is, f r o m t h e mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. See Ibid., 5 7 ; U n d e r d o w n , Early 29 Modern England ( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 1636. Satan; of a 183^. (London 1984). England (London Life Woman. 1981). 'The in t a m i n g o f t h e s c o l d ' , in A . F l e t c h e r and J . S t e v e n s o n , e d s , Order and Disorder H o l m e s p r e s e n t s this a r g u m e n t in C h a p t e r 2 3 . S e e also D e m o s , Entertaining K a r l s o n , The Devil in the Shape 166-7, N . El S a d a w i , The Hidden H e s t e r , Lewd Women, S e e A m u s s e n , An Ordered H . S c o t t , The Feminisation Face of Eve ( L o n d o n Society. of Poverty
' A w o m a n u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e : a case o f alleged possession in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r v Century Journal, 562, 58-9. and Magic in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Europe (London 30 31 32 33 34 563.
of God ( L o n d o n 1 9 8 1 ) , 9 2 .
S e e I. C h a r l e s and I. D u f f i n , e d s , Women and Work in Pre-Industrial 1 9 8 5 ) ; J . K e l l y , Women History of Women in the Seventeenth and Theory Century (London [1919] 1982).
( C h i c a g o 1 9 8 6 ) ; A . C l a r k , Working
a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t using t h e s e t e r m s . H e a t t r i b u t e s t h e i n c r e a s e d f o c u s o n w o m e n as t h e a c c u s e d d u r i n g t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d t o 'a d r a m a t i c rise in f e a r and hatred o f w o m e n during the era o f the R e f o r m a t i o n ' (p. 5 2 ) . 15 F o r a g o o d e x a m p l e o f an a p p r o a c h t o t h e w i t c h - h u n t s that t a k e s m a l e and f e m a l e 35
C . M i d d l e t o n , ' T h e s e x u a l division o f l a b o u r in feudal E n g l a n d ' , New Left trial c a p i t a l i s m ' , in C h a r l e s and D u f f i n , e d s , Women and Work, 181206.
Review,
288
MARIANNE
HESTER C h a p t e r Workshop 22
36 37 38 39
1986).
M . R o b e r t s , ' " W o r d s t h e y are w o m e n , and d e e d s t h e y are m e n " : I m a g e s o f w o r k and g e n d e r in early m o d e r n E n g l a n d ' , in C h a r l e s and D u f h n , e d s , Women Work, 122-80. and
Jim Sharpe
WOMEN, WITCHCRAFT AND THE LEGAL PROCESS
40 41 42 43 44
S. W r i g h t , " ' C h u r m a i d s , h u s w y f e s and h u c k s t e r s " : T h e e m p l o y m e n t o f w o m e n in T u d o r and S t u a r t S a l i s b u r y ' , in I b i d . , 1 0 0 2 1 . M a c f a r l a n e gives t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f o n e husband o f an a c c u s e d w i t c h ( o u t o f f o r t y n i n e k n o w n f o r E s s e x ) as a b e e r b r e w e r . S e e H e s t e r , Lewd S. L . W a t k i n s , ' S p i n s t e r s \ Journal Women and Work. Society, ch. 3. 182. S e e A m u s s e n , An Ordered Bennett, 'Misogyny', of Family History, Women, 162. 9 ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; C h a r l e s and D u f f i n ,
HE
PROBLEM
OF
GENDER
Yet
it
T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s in f o l l o w i n g s u c h a
course are, unfortunately, m o r e severe w h e n w o m e n are u n d e r consideration. T h e E n g l i s h l e g a l s y s t e m w a s r u n b y m e n , t h e s t a t u t e s it e n f o r c e d w e r e d r a w n u p a n d p r o m u l g a t e d by m e n , and the English c o m m o n law s e e m e d designed t o constrain t h e r i g h t s o f w o m e n as m u c h as p o s s i b l e .
3
A t first s i g h t t h e n , it w o u l d s e e m t h a t
h i s t o r i a n s s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s in t h e past have had their task r e s t r i c t e d t o doing little m o r e than cataloguing t h e ways in w h i c h w o m e n w e r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d . Nowhere w o u l d this p r e m i s e , again at first sight, s e e m m o r e conspicuously t r u e t h a n w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t in T u d o r a n d S t u a r t c o u r t s . As is w e l l k n o w n , a r o u n d 9 0 p e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s i n d i c t e d f o r w i t c h c r a f t at t h e H o m e C i r c u i t assizes b e t w e e n t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n s t a t u t e in 1 5 6 3 t h e a b o l i t i o n o f l a w s a g a i n s t w i t c h c r a f t in 1 7 3 6 w e r e w o m e n . w i t c h c r a f t in E n g l a n d . we discover that the Y e t even the first
4
and
W o r k on
r a b l e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t this r a t e w a s f a i r l y u s u a l f o r t h e i n d i c t m e n t o f m a l e f i c
3
for Essex,
290
JIM
SHARPE
WOMEN,
WITCHCRAFT
AND
THE
LEGAL
PROCESS
291
F u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s arise w h e n
w e e x a m i n e c u n n i n g m e n a n d w o m e n , t h o s e ' g o o d ' w i t c h e s w h o a t t r a c t e d so m u c h hostility f r o m the writers o f English demonological tracts, but whose services w e r e s o e a g e r l y s o u g h t b y t h e p o p u l a t i o n at l a r g e . W h e r e a s o v e r 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e a c c u s e d at t h e E s s e x assizes f o r w i t c h c r a f t w e r e f e m a l e , t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e c u n n i n g f o l k w h o m M a c f a r l a n e w a s a b l e t o i d e n t i f y in his E s s e x s t u d y w e r e m e n . figures suggest that w e will have t o refine our standard notions o f the b e t w e e n w o m e n and w i t c h c r a f t at s o m e f u t u r e p o i n t . F o r t h e p r e s e n t , accused of malefic witchcraft w e r e w o m e n , t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s in e a r l y m o d e r n We must, however, England. consider what we mean by the t e r m 'legal
7
T h a t t h e p r a c t i c e w a s w i d e l y k n o w n at t h i s t i m e is c o n f i r m e d
1 1
This being
incident involved the searching o f a n u m b e r o f suspected witches by local w o m e n , one such group o f searchers d e s c r i b e d as ' w o m e n o f c r e d i t e ' .
These
T h e actual m e c h a n i c s by which w o m e n w e r e appointed t o search w i t c h e s varied e n o r m o u s l y . E d w a r d F a i r f a x , a Y o r k s h i r e g e n t l e m a n w h o t h o u g h t t w o o f his d a u g h t e r s w e r e b e i n g b e w i t c h e d , r e c o r d e d h o w in 1 6 2 1 t h e s u s p e c t e d w o m e n w e r e t h e i r b o d i e s ' , w h i c h s u g g e s t s a d e g r e e o f official s a n c t i o n i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s . 'by a p p o i n t m e n t , at t h e h o u s e o f w i d o w P u l l e n s , at F u y s t o n e , s e a r c h e d f o r m a r k s u p o n Some v e a r s l a t e r , in a n o t h e r Y o r k s h i r e c a s e , D o r o t h y R o d e s , a n o t h e r p a r e n t w h o t h o u g h t h e r child t o b e b e w i t c h e d , n o t e d h o w the suspected w i t c h , M a r y Sikes, was ' s e a r c h e d by w e o m e n appointed bv a justice o f p e a c e ' . A male witness r e c o r d e d h o w he w e n t with o n e o f R o d e s ' sons t o H e n r y T e m p e s t , a Riding justice w h o s e e m s t o have b e e n m u c h i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c a s e s , ' t o p r o c u r e a w a r r a n t f o r s e a r c h i n g t h e said M a r y S i k e s a n d Susan B e a u m o n t ' . S i x w o m e n , t h r e e m a r r i e d a n d t h r e e w i d o w s , w e r e a p p o i n t e d . A n o t h e r Y o r k s h i r e w i t n e s s , A l i c e P u r s t o n , t o l d in 1 6 5 5 h o w she a n d o t h e r w o m e n w e r e appointed t o search K a t h e r i n e Earle on the direction o f the constable o f their township w h o was h i m s e l f acting under direction f r o m a justice. Four years earlier, in a n o t h e r Y o r k s h i r e c a s e , t h e d i r e c t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e c o m e s i m p l y f r o m t h e l o c a l constable.
1 3
pause t o
p r o c e s s ' . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e l a w in its full c o n t e x t , it is n e c e s s a r y t o g o b e v o n d t h e c o u r t r o o m a n d t h e s t r i c t r u l e s o f legal p r o c e d u r e , a n d e v e n t o s p e c u l a t e a b o u t w h a t w a s g o i n g o n o u t s i d e a r e a s c o v e r e d b y t h e legal r e c o r d . T h e E n g l i s h c r i m i n a l l e g a l s y s t e m w a s an a c c u s a t o r y o n e , a n d , in l a r g e m e a s u r e , the p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h e s , along with o t h e r felons, was d e p e n d e n t on the initiative o f the p e r s o n o f f e n d e d against the v i c t i m . As I have argued e l s e w h e r e , on the strength o f N o r t h e r n C i r c u i t assize d e p o s i t i o n s , w o m e n s h o w e d n o r e l u c t a n c e in a c c u s i n g other women of being witches, o r o f giving e v i d e n c e against alleged witches.
8
I n d e e d , in b o t h t h e s e a r e a s f e m a l e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e l e g a l s y s t e m s e e m e d t o b e at l e a s t e q u a l t o t h a t o f m e n . In this c h a p t e r I s h o u l d l i k e t o t a k e t h i n g s f u r t h e r , and seek o t h e r points at w h i c h w e can delineate a distinctive f e m a l e contribution t o t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h e s : t h e r o l e o f w o m e n in s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k ; w i d e r e v i d e n c e a b o u t f e m a l e i n v o l v e m e n t as w i n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s ; t h e b e h a v i o u r o f b o t h w i t c h e s a n d t h e i r a c c u s e r s in c o u r t ; a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o u r o f c o n d e m n e d w i t c h e s o n t h e g a l l o w s . A c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s e t o p i c s , b a s e d as it m u s t b e o n i m p e r f e c t a n d at t i m e s c o n t r a d i c t o r y m a t e r i a l s , c a n o n l y l e a d t o v e r y tentative conclusions. legal s y s t e m . O n e a r e a w h e r e w o m e n w e r e o f u n i q u e i m p o r t a n c e in t h e j u d i c i a l t r i a l w i t c h c r a f t w a s in t h e i r b e i n g u s e d t o s e a r c h f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k . T h e m a r k w a s s e e n as a m e t h o d o f establishing g u i l t in some fifteenth-century Continental trials, a l t h o u g h t h e t h e n c u r r e n t c u s t o m o f s h a v i n g b o d y h a i r f r o m t h e s u s p e c t s t o facilit a t e t h e s e a r c h d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d in E n g l a n d . T h e first p a m p h l e t
9
T h e d e c i s i o n t o s e a r c h s e e m s , t h e r e f o r e , t o h a v e i n v o l v e d an i n t e r p l a y
T
b e t w e e n official a t t i t u d e s and t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y , w hose m e m b e r s w e r e aware o f the n e e d t o search for the m a r k . This suggests that the legitimation f o r s e a r c h i n g o p e r a t e d at b o t h an official a n d a p o p u l a r l e v e l . Perhaps the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e evidence w e have o f the dynamics o f the search f o r t h e m a r k c o m e s f r o m t h e c a s e o f E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r , e x e c u t e d a f t e r t r i a l at t h e M i d d l e s e x S e s s i o n s in 1 6 2 1 . S a w y e r ' s t r i a l w a s r a t h e r h a n g i n g fire, w i t h n e i t h e r t h e j u d g e n o r the j u r y apparently having m u c h idea o f w h a t to m a k e o f the evidence b e f o r e t h e m . A t t h a t p o i n t a j u s t i c e w h o h a d t a k e n c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t in t h e c a s e , Arthur R o b i n s o n , intervened. H e told the court that 'information was given unto h i m b y s o m e o f h e r n e i g h b o u r s , t h a t this E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r h a d a p r i v a t e a n d s t r a n g e m a r k e o n her b o d y , by w h i c h suspition was c o n f i r m e d against h e r ' . ' T h e Bench', w e a r e t o l d , ' c o m m a n d e d o f f i c e r s a p p o i n t e d f o r t h o s e p u r p o s e s , t o f e t c h in t h r e e w o m e n to search the body of Elizabeth S a w y e r ' . O n e o f these was Margaret W e a v e r , 'that keepes the Session House for the City o f L o n d o n , a w i d d o w o f honest reputat i o n ' . S h e w a s j o i n e d b y ' t w o g r a v e m a t r o n s , b r o u g h t in b y t h e o f f i c e r o u t o f t h e s t r e e t e , passing t h e r e b y c h a n c e ' . S a w y e r resisted the s e a r c h e r s , behaving ' m o s t sluttish a n d l o a t h s o m e l y t o w a r d s t h e m , i n t e n d i n g t h e r e b y t o p r e v e n t t h e i r s e a r c h o f h e r ' , b u t t h e w o m e n c o n t i n u e d in t h e i r e f f o r t s , e a c h o f t h e m d e p o s i n g s e p a r a t e l y t o c o u r t about the results o f the e x e r c i s e . T h e y found a teat 'the bignesse o f the little and the length o f halfe a finger', This e v i d e n c e p r o v e d decisive and swung the j u r y against S a w y e r . finger, w h i c h l o o k e d as t h o u g h it had r e c e n t l y b e e n s u c k e d .
1 4
W h a t it d o e s d e m o n s t r a t e is t h a t w i t c h c r a f t
prosecutions dominated
c a n n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d p u r e l y as t h e o p p r e s s i o n o f w o m e n b y a m a l e
a c c o u n t o f a w i t c h c r a f t trial in E n g l a n d , p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 6 6 , s t r e s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m a r k as a m e a n s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g p r o o f , a n d as E n g l i s h t r i a l s p r o g r e s s e d its i m p o r t a n c e r e m a i n e d c e n t r a l . It a l s o s e e m s t h a t i t g r a d u a l l y b e c a m e a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e m a r k , w i t h w o m e n , m o s t c o m m o n l v t o o k t h e f o r m o f a t e a t - l i k e g r o w t h in t h e p u d e n d a , f r o m w h i c h it w a s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e w i t c h ' s f a m i l i a r s u c k e d b l o o d . C o n t e m p o r a r y u s a g e d i c t a t e d t h a t i f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f s u c h a m a r k w a s t h o u g h t vital f o r p r o v i n g w i t c h c r a f t , t h e s e a r c h f o r it s h o u l d b e m a d e b y w o m e n . T h e earliest k n o w n r e f e r e n c e to appointing w o m e n for this task c o m e s , perhaps a little u n e x p e c t e d l y , f r o m t h e c o u r t l e e t o f S o u t h a m p t o n in 1 5 7 9 . T h e w o r d i n g o f t h e r e l e v a n t o r d e r suggests that the practice was already a familiar o n e . T h e leet jury d i r e c t e d
As this c a s e s u g g e s t s , t h e c r e d e n t i a l s n e e d e d b y w o m e n s e a r c h e r s w e r e
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resulting I r o m g o o d character rather than technical e x p e r t i s e . S o m e o t h e r cases, h o w e v e r , suggested that w o m e n with some type o f knowledge might be favoured.
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M i d w i v e s w e r e , o f c o u r s e , uniquely qualified t o c o m m e n t on irregularities in the female genitals. T h e exceptionally rich documentation provided by the Matthew named and H o p k i n s t r i a l s o f 1 6 4 5 7 s h o w s a n u m b e r o f t h e m in a c t i o n . A m i d w i f e
T h e f r e q u e n c y o f r e f e r e n c e s in s u r v i v i n g d e p o s i t i o n s t o w o m e n s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e m a r k s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e , e x i s t i n g as it did o n t h e p e r i p h e r i e s o f t h e legal process, was widespread and culturally familiar. T h i s p o i n t is r e i n f o r c e d by a r e m a r k a b l e c a s e f r o m O x f o r d s h i r e in 1 6 8 7 . J o a n W a l k e r o f B i c e s t e r , t h e g o o d reputation and g o o d c o n d u c t , severall w i c k e d & mallicious persons enveing the g o o d n a m e , credit & reputacon fame, any widow her
Bridget Reynolds searched one o f the Essex witches, Elizabeth Harvey. Five w o m e n g a v e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t J o a n S a l t e r , o n e o f t h o s e a c c u s e d o n t h e Isle o f E l y , d e p o s e d h o w t h e y f o u n d t h r e e t e a t s in h e r p r i v y p a r t s ' w h i c h t h e m i d w i f e a n d t h e rest o f these i n f o r m a n t s have n o t seen the like o n the b o d y o f any o t h e r w o m a n ' .
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o f a g e n t l e m a n , p e t i t i o n e d t h e b e n c h in t h a t y e a r , t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t d e s p i t e
L a t e r in t h e c e n t u r y , again in E s s e x , w e find a m i d w i f e b e i n g a p p o i n t e d t o s e a r c h the b o d y o f a s u s p e c t e d w i t c h 'in the p r e s e n c e o f s o m e s o b e r w o m e n ' . T h i s she did, and i n f o r m e d the author o f the narration o f the case t h a t s h e n e v e r s a w t h e l i k e in h e r l i f e : t h a t h e r f u n d a m e n t w a s open
g r o u n d o r c o l l o [ u ] r o f r e a s o n given o u t in s p e e c h e s that y o u r p e t i t i o n e r ] is a w i t c h w h i c h o d i o u s n a m e y o [ u ] r p e t i t i o n e r ] u t t e r l y a b h o r s & d e t e s t s & all t h e w o r k s o f t h e d e v i l l . T o clear herself, w i d o w W a l k e r r e q u e s t e d that t h e b e n c h should o r d e r that she 'may be searched by foure & t w e n t y honest sober iudicious matrons & m a k e r e p o r t o f t h e i r o p i n i o n s at n e x t s e s s i o n s ' , a n d t h a t t h e p e r s o n s a b u s i n g h e r s h o u l d b e b o u n d o v e r t o a p p e a r t h e r e . B y this t i m e , a n d at this s o c i a l l e v e l , t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e j u r y of women searchers w a s clearly r e c o g n i z e d , while W a l k e r ' s suggestion that she s h o u l d b e s e a r c h e d b y ' f o u r e & t w e n t y ' w o m e n is i n s t r u c t i v e . A c r i m i n a l a c c u s a t i o n at t h e s e s s i o n s o r assizes t y p i c a l l y w o u l d b e s c r e e n e d b y a g r a n d j u r y o f t w e l v e o r so m e n , and t h e n tried by a trial j u r y o f a n o t h e r t w e l v e . W a l k e r obviously desired that the search that was intended to clear her n a m e should m i r r o r p r o p e r l e g a l p r o c e s s as f a r as p o s s i b l e . T h i s last c a s e r e m i n d s us t h a t t h e f e m a l e s e a r c h e r s o f f i c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d t o s e a r c h w o m e n w e r e but one o f a n u m b e r of types o f juries, or near juries, o f female e x p e r t s w h o w e r e c a l l e d in t o a d j u d i c a t e in a n u m b e r o f l e g a l m a t t e r s , b o t h c r i m inal and civil. The English mediaeval ecclesiastical courts had sought female assistance in cases o f a n n u l m e n t o f m a r r i a g e o n the g r o u n d s o f the h u s b a n d ' s i m p o t e n c e , w h e n the accuracy o f the plea was tested by 'honest w o m e n ' w h o , by baring t h e i r breasts and kissing o r fondling the m a n , a t t e m p t e d t o arouse h i m s e x u a l l y . explanations
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l i k e a m o u s e h o l e , a n d t h a t in i t w e r e t w o l o n g b i g g s , o u t o f w h i c h being pressed issued b l o o d : that they w e r e n e i t h e r piles n o r e m r o d s (for she k n e w b o t h ) b u t e x c r e s s e n c e s like t o biggs with nipples w h i c h s e e m e d as i f t h e y h a d b e e n f r e q u e n t l y s u c k e d .
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cases. O t h e r s m i g h t c l a i m a m o r e g e n e r a l e x p e r t i s e . H e n c e , again d u r i n g t h e H o p k i n s t r i a l s , A n n e t h e w i f e o f T h o m a s S a v o r y o f U p w e l l in N o r f o l k w a s e x a m i n e d w h o 'sayd that s o m e o f the divles i m p e s had sucked h e r ' . by ' s o m e t h a t w e r e t h e r e w h o p [ r e ] t e n d e d t o h a v e skill in t h e d i s c o v e r y o f w i t c h e s '
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T h e Hopkins episode
a l s o s a w t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a w o m a n w h o c l e a r l y a t t a i n e d a r e g i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n as a s e a r c h e r f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k , M a r y P h i l i p s . P h i l i p s w a s i n v o l v e d as a w i t n e s s in s o m e o f t h e e a r l y E s s e x t r i a l s in t h e s p r i n g o f 1 6 4 5 a n d , f o r r e a s o n s w h i c h r e m a i n e l u s i v e , s e e m s t o h a v e a c q u i r e d a w i d e r r e p u t e as a
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C e r t a i n l y , s h e w as b r o u g h t in b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s o f A l d e b u r g h in S u f f o l k t o s u p e r vise o t h e r w o m e n searching s u s p e c t e d w i t c h e s t h e r e , and was paid f o r such duties and also r e c e i v e d e x p e n s e s . N o t all o f t h e w o m e n s e a r c h e d , as t h e c a s e o f E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r s u g g e s t s , s u b m i t t e d willingly, while several o f t h e m offered those searching t h e m f o r t h o s e p h y s i c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s w h i c h r i s k e d b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d as t h e w a t c h ' s m a r k . J o a n S a l t e r e x p l a i n e d t o an i n v e s t i g a t i n g j u s t i c e t h a t ' t h e m a r k e s t h a t s h e h a t h a b o u t h e r a r e n o t t h e m a r k e s o f a w i t c h b u t c a u s e d as i t p l e a s e t h G o d s h e b e l e a v e t h b y c h i l d b e a r i n g ' . M a r y A r m i t a g e , a Y o r k s h i r e w i t c h , w a s s e a r c h e d b y f o u r w o m e n in 1 6 5 8 , a n d a s u s p i c i o u s h o l e a q u a r t e r o f an i n c h d e e p w a s f o u n d o n h e r r i g h t s h o u l d e r . T h e s u s p e c t e d w i t c h a t t r i b u t e d this t o an i n j u r y s u s t a i n e d w h i l e c a r r y i n g a b u n d l e o f thorns, one o f which penetrated her shoulder. She explained that the thorn ' c o n t i n e w e d t h e r e about a yeare b e f o r e itt could b e g o t t out and caused a great swelling and since that t y m e t h e r e hath b e e n e a little hole upon h e r s h o u l d e r ' . S o m e t h i n g o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k is c o n v e y e d in t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f another Yorkshire witch, Katherine Earle. Earle asked w h y s h e did n o t t e l l t h e w o e m e n t h a t s e a r c h e d . . . o f a m a r k e b e t w e e n e h e r e t h i g h s as w e l l as t h a t o f b e h i n d h e r e a r e s h e at first a n s w e r e d t h a t s h e did n o t k n o w o f i t , w h e r e a t t h e w o m e n l a u g h i n g she p [ r e ] s e n t l v a f t e r said i t c a m e b y a b u r n e a n d s h e h a d it 3 6 y e a r e s .
This practice seems to have b e e n discontinued by the sixteenth c e n t u r y , b u t the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h c o u r t s still m a d e o c c a s i o n a l u s e o f w o m e n as e x p e r t s in s e x u a l c a s e s . T h u s w h e n , in 1 5 9 5 , a m a n f r o m B a r k i n g in E s s e x w a s p r e s e n t e d f o r i n c e s t w i t h his d a u g h t e r , it w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s u s p i c i o n w a s n o t f o u n d e d m e r e l y on ' c o m m o n r e p o r t ' , b u t also ' u p o n the assertion o f h o n e s t w o m e n , w h o have had the examinacion of the young w e n c h ' .
2 0
investigators
constitutes a part o f the legal p r o c e s s that m u s t m o d i f y the general assertion that w o m e n w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m official p a r t i c i p a t i o n in i t . T h e y did n o t s e r v e as m a g i s trates or jurors b u t the authority derived f r o m the crucial evidence o f their 'special k n o w l e d g e ' w a s a d r a m a t i c r e v e r s a l o f t h e i r g e n e r a l l y p o w e r l e s s r o l e s as p e t i t i o n e r s , witnesses or parties t o litigation. W o m e n w e r e a l s o f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e d as w i t n e s s e s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s . T h e H o m e
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C i r c u i t assize r e c o r d s r e v e a l t h a t t h e r e w e r e 1 2 0 7 calls f o r w i t n e s s e s a t w i t c h t r i a l s between 1 6 0 0 and 1 7 0 2 . O f t h e s e , 6 3 1 ( o r 52 per c e n t ) involved m e n and 576 ( o r 4 8 p e r c e n t ) w o m e n , a n e a r l y e v e n s p l i t . In i s o l a t e d c a s e s , t h e r e m i g h t b e a h e a v y p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s : 1 4 w o m e n t o 3 m e n in K e n t in 1 0 w o m e n t o 5 m e n in S u r r e y in 1 6 6 4 , 8 w o m e n a l o n e in E s s e x in 1 6 5 0 . of Northern 1657, Such
in 1 6 8 5 w a s n o t o n e in w h i c h w i t n e s s e s m i g h t u s u a l l y e x p e c t i n d u l g e n t a t t i t u d e s from judges, witchcraft and w i t n e s s e s , m a l e and f e m a l e alike, w e r e the accused being a Hertfordshire often browbeaten woman named or r i d i c u l e d b y t h e j u d i c i a r y . In 1 7 1 2 t h e r e o c c u r r e d t h e last k n o w n assize t r i a l f o r in E n g l a n d , Jane W e n h a m . O n e o f t h o s e giving e v i d e n c e against h e r was Elizabeth F i e l d . She told h o w W e n h a m had b e w i t c h e d a child o f hers a b o u t nine years previously. T h e j u d g e asked w h y she had n o t p r o s e c u t e d W e n h a m i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r this i n c i d e n t , to w h i c h she a n s w e r e d 'she was a p o o r w o m e n , and the child had n o friends able t o b e a r the charges o f such a p r o s e c u t i o n ' . T h e j u d g e , w h o was sceptical, and w h o was subsequently to reprieve W e n h a m after c o n v i c t i o n , asked sarcastically if Field had n o w g r o w n r i c h .
2 7
e v i d e n c e against f e m a l e w i t c h e s .
w o m e n t o 8 0 m e n in 1 6 0 0 0 9 , t o a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s in t h e 1 6 6 0 s a n d 1 6 7 0 s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e figures is e m p h a s i z e d w h e n w e c o m p a r e t h e m t o t h e g e n d e r r a t i o o f all w i t n e s s e s c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in f e l o n y c a s e s in Hertfordshire between 1 6 1 0 a n d 1 6 1 9 . In t h a t d e c a d e 5 7 2 m e n a n d 3 6 women w e r e c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in f e l o n y c a s e s at t h e H e r t f o r d s h i r e a s s i z e s , a r a t i o o f over twelve male witnesses to each f e m a l e . witchcraft cases. O n these figures,
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C o n v e r s e l y , t h e r e w e r e signs o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s
being
t r e a t e d w i t h p o l i t e n e s s . In 1 7 0 2 R i c h a r d H a t h a w a y w a s t r i e d as a c h e a t f o r a c c u s i n g Sarah M o r d u c k o f w i t c h c r a f t . Elizabeth W i l l o u g h b y was o n e o f those giving e v i d e n c e on Hathaway's behalf before the sceptical Chief Justice H o l t . Holt asked her what skill s h e h a d in m a t t e r s o f w i t c h c r a f t , a n d s h e r e p l i e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n b e w i t c h e d as a c h i l d , a n d t h a t t h i s e x p e r i e n c e h a d g i v e n h e r i n s i g h t i n t o s u c h m a t t e r s . a b o u t this c l a i m . An o b v i o u s l y u n c o n v i n c e d j u d g e H o l t w a s v e r y r e s t r a i n e d in his s u b s e q u e n t q u e s t i o n i n g
2 8
In t h e s a m e d e c a d e , t a k i n g t h e H o m e
I f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s v a r i e d , so did t h a t o f t h e w o m e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t . L o w c o n v i c t i o n r a t e s at t h e assizes s u g g e s t t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f the operation o f the English witch statutes, judges w e r e , broadly speaking, scept i c a l a b o u t , i f n o t t h e a b s t r a c t p o s s i b i l i t y o f w i t c h c r a f t , at l e a s t o f t h e g u i l t o f t h e individual old w o m e n b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e m .
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n o t o n l y in t h e g e n d e r o f t h e a c c u s e d , b u t a l s o in a m u c h w i d e r , p o w e r , a n d f e m a l e i n t e r a c t i o n in e a r l y m o d e r n England.
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c o m p l e x , a n d as y e t b a r e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d w e b o f a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t g e n d e r ,
It is p o s s i b l e t o p u s h b e y o n d s t a t i s t i c s o c c a s i o n a l l y , a n d t o r e c o n s t r u c t s o m e t h i n g o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f w o m e n in t h e c o u r t r o o m . Such instances t h r o w light o n w h a t is still o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m a r e a s o f E n g l i s h legal h i s t o r y : t h e v e r y b a s i c i s s u e o f h o w t r i a l s w e r e a c t u a l l y c o n d u c t e d , o f w h a t h a p p e n e d in t h e p u s h a n d s h o v e o f a c o u r t in s e s s i o n . T h e official d o c u m e n t a t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y an E n g l i s h c r i m i n a l trial in this p e r i o d r a r e l y s h e d s m u c h l i g h t o n t h e s e m a t t e r s . T h e i n d i c t m e n t is a n o t o r i o u s l y a r i d d o c u m e n t , while depositions, although invaluable for illustrating other m a t t e r s , w e r e essentiallv pre-trial d o c u m e n t s that by their very n a t u r e u s u a l l y t e l l us n o t h i n g o f w h a t h a p p e n e d in c o u r t . O t h e r sources can be and court m o r e r e v e a l i n g a n d , as w e shall s e e , s o m e t h i n g c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m p a m p h l e t a c c o u n t s o f t r i a l s , a n d f r o m i s o l a t e d r e f e r e n c e s in l e t t e r s , d i a r i e s , m e m o i r s , d e r l y , m o r e r a m s h a c k l e , a n d less s e e m l y t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n i n g in a m o d e r n s u c h l i k e . T h e g e n e r a l p o i n t t o b e m a d e is t h a t c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s w e r e m o r e d i s o r o f law. S o m e n o t i o n o f typical conditions can b e gained f r o m the case o f M a r y S p e n c e r w h o , at h e r t r i a l f o r w i t c h c r a f t , c o m p l a i n e d t h a t ' t h e w i n d w a s so l o u d , a n d t h e t h r o n g s o g r e a t , t h a t she c o u l d n o t h e a r t h e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t h e r ' .
2 4
c o n v i c t i o n s w e r e v e r y r a r e , j u d g e s m u s t h a v e p l a y e d a m a j o r p a r t in h e l p i n g a c c u s e d w i t c h e s e v a d e e x e c u t i o n . Y e t in o t h e r i n s t a n c e s w o m e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t in t h e c o n f u s i n g a n d h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e c o u r t m i g h t find t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r h e a v y p r e s s u r e . In m a n y c a s e s t h e a c c u s e d w e r e e l d e r l y w o m e n w h o h a d b e e n c o w e d b y the experiences o f c o m m u n i t y hostility, examination by justices and m o b pressure on the way to the place o f trial. Such w o m e n w e r e unlikely t o m o u n t m u c h by way o f a c o h e r e n t d e f e n c e against the charges levelled against t h e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , scatt e r e d e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a f e w w o m e n w e r e a b l e t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s in c o u r t . T h u s in 1 5 8 6 J o a n C a s o n , a w i d o w o f F a v e r s h a m in K e n t , w a s t r i e d at t h e b o r o u g h s e s s i o n s f o r i n v o k i n g evil s p i r i t s a n d b e w i t c h i n g a c h i l d t o d e a t h . S e v e n w o m e n a n d o n e m a n , p o o r p e o p l e b u t h e r n e a r n e i g h b o u r s , gave e v i d e n c e against h e r . Cason, while admitting c o n t a c t with what may have b e e n familiars, denied bewitching the child t o death, claiming that h e r adversaries w e r e maliciously accusing h e r and that t h e r e w e r e e x i s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m in w h i c h h e r a c c u s e r s h a d a l r e a d y d o n e her w r o n g . H e r arguing convinced the R e c o r d e r o f Faversharn o f her i n n o c e n c e , although a bungle o v e r legal technicalities led t o h e r e x e c u t i o n .
3 0
John
A u b r e y n o t e d t h a t at t h e t r i a l o f a w i t c h in 1 6 5 3 ' t h e s p e c t a t o r s m a d e s u c h a n o i s e that the judge could not hear the prisoner nor the prisoner the judge, but the words w e r e handed f r o m o n e to the o t h e r by M r R. C h a n d l e r , and s o m e t i m e s n o t truly reported'.
2 5
O t h e r cases o f w h a t a m o u n t e d a l m o s t t o defiance w e r e r e c o r d e d . A n n a T r a p n e l , t h e I n t e r r e g n u m r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n a r y , r e c o r d e d h o w d u r i n g h e r t r a v e l s in C o r n w a l l s h e w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d as a w i t c h , a n d t h a t a c l e r g y m e n h e l p e d t o f r a m e an i n d i c t m e n t against h e r , ' b u t though he and the w i t c h - t r y i n g w o m a n l o o k e d in m v f a c e , i t did n o w a y d i s m a y m e ' . one point made whole b e n c h ' .
3 2 3 1
S o m e t i m e s t h e t h r o n g in t h e c o u r t d u r i n g a w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l m i g h t b e
so o p p r e s s i v e , a n d d e m o n s t r a t e its h o s t i l i t y t o t h e a c c u s e d so f o r c e f u l l y , t h a t , as R o g e r N o r t h r e c o r d e d o f o n e p o s t - R e s t o r a t i o n c a s e in t h e s o u t h - w e s t , t h e j u d g e m i g h t b e p r e s s u r e d i n t o c o n v i c t i n g a g a i n s t his i n c l i n a t i o n s .
2 6
steadfastly
a c c u s e d in 1 6 4 5 , a l l e g e d m a l i c e a n d an o l d g r u d g e a g a i n s t h e r at h e r t r i a l , a n d at ' a s t r a n g e h o w l i n g in t h e c o u r t t o t h e g r e a t d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e Temperance L l o y d , o n e o f t h r e e w i t c h e s e x e c u t e d at E x e t e r in
296
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AND
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1 6 8 2 , a l t h o u g h c o n f e s s i n g h e r w i t c h c r a f t at h e r t r i a l , w a s ' p e r f e c t l y r e s o l u t e , w e l l as a f t e r h e r t r y a l , so a u d a c i o u s ' .
not
g l i m p s e d in t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f y e t a n o t h e r d a u g h t e r o f t h e
gentry
m i n d i n g w h a t s h o u l d b e c o m e o f h e r i m m o r t a l s o u l , b u t r a t h e r i m p u d e n t l y a t , as
3 3
foreign
W h e n e x a m i n i n g g e n d e r as an a s p e c t o f w i t c h gave
of
c r a f t , it is c l e a r t h a t b e i n g p o s s e s s e d a n d l a u n c h i n g a w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n and t o e x e r c i s e p o w e r o v e r adults.
this last t y p e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a l l e g e d v i c t i m s o f w i t c h c r a f t . O n e o f t h e r e c u r r i n g t h e m e s o f English w i t c h c r a f t was the possession o f v o u n g p e o p l e by spirits sent by a w i t c h , or by curious diseases inflicted on t h e m by witchcraft. T h e accounts of t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f s u c h p o s s e s s e d p e r s o n s , f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v i n g fits a n d c o n v u l s i o n s , a r e s o m e t i m e s v e r y l o n g a n d v e r y h a r r o w i n g . W h a t is s t r i k i n g , h o w e v e r , is t h e n u m b e r o f o c c a s i o n s w h e n s u c h b e h a v i o u r o c c u r r e d in t h e c o u r t r o o m , b e i n g r e g a r d e d ( a t l e a s t b y t h e a c c u s e r s ) as e v i d e n c e o f b e w i t c h m e n t . sometimes Although
m a n y an ' i n n o c e n t , b a s h f u l l g i r l e ' t h e c h a n c e t o b e c o m e t h e c e n t r e o f a t t e n t i o n A f t e r trial and c o n d e m n a t i o n the w i t c h , like any o t h e r f e l o n , w o u l d b e p r e p a r e d f o r d e a t h . A p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , this p r o c e s s w o u l d b e e n t r u s t e d t o a c l e r g y m a n . H e n c e Henry G o o d c o l e w o r k e d on (to use the c o n t e m p o r a r y phrase) Elizabeth S a w y e r in 1 6 2 1 t o a c c e p t h e r s i n f u l n e s s a n d t h e d e a t h b y h a n g i n g t h a t it h a d d r a w n u p o n h e r , a n d t o m a k e a full c o n f e s s i o n . It w a s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e c o n d e m n e d w i t c h , like o t h e r c o n v i c t e d f e l o n s , should ' m a k e a g o o d e n d ' , and die p e n i t e n t l y and w i t h d i g n i t y . In S a w y e r ' s c a s e , G o o d c o l e o f f i c i a t e d a t t h e e x e c u t i o n , a n d at t h e g a l l o w s r e a d t o h e r t h e c o n f e s s i o n t h a t she h a d m a d e e a r l i e r , w h i c h s h e d e c l a r e d t o b e t r u e 'in the hearing o f m a n y h u n d r e d s ' . be excessive. Joan Peterson,
4 0
p e o p l e o f e i t h e r s e x m i g h t b e p o s s e s s e d , it s e e m s t h a t m o s t o f t h e c a s e s o f fits a n d c o n v u l s i o n s o c c u r r i n g in c o u r t o f w h i c h d e t a i l s h a v e c o m e d o w n t o us i n v o l v e d young w o m e n . Frequently these t o o k the form o f dramatic interventions on the first part o f the alleged sufferer w h e n the supposed witch entered the c o u r t or was noticed by the supposedly possessed girl. T h u s in o n e w e l l d o c u m e n t e d c a s e w e find M a r y G l o v e r , d a u g h t e r o f a L o n d o n s h o p k e e p e r , w h o w a s t h o u g h t t o b e b e w i t c h e d in 1 6 0 2 , f a l l i n g i n t o a fit w h e n s h e w a s c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in c o u r t . T h e t h r e e s t r o n g m e n w h o c a r r i e d t h e g i r l out o f c o u r t declared that they had ' n e v e r carried a heavier b u r d e n ' . T h e R e c o r d e r o f L o n d o n a n d o t h e r officials t e s t e d t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f h e r fit b y b u r n i n g h e r h a n d until it b l i s t e r e d : the girl r e m a i n e d i n s e n s i b l e . s h i r e assizes at a l m o s t the same time,
3 b
S o m e t i m e s this s o r t o f c l e r i c a l p r e s s u r e c o u l d 1 6 5 2 , w a s , at t h e p l a c e of
e x e c u t e d at T y b u r n in
execution, exhorted nine or m o r e times to confess by the Ordinary o f N e w g a t e . A t this p o i n t t h e e x e c u t i o n e r c o m m e n t e d t h a t ' t h e O r d i n a r y m i g h t b e a s h a m e d t o t r o u b l e a d y i n g w o m a n so m u c h ' , t o w h i c h t h e c l e r g y m a n r e s p o n d e d t h a t ' h e w a s c o m m a n d e d t o d o s o , a n d d u r s t d o n o o t h e r w i s e ' . T h i s s t o r y d o e s at l e a s t d e m o n strate that c o n v i c t e d w i t c h e s c o u l d b e o b d u r a t e at t h e g a l l o w s .
4 1
Anne
s i m i l a r l y w e n t i n t o fits at t h e t r i a l o f t w o o f t h e w o m e n w h o h a d a l l e g e d l y b e w i t c h e d h e r , o n e witness referring to the 'gogling o f hir heade & eyes, the turning o f h e r a r m e s a n d h a n d s , t h e d u b l i n g & s w e l l i n g o f h i r b o d y ' in c o u r t . T w o d e c a d e s l a t e r t w o o t h e r daughters o f the g e n t r y , H e l e n and Elizabeth Fairfax, likewise 'fell i n t o a t r a n c e b e f o r e the j u d g e , and w e r e carried o u t ' . Justices p r e s e n t f o l l o w e d the girls o u t , and ' m a d e e x p e r i m e n t s to p r o v e if they c o u n t e r f e i t e d o r n o t ' . T h e girls' father n o t e d t h a t ' r e p o r t said t h a t it w a s n o t s o c i v i l as I e x p e c t e d f r o m s u c h m e n , t h e i r c u r i o s i t y f o u n d n o t h i n g b u t s i n c e r i t y in m y children'.
3 6
C a s o n d i e d at F a v e r s h a m in 1 5 8 6 s h e m a d e a g a l l o w s s p e e c h a c c e p t i n g t h a t h e r f a t e
B u t n o t all d i e d so e d i f y i n g l y . A n n B o d e n h a m , e x e c u t e d at S a l i s b u r y , w a s w o r k e d on by a minister n a m e d Foster, ' w h o c o m f o r t e d her to bear death Christianly, boldly, a n d c h e a r f u l l y ' . H e m a n a g e d t o b r i n g h e r ' t o t h a t p i t c h as t o p r o m i s e h i m she w o u l d g o e a t r u e p e n i t e n t t o h e r p l a c e o f e x e c u t i o n , a n d t o d i e as a l a m b ' . S h e r e f u s e d , h o w e v e r , t o confess t h e m a t t e r s f o r w h i c h she had b e e n c o n v i c t e d , adding 'that she
r
yet
T h e t h e m e o f t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f a d o l e s c e n t s is a m a j o r o n e in t h e h i s t o r y E n g l i s h w i t c h c r a f t in this p e r i o d , a n d is t o o c o m p l e x t o g o i n t o h e r e . W h a t
of is
w r o n g f u l l y s u f f e r e d d e a t h , a n d did l a m e n t e x t r e m e l y , a n d d e s i r e d t o d i e q u i e t l y ' . H e r e x e c u t i o n w a s , i n f a c t , less t h a n e d i f y i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a m p h l e t a c c o u n t , she w a s ' v e r y d e s i r o u s f o r d r i n k , a n d h a d n o t M r U n d e r s h e r i f f s p r u d e n c e b e e n s u c h as t o r e s t r a i n h e r f r o m it s h e w o u l d h a v e d i e d d r u n k ' . As s h e w a l k e d t o t h e g a l l o w s , ' b y e v e r y h o u s e s h e w e n t b y , s h e w e n t w i t h a s m a l l p i e c e o f s i l v e r in h e r h a n d , c a l l i n g f o r b e e r , a n d w a s v e r y p a s s i o n a t e w h e n d e n y e d ' , w h i l e she w a s a l s o , f o r u n c l e a r r e a s o n s , v e r y a n n o y e d w h e n t h e s h e r i f f t o l d h e r s h e c o u l d n o t b e b u r i e d at t h e g a l l o w s . In f a c t , at t h e g a l l o w s s h e r e f u s e d t o c o n f e s s , a n d b e i n g a s k e d w h e t h e r she d e s i r e d t h e p r a y e r s o f a n y o f t h e p e o p l e , s h e a n s w e r e d , she h a d as m a n v p r a y e r s a l r e a d y as she i n t e n d e d , a n d d e s i r e d
o b v i o u s is t h a t b e i n g p o s s e s s e d , w h e t h e r in t h e c o u r t r o o m o r n o t , g a v e a d o l e s c e n t s a unique o p p o r t u n i t y t o cast off their characteristically submissive and repressed r o l e , a n d i n d u l g e in b a d b e h a v i o u r t h a t w a s n o t o n l v l i c e n s e d , b u t a l s o m a d e t h e m the centre of attention.
3 7
h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d as a d e e p e r a f f r o n t t o s o c i a l n o r m s t h a n t h a t o f y o u n g m a l e s .
S o m e t h i n g o f t h e d i v e r g e n c e in t h e n o r m a l e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a y o u n g w o m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r a n d t h a t o f t h e p o s s e s s e d a d o l e s c e n t g i r l in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a j u d g e c a n b e
298
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to have, but cursed those that detained her f r o m h e r death, and was i m p o r t u n a t e to g o e up the ladder. She then tried to turn herself off on the gallows, but was restrained by the e x e c u t i o n e r , w h o a s k e d h e r f o r g i v e n e s s , as w a s t h e c u s t o m . 'She replyed forgive thee? that who A p o x o n t h e e , t u r n m e o f f , w h i c h w e r e t h e last w o r d s she s p o k e ' . ' T h u s ' , c o n c l u d e d the account o f her trial, 'you have her wicked life, her wofull death. T h o s e f o r s a k e G o d in t h e i r l i v e s , shall b e f o r s a k e n o f h i m in t h e i r d e a t h s ' . T h o s e l e a s t t a k e c o n s o l a t i o n in B o d e n h a m ' s c a s e as o n e o f h e g e m o n y ' s failures.
h a v e t w o r a t h e r c o n t e n t i o u s w o m e n , w h o h a d , in f a c t , a l r e a d y b e e n l o c k e d i n t o a d i s p u t e o v e r a h o u s e in w h i c h W r i g h t h a d d w e l t , ' w h i c h t h e said M a r y h a d a g r e a t m i n d o f . T h i s d i s p u t e h a d a l r e a d y p r o v o k e d a suit w h i c h h a d b e e n a r b i t r a t e d b y a j u s t i c e o f t h e p e a c e . T h i s c a s e , w h i c h e n d e d in W r i g h t p e r f o r m i n g p u b l i c p e n a n c e in h e r p a r i s h c h u r c h , d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l a w h e l p e d w o m e n to b e c o m e a g e n t s in l e g a l m a t t e r s . W r i g h t a n d B r i s c o e w e r e c l e a r l y n o t v i c t i m s o f a patriarchal legal s y s t e m , b u t r a t h e r t w o w o m e n w h o w e r e willing to use t h e law to pursue their own ends. T h i s a s s e r t i o n r e m i n d s us o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f d e t e r m i n i n g a s p e c i f i c a l l y f e m a l e e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e t h e c o u r t s a n d legal p r o c e s s . W e are examining witchcraft, a c r i m e w h i c h , c o r r e c t l y , has b e e n r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g a p e c u l i a r c o n n e c t i o n with
h a v e a r g u e d t h a t w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s w e r e a m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g w o m e n c a n at
4 3
T h i s c h a p t e r has c o n c e n t r a t e d o n w i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e s e c u l a r c r i m i n a l l a w c o u r t s . B u t b e f o r e m o v i n g t o a n y c o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d b y this c o n n e c tion, w e should r e m i n d ourselves that there w e r e other tribunals involved with witchcraft cases, notably the ecclesiastical c o u r t s . Less serious f o r m s o f witchcraft, s o r c e r y and charming might b e p r e s e n t e d b e f o r e these c o u r t s , w h i l e , m o r e i m p o r tantly for our immediate purposes, defamation suits involving allegations of witchcraft might be pursued t h e r e . Ecclesiastical law gave w o m e n greater o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l i t i g a t i n g t h a n did t h e c o m m o n l a w , a n d s o m e o f t h e b e t t e r d o c u m e n t e d cases reveal clearly h o w witchcraft accusations m i g h t f o r m part o f a w i d e r b o d v o f tensions and conflicts b e t w e e n women. aged O n e s u c h c a s e w a s t r i e d b e f o r e t h e C h e s t e r C o n s i s t o r v C o u r t in 1 6 6 2 . It a r o s e f r o m p r o b l e m s b e t w e e n M a r y Briscoe and A n n W r i g h t . W r i g h t ' s daughter, by fitts', a b o u t t w e l v e , h a d f a l l e n i l l , a n d ' w a s v e r y sadly a f f l i c t e d a n d i n a s t r a n g e m a n n e r d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e ' s h e w o u l d m a n y t i m e s say t h a t M a r y B r i s c o e p r i c k e d h e r t o t h e h e a r t w i t h p i n s a n d w o u l d h a v e h e r h e a r t a n d t h e l i k e , a n d s h e did s w e l l m u c h in t h e b o d y a n d s o e d y e d ' . In c o n s e q u e n c e , as a w i t n e s s n a m e d C i c e l y W i n n e d e p o s e d , ' t h e said M a r y B r i s c o e w as s u s p e c t e d b y m a n y n e i g h b o u r s t o b e t h e c a u s e
r
w o m e n . B u t m u c h o f w h a t s e e m s t o h a v e h a p p e n e d t o w o m e n i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , w h e t h e r as a c c u s e d , a c c u s e r s o r w i t n e s s e s , s e e m s v e r y s i m i l a r t o w h a t happened to their m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s : m e n accused o f felony, and m a l e men convicted of felony, like women convicted of witchcraft, were witnesses 'worked g i v i n g e v i d e n c e in c o u r t , m i g h t b e h e c t o r e d o r p r e s s u r e d b y a g g r e s s i v e j u d g e s , a n d o n ' b y c l e r g y m e n b e f o r e t h e i r e x e c u t i o n in h o p e s t h a t t h e y m i g h t p r o d u c e a m o d e l speech f r o m the gallows. H o w e v e r , w e m u s t k e e p o u r minds open t o the possibility that although women might have shared with men the experience of going t h r o u g h various stages o f the judicial p r o c e s s , the quality o f that e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e r e a c t i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s it m i g h t p r o v o k e c o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y for them. T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r , aspects o f the prosecution o f felony which w e r e either s p e c i f i c t o o r m o r e m a r k e d in t r i a l s o f w i t c h c r a f t . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s o f t h e s e , as I have stressed, was the use o f groups o f w o m e n to search suspected witches for the m a r k . A n o t h e r r e c u r r i n g t h e m e in a c c o u n t s o f w i t c h c r a i t c a s e s w a s t h e frequent o c c u r r e n c e o f s o m e t h i n g a m o u n t i n g t o m o b a c t i o n , o r at l e a s t p o p u l a r p r e s s u r e . O f course, the p h e n o m e n o n o f c r o w d action or popular attitudes towards criminals o r at e x e c u t i o n s w a s n o t l i m i t e d t o w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s ; b u t t h e f r e q u e n c y the legal p r o c e s s . S u s p e c t e d w i t c h e s m i g h t b e s u b j e c t e d to s w i m m i n g , of r e f e r e n c e s t o h o s t i l e m o b s is s t r i k i n g , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e y w e r e o n t h e f r i n g e s o f scratching o r o t h e r f o r m s o f popularly licensed v i o l e n c e . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o this issue m i g h t lead to s o m e useful insights into attitudes t o g e n d e r , given that m o s t o f the p e o p l e t o w a r d s w h o m such v i o l e n c e was d i r e c t e d w e r e women. diflerent
b o t h o f h e r a f f l i c t i n g e a n d l i k e w i s e o f a b r o t h e r o f h e r s w h o w a s sadly a f f l i c t e d b e f o r e t h a t & d y e d in a s t r a n g e m a n n e r ' . T h u s w e h a v e a c a s e w h i c h r e s e m b l e s so m a n y o t h e r s : t h e s t r a n g e d e a t h o f a child, the allegation o f w i t c h c r a f t , t h e n e i g h b o u r l y evaluation, the focusing o f suspicion, the defamation suit in d e f e n c e of good name. Unusually, however, the s u r v i v i n g d o c u m e n t a t i o n a l l o w s us t o p i e c e t o g e t h e r s o m e t h i n g o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d . N e i t h e r w o m a n h a d an u n b l e m i s h e d r e p u t a t i o n . B r i s c o e w a s d e s c r i b e d as a ' v e r y t r o u b l e s o m e a n d w r a n g l i n g w o m a n a m o n g h e r n e i g h b o u r s ' , o r as a ' v e r y wilfull high spirited w o m a n a m o n g s t h e r n e i g h b o u r s ' . I n d e e d , h e r husband, w o r r i e d about t h e s u s p i c i o n o f w i t c h c r a i t a g a i n s t his w i f e , h a d d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b l e m w i t h C i c e l y W i n n e , a n d t o l d h e r ' h e w a s m u c h t r o u b l e d at it b u t h e c o u l d n o t r u l e h e r , a n d h e w a s v e r y m u c h a f r a i d t h a t s h e w o u l d c o m e t o t h e s a m e e n d as h e r did'. But Wright h e r s e l f h a d g i v e n b i r t h t o an i l l e g i t i m a t e Moth[er] the child just after
T h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f o t h e r w o m e n t o a c t a g a i n s t a l l e g e d w i t c h e s is a l s o a c o n s t a n t t h e m e . As I h a v e s u g g e s t e d e l s e w h e r e , m a t e r i a l s f r o m Y o r k s h i r e d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t witchcraft accusations w e r e not simply foisted onto w o m e n by m e n , but rather w e r e f r e q u e n t l y g e n e r a t e d f r o m t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n w o m e n , o f t e n arising f r o m such t r a d i t i o n a l f e m a l e c o n c e r n s as c h i l d r e a r i n g , a n d w e r e o f t e n f o r m u l a t e d a n d r e f i n e d in t h e w o r l d o f f e m a l e s o c i a b i l i t y , g o s s i p a m o n g w o m e n , a n d f e m a l e c o n c e r n o v e r reputation.
4 4
R e s t o r a t i o n , h a d r e i u s e d t o i d e n t i f y its f a t h e r t o t h e m i d w i f e a n d h a d r e f u s e d t o do p e n a n c e for it. O n e witness, interestingly, deposed that W r i g h t claimed Briscoe h a d b e w i t c h e d h e r at t h e t i m e o f t h e c h i l d ' s c o n c e p t i o n . speaking t r e a s o n against the k i n g ' . A n o t h e r w o m e n , S h e a l s o c o m p l a i n e d at claimed a b o u t the s a m e t i m e o f being c o m p e l l e d 'to be a w i t n e s s against h e r husband for Margery Whishall, that W r i g h t had slandered h e r f o r adultery. W i t h W r i g h t and B r i s c o e w e obviously
female
300
JIM
SHARPE 9 10 11 12
WOMEN,
WITCHCRAFT
AND
THE
LEGAL
PROCESS
301
63. wytches at Chensford anno 1566 in the countie (London of Essex the xxvi day of July 1566). 187. witches treated
of certain
v o l . 1, part 2 , A D 1 5 7 8 1 6 0 2 , eds F . J . C . H e a r n s h a w and D . of the information, of Essex, examination whereof some and confession were executed of all the and others
iM. H e a r n s h a w , S o u t h a m p t o n R e c o r d S o c i e t y , I ( S o u t h a m p t o n 1 9 0 6 ) , A true and just recorde taken 13 14 15 16 17 18 according H. at S. Oses in the countie to the determination The wonderfull
movement
of the law ( L o n d o n 1 5 8 2 ) , sig D 4 . a discourse discoverie on witchcraft (Harrogate 1 8 8 2 ) , 7 8 . Sawyer (London 1621), sig of Elizabeth
w r i t i n g s o n t h e s u b j e c t f r o m t h e 1 9 7 0 s , is s o m e h o w c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m a l e d o m i n a t i o n o f w o m e n . Y e t in t h e p r e c e d i n g p a g e s w e h a v e s e e n w o m e n a c t i n g s t r o n g l y : d e f y i n g j u d g e s a n d e x e c u t i o n e r s ; a c c u s i n g o t h e r w o m e n as w i t c h e s ; g i v i n g e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t s u s p e c t e d w o m e n w i t c h e s ; a n d suing e a c h o t h e r f o r d e f a m a t i o n a r i s i n g f r o m allegations o f witchcraft. Even though c o n t e m p o r a r y attitudes to gender probably m a d e those experiences different for the w o m e n involved, they nonetheless establish w o m e n as a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e l e g a l s y s t e m . L i k e all o f u s , t h e s e women f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in a r e a l w o r l d t h a t i m p o s e d c o n s t r a i n t s u p o n t h e m . Y e t w i t h i n t h o s e c o n s t r a i n t s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s , in t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s a n d b e f o r e t h e c o u r t s as e l s e w h e r e , they w e r e historical actors.
of the severall
informations,
examinations
of the
and executed
in the county
of Essex ( L o n d o n 1 6 4 5 ) , 2 6 . (London 1 9 0 9 ) ,
at Coggeshall,
F o r t h e a b s e n c e o f m i d w i v e s a m o n g w i t c h c r a f t s u s p e c t s , see C h a p t e r s 3 and 6 in this b o o k . F o r a slightly d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , see C h a p t e r 1 4 bv G a r v K . W a i t e . F o r full citations o f t h e archival s o u r c e s u s e d in this c h a p t e r , see t h e original v e r s i o n in J e n n y K e r m o d e and G a r t h i n e W a l k e r , e d s , Women, in Early Modern England ( U C L Press, London 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. 5. Litigation in Medieval England Crime and the Courts
Notes
1 F o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s , see C . Z . W e i n e r , ' S e x r o l e s and c r i m e in late E l i z a b e t h a n H e r t f o r d s h i r e ' , Journal of Social History, 8 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 1837, and J . M . B e a t t i e , ' T h e and Sexual Slander in Early Modern and New England: c r i m i n a l i t y o f w o m e n in e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d ' , I b i d . , 8 0 1 1 6 ; f o r d e f a m a t i o n l i t i g a t i o n , J . A . S h a r p e , Defamation the church 1558-1803 courts C . H o f f e r and N . E . H u l l , Murdering t h e s c o l d ' , in Order and Disorder 2 at York, B o r t h w i c k P a p e r s , 5 8 ( Y o r k 1 9 8 0 ) ; f o r i n f a n t i c i d e , P. Mothers: infanticide in England England
19 20 21
F o r a case o f this t y p e see R . H . H e l m h o l z , Marriage (Cambridge 1 9 7 4 ) , 89. P. H a i r , Before the Bawdy Court ( L o n d o n 1 9 7 2 ) , of Assize Justice 189. T h i s p r a c t i c e is discussed in A Calendar a h i s t o r y o f t h e j u r y o f m a t r o n s ' , Criminal
Records: History,
introduction,
ed. J .
S.
C o c k b u r n ( L o n d o n 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 2 1 3 . S e e also J . C . O l d h a m , ' O n pleading t h e b e l l y : 6 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 164. Circuit of assize 22 T h e s e figures are based o n an analysis o f abstracts o f assize cases given in E w e n , Witch 23 Hunting and Witch Trials, 1 8 7 2 6 4 . F o r analysis o f t h e N o r t h e r n D e p o s i t i o n s , see S h a r p e , ' W i t c h c r a f t and w o m e n ' . T h e s e figures are d e r i v e d f r o m abstracts o f i n d i c t m e n t s given in A calendar records: 70-223. 24 25 26 Calendar of State Papers, Domestic 1634 J , 125. North, Baron Guildford; the hon Sir Dudley 1301 North, 3 vols ( L o n d o n 1 8 9 0 ) , v o l . 3 , 79. E w e n , Witchcraft North; and Demonianism, Hertfordshire indictments James I, ed. J . S. Cockburn (London 1975),
Stevenson ( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 1636. G e n d e r as a social c o n s t r u c t has so far r e c e i v e d little a t t e n t i o n f r o m historians o f early Amussen, modern England. For an i m p o r t a n t preliminary discussion, see S. ' G e n d e r , family and t h e social o r d e r , Society (Oxford 1988). lawes Witch Home 28 Witchcraft 29 27 1 5 6 0 1 7 2 5 ' , in F l e t c h e r and
S t e v e n s o n ( 1 9 8 5 ) 1 9 6 2 1 8 . T h e t h e m e s raised h e r e are discussed f u r t h e r in S. A m u s s e n ' s An Ordered 3 4 resolution Trials: Circuit 5 6 7 8 F o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w o m e n and t h e c o m m o n l a w , see The of womens rights for (London 1 6 5 2 ) . and the witchcraft from (London 1 9 2 9 ) , the records of 1373 assizes held for F o r a list o f t h e s e i n d i c t m e n t s see C . L ' E s t r a n g e E w e n , Witch Hunting the indictments AD 1559-1736 117-265.
R . N o r t h , The lives of the right hon Francis and the hon and rev Dr John
d impartial
of the discovery
of sorcery
and witchcraft
practisd
by
Jane
Wenhant
C f . m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e W e s t e r n C i r c u i t p r i n t e d in C . L ' E s t r a n g e E w e n , and Demonianism Ibid., 117-18. ( L o n d o n 1 9 3 3 ) , a p p e n d i x L, 4 3 9 4 6 . in Tudor and Stuart England A . M a c f a r l a n e , Witchcraft J . A. S h a r p e ,
w i t c h c r a f t at t h e H o m e C i r c u i t assizes, 1 1 2 ( o r 2 2 p e r c e n t ) w e r e M a n v o t h e r s , o f c o u r s e , suffered lesser p e n a l t i e s . 30 T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t o f this case is p r i n t e d in B . R o s e n , Witchcraft 1969), 31 32 33 163-7. Trapnel's report and plea (London 1 6 5 4 ) , 24. witches (London 1 6 8 2 ) , 4 . and Demonianism, and execution T r a p n e l , Anna E w e n , Witchcraft The trval,
6 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 7 9 9 9 . F o r a s o m e w h a t dif-
condemnation
302
JIM
SHARPE
34 35
A prodigious at Maidstone,
and tragical!
history
and condemnation
of six
witches
C h a p t e r
23
in Kent ( L o n d o n 1 6 5 2 ) , 4 . and Demonianism, 1 9 7 . M a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g t o this case are b r o u g h t and Hysteria 1990). in Elizabethan London: Edward
E w e n , Witchcraft Jordan
Clive Holmes
a modern enquiry
T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is p e r h a p s m o s t familiar in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e trials at S a l e m , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , in 1 6 9 2 . F o r a w o r k w h i c h , although n o w s o m e w h a t d a t e d , d o e s f o c u s o n this issue, s e e M . L. S t a r k e y , The Devil in Massachusetts: into the Salem witch trials (New York 1950).
38 39 40 41 42 43 44
F o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n possession and g e n d e r , s e e C h a p t e r 1 9 in this c o l l e c tion by M o s h e Sluhovsky. M . M o o r e , Wonderfull G o o d c o l e , Wonderfull Ewen, Witch Hunting R o s e n , Witchcraft news from discoverie and Witch the North of Elizabeth Trials, (London 1 6 5 0 ) , Sawyer, sig D 2 v . 15-16.
E . B o w e r , Dr Lamb revived
HE
ROLE
PLAYED
BY
WOMEN
as a c c u s e r s o r w i t n e s s e s , has b e e n f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d in t h e c o u r s e o f s k i r m i s h e s as p o s e d b y C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r ,
h u n t i n g ? ' K e i t h T h o m a s has a r g u e d t h a t ' T h e i d e a t h a t w i t c h - p r o s e c u t i o n s r e f l e c t e d a w a r b e t w e e n the sexes m u s t b e d i s c o u n t e d , n o t least b e c a u s e t h e victims and witnesses were themselves as l i k e l y t o b e w o m e n as m e n ' . T h i s argument is m i r r o r e d b y t h a t o f A l a n M a c f a r l a n e , a n d has b e e n f o l l o w e d , in r e l a t i o n t o t h e N e w England trials, by J o h n D e m o s . most recently, Marianne
1
Feminist scholars, like L a r n e r , Carol Karlsen a n d , have found such reasoning 'simplistic'.
2
Hester,
Yet
K a r l s e n ' s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t t h a t t h e r o l e o f w o m e n as a c c u s e r s r e m a i n s o n e of t h e m o s t baffling q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t d o e s suggest t h e n e e d for further discussion, a n d an essay b y J . A . Sharpe, examining the involvement of women
3
in
An exami-
n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f w i t n e s s i n g a p r o c e s s , as I shall a r g u e , o f c o n s i d e r a b l e w i l l i l l u m i n a t e a n u m b e r o f issues r a i s e d b y t h e w i t c h c r a f t oi p r o s e c u t i o n s : t h e s h a p i n g r o l e o f t h e legal s y s t e m , t h e d y n a m i c i n t e r w e a v i n g dimension of witchcraft. W e m a y d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e w a y s in w h i c h w o m e n m i g h t p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e t r i a l p r o c e d u r e s against w i t c h e s . T w o o f these are very distinctive. First, w o m e n m i g h t t e s t i f y as ' p o s s e s s e d ' v i c t i m s o f t h e w i t c h ' s m a l i c e ; c o n t r o l o f t h e i r m i n d s a n d b o d i e s h a d b e e n s e i z e d b y t h e D e v i l at t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f t h e w i t c h . Secondly, women might r e p o r t the results o f physical searches that they had b e e n instructed t o c o n d u c t upon the w i t c h ' s b o d y , designed to discover the incriminating physical characteristics t h a t i n d i c a t e d h e r c o m p l i c i t y w i t h S a t a n a n d his m i n i o n s . In b o t h instances the sensual t h e f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s a p p e a r t o a c q u i e s c e in a n d r e i n f o r c e t h e o r i e s o f w i t c h c r a f t , developed by theologians and lawyers, which emphasize female weakness greater susceptibility of women to satanic temptation; their greater
elite theology and the c o n c e r n s o f the populace and, n o t least, the misogvnous
d e p r a v i t y . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e a t h i r d
304
CLIVE
HOLMES
WOMEN:
WITCHES
AND
WITNESSES
305
g r o u p o f w o m e n i n v o l v e d in c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n : t h o s e w h o t e s t i f i e d s i m p l v t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w i t c h ' s maleficium to children lamed or killed, to stock or crops blighted, to the interruption o f agricultural or domestic procedures. This k i n d o f t e s t i m o n y is m o r e i n c h o a t e t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o c a t e g o r i e s ; i t l a c k s t h e i r c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . Y e t , b e c a u s e it is t h e b a s i c f o r m o f f e m a l e e n g a g e m e n t in t h e c o u r t s , b o t h i n v o l v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r o f d e p o n e n t s , r o o t e d in p o p u l a r r a t h e r t h a n e l i t e b e l i e f s , it m u s t b e e x a m i n e d first. and
f r e q u e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a n y g e n d e r bias in t h e d e t e r m i nation o f n a m e s for e n d o r s e m e n t on the earlier i n d i c t m e n t s . T h e rising p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s i n w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y is n o t an o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n i n d u c e d b y c h a n g i n g c l e r i c a l p r a c t i c e . W h y did t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t shift in t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s o c c u r in t h e c e n t u r y a f t e r 1 5 9 0 ? T h e p h e n o m e n o n is p a r a l l e l e d b y an i n c r e a s e in t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s in all c a s e s b e f o r e t h e a s s i z e s . W o m e n f o r m e d o n l y 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e w i t n e s s e s in n o n - w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s in a s a m p l e o f s e s s i o n s o f t h e E s s e x assizes b e t w e e n 1 5 9 6 a n d 1 6 2 5 ; a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n t h e p r o p o r t i o n had m o r e than doubled ( 2 2 p e r c e n t ) .
6
I
T h e sources available for the study o f witnessing can b e divided into t w o cate-
B u t this shift r e f l e c t s , n o t a n y c h a n g e in t h e
c o u r t s ' r e a d i n e s s t o a c c e p t f e m a l e t e s t i m o n y , b u t s i m p l y t h e fall in t h e n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t y o f f e n c e s c o m i n g t o the a t t e n t i o n o f the assizes. P r o p e r t y c r i m e s l a r c e n y , burglary, housebreaking had d o m i n a t e d p r o c e e d i n g s f r o m the 1 5 9 0 s until the end o f t h e r e i g n o f J a m e s I; t h e y d e c l i n e d m a r k e d l y a f t e r 1 6 6 0 .
7
gories. First, transcriptions o f the testimony proffered to the examining magistrates o r in c o u r t . S u c h e v i d e n c e s u r v i v e s in a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f o r m s : in t h e p r i v a t e p a p e r s o f J P s a n d m i n i s t e r s ; in t h e o f f i c i a l files o f t h e c l e r k s o f assize a n d o f t h e p e a c e , a n d o f t h e f u n c t i o n a r i e s o f t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o u r t s ; in p u b l i s h e d w o r k s a c a d e m i c t r e a t i s e s a n d p o p u l a r b r o a d s i d e s ; e v e n plays a n d b a l l a d s . R i c h in d e t a i l , s u c h t e s t i m o n i e s c e r t a i n l y d i s p l a y t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f w o m e n in t h e p r o c e s s o f a c c u s a t i o n . And they indicate the c o n c e r n s that exercised female witnesses, though these are, o f c o u r s e , refracted through the pens and the assumptions o f their elite, m a l e interl o c u t o r s . B u t t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e s e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s is s o r a n d o m t h a t a n y a t t e m p t to undertake a quantitative study, to calculate, for instance, the proportion o f male a n d f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g . A n y s t a t i s t i c a l e x e r c i s e , an e s s e n t i a l g r o u n d b a s e t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t t e s t i m o n y , has t o u n d e r t a k e n f r o m t h e s e c o n d o f t h e a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s : t h e assize i n d i c t m e n t s . be The
A n d in these p r o s e c u so
tions the bulk o f the t e s t i m o n y was p r o v i d e d by m e n . As the n u m b e r s o f p r o p e r t y o f f e n c e s b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e assize c o u r t s w a n e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c e n t u r y , t o o did t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f m a l e w i t n e s s e s a t t e n d i n g at C h e l m s f o r d . T h e r i s i n g p e r c e n t a g e o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s is a l s o r e l a t e d , t h o u g h tangentially, t o o f f e n c e s against p r o p e r t y . In t h e r e i g n s o f E l i z a b e t h and per J a m e s 3 6 . 8 p e r c e n t o f all w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s c o m i n g t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e assizes i n v o l v e d an i n d i c t m e n t a l l e g i n g t h a t t h e a c c u s e d h a d d a m a g e d s t o c k ; in 1 4 . 3 cent of incidents, stock-damage formed
r
Indictments
of
stock-
d a m a g e , e i t h e r a l o n e o r in c o n j u n c t i o n w ith o t h e r a c t s o f maleficium,
dropped to
1 5 . 8 p e r c e n t in C h a r l e s I ' s r e i g n , r o s e s l i g h t l y t o 2 5 p e r c e n t in t h e I n t e r r e g n u m , t h e n p l u m m e t e d t o a m e r e 2 . 9 p e r c e n t a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n . A n d in i n d i c t m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g m a l e f i c d a m a g e t o s t o c k , as in all p r o p e r t y c r i m e s , t h e t e s t i m o n y of m e n p r e d o m i n a t e d : m e n f o r m e d 8 0 . 8 p e r c e n t o f witnesses t o these charges. As t h e c r i m e o f w i t c h c r a f t w a s i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r c e i v e d as i n v o l v i n g m y s t e r i o u s h u m a n a i l m e n t s a n d d e a t h ; as i n d i c t m e n t s , l i k e t h a t a g a i n s t M a r g e r y S t a n t o n o f W i m b i s h in 1 5 7 9 , a l l e g i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f 'unum spandonem ( g e l d i n g ) colons white', disapmental
l a t t e r , t h o u g h h i g h l y f o r m u l a i c a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y o p a q u e in t e r m s o f a n y s u b s t a n tive detail c o n c e r n i n g the cases that they r e c o r d , d o have the virtue o f surviving in a s u f f i c i e n t c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e r i e s , at l e a s t f o r t h e H o m e C i r c u i t , t o p e r m i t a p r e l i m inary analysis. In t h e 1 5 9 0 s t h e c l e r k o f assize f o r t h e H o m e C i r c u i t b e g a n t o e n d o r s e o f the indictments upon which the accused w e r e tried with the names w i t n e s s e s in t h e c a s e , a n d this w a s u n i f o r m l y p r a c t i s e d a f t e r 1 6 0 0 . In t h e o f the f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y s o m e nine h u n d r e d and seventy witnesses w e r e endorsements also suggest that women were becoming some of the course The
Women,
a t t e n d a n t at t h e s i c k - b e d o f t h e v i c t i m , w e r e w e l l p l a c e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e
recorded
4
formally
more whose
t e s t i f y i n g in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . W o m e n w e r e simply b e t t e r placed than m e n to describe the incidents and activities that c o n f o r m e d t o t h e a l t e r e d p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f w i t c h c r a f t as a c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e . T h e shift in t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e o f f e n c e w a s i n s t i g a t e d b y t h e l e g a l e l i t e . A f t e r 1660 the local justices and the courts w e r e reluctant t o admit charges o f witchcraft e x c e p t in c a s e s o f m y s t e r i o u s a n d t e r r i f y i n g i l l n e s s l e a d i n g t o d e a t h o r , m o r e r a r e l y , wdiere t h e a c c u s e d w a s d i r e c t l y a l l e g e d t o b e i n v o l v e d in d i a b o l i c p r a c t i c e s . T h i s r e s t r u c turing o f the o f f e n c e by magistrates and lawyers certainly does n o t indicate l a r y m a t e r i a l p r o d u c e d in t h e official i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e l a t e t h e i r p o w e r s in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f s t o c k o r t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n any f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in t h e n a t u r e o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f c o n c e r n i n g w i t c h c r a f t . T h e a n c i l seventeenth-century exercise and now o f agricultural c a s e s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t at t h e l o c a l l e v e l w i t c h e s w e r e still b e l i e v e d t o
per
T h e a p p a r e n t r i s e in t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s is n o t m e r e l v t h e
d o m e s t i c p r o c e d u r e s . B u t t h e legal e l i t e , u n l i k e its E l i z a b e t h a n p r e d e c e s s o r s ,
306
CLIVE
HOLMES
WOMEN:
WITCHES
AND
WITNESSES
307
r e f u s e d t o e n t e r t a i n f o r m a l a c c u s a t i o n s b a s e d o n this k i n d o f e v i d e n c e .
So,
for
II
It is d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e c o n f i d e n t a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d p a t t e r n s o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f s a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t . A l l t h e s o u r c e s a r e , in s o m e m e a s u r e , d i s t o r t e d b y r e f r a c tion through the conceptual f r a m e w o r k o f the elite. Y e t w e m a y suggest a couple o f its f e a t u r e s s a l i e n t t o this e n q u i r y . F i r s t , t h e m y s t e r i o u s p o w e r s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d w i t c h c r a f t w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e p o s s e s s e d b y w o m e n . T h e r e is l i t t l e o f t h e s o p h i s t i cated misogyny, a p o w e r f u l b r e w o f biblical and Aristotelian emphases on female inferiority, developed by elite c o m m e n t a t o r s in p r o s e c u t i o n . lineage:
1 1
e x a m p l e , a t t h e S u f f o l k assizes in 1 6 9 4 f o u r i n d i c t m e n t s , t h r e e f o r k i l l i n g b v w i t c h c r a f t a n d o n e f o r e n t e r t a i n i n g evil s p i r i t s , w e r e p r e f e r r e d a g a i n s t P h i l i p p a M u n n i n g s of Hartest but, though no charges w e r e formally levelled, her neighbours
9
also of
T h e case
J a n e W e n h a m , f o u n d g u i l t y a t t h e H e r t f o r d assizes in 1 7 1 2 f o r d i a b o l i c d e a l i n g s , revealed longstanding popular suspicions o f a traditional kind that had little to do with the elite c o n c e r n s that i n f o r m e d the language o f the i n d i c t m e n t . O n e W a l k e r n y e o m a n b e l i e v e d that he had lost s t o c k t o the value o f 2 0 0 t h r o u g h h e r malefic e n c e o v e r the years; a n o t h e r local f a r m e r ' s sheep had died m y s t e r i o u s l y after he t h r e a t e n e d W e n h a m f o r s t e a l i n g his t u r n i p s .
1 0
obliged to explain
the
substantial
plurality o f w o m e n
p o p u l a r l e v e l t o q u e s t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n o f this p o w e r , it a p p e a r s t h a t it w a s t h o u g h t t o i n h e r e in m a t r i l i n e a l 'by discent m o t h e r , and f r o m the m o t h e r t o the c h i l d r e n ' . S e c o n d l y , m e n and w o m e n Napier, m i n i s t e r o f G r e a t Linford and astrological physician, b e t w e e n shared and
T h e W e n h a m c a s e d e s e r v e s f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n . It c l e a r l y d i s p l a y s t h e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s w h i c h a t t e n d e d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f l o c a l c o n c e r n s i n t o f o r m a l legal p r o c e d u r e . S u s p i c i o n a g a i n s t W e n h a m h a d f e s t e r e d f o r y e a r s , a n d w a s r e i n f o r c e d in 1 7 1 1 b y t h e m y s t e r i o u s b e h a v i o u r a n d i l l n e s s o f a p o s s e s s e d m a i d s e r v a n t . T h e g i r l ' s affliction was studied and the charge o f w i t c h c r a f t against W e n h a m e n g i n e e r e d by local Anglican c l e r g y m e n , eager to use the opportunity to assert the reality o f witchcraft in t h e f a c e o f g r o w i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s c e p t i c i s m . T h e c a s e , f o r t h e m , w a s a s k i r m i s h in t h e w i d e r b a t t l e a g a i n s t d e i s m a n d a g n o s t i c i s m . B u t w h e n t h e d i v i n e s s o u g h t t o i n d i c t W e n h a m f o r ' w a s t i n g a n d c o n s u m i n g ' h e r v i c t i m , t h e c l e r k o f assize i n s i s t e d t h a t ' h e n e i t h e r c o u l d , n o r w o u l d , lay it s o ' ; an i n d i c t m e n t f o r w i t c h c r a f t r e q u i r e d e i t h e r t h e d e a t h o i t h e v i c t i m o r p r o o f o f d i a b o l i c p r a c t i c e s . T h i s w a s , as t h e c l e r i c a l p r o s e c u t o r s c o m p l a i n e d , an o d d r e a d i n g o f t h e J a c o b e a n l e g i s l a t i o n , b u t it w a s o n e t h a t h a d b e g u n t o b e f a v o u r e d b y t h e j u d g e s in t h e 1 6 3 0 s , and w h i c h was revived after the peculiar c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the Civil W a r and I n t e r r e g n u m H e n c e , in t h e W e n h a m c a s e , t h e o d d , s a r d o n i c f o r m t a k e n b y t h e ' c o n v e r s i n g f a m i l i a r l y w i t h t h e D e v i l in t h e s h a p e o f a c a t ' o s t e n s i b l y e n t e r t a i n e e m p l o y f e e d e o r r e w a r d e a n y evill a n d w i c k e d s p i r i t ' . In t h e Wenham case the manipulation of popular concerns and belief by cases.
a fear o f w i t c h e s . F r o m a sample o f the cases c o m i n g t o the attention o f Richard 1601 1 6 2 7 , R o n a l d S a w y e r has n o t i c e d t h e p l u r a l i t y o f w o m e n b o t h a m o n g t h o s e n a m e d as w i t c h e s ( 9 4 . 7 p e r c e n t ) , a n d a m o n g N a p i e r ' s p a t i e n t s , a g r o u p o f 1 0 9 p e r s o n s , w h o believed themselves the victims o f witchcraft ( 5 9 . 7 per c e n t ) . Sawyer's figures further suggest that w o m e n w e r e quicker to n o m i n a t e those thev held responsible for their sufferings: 4 5 . 5 per cent o f Napier's male patients w e r e ready to n a m e t h e w i t c h p e r s e c u t i n g t h e m ; t h e figure f o r f e m a l e p a t i e n t s is 5 8 . 2 p e r c e n t . tations, occasioned by abuse or r u m o u r s that suggested that they w e r e n a m e m e n a n d w o m e n in a l m o s t e q u a l n u m b e r s as t h e i r s l a n d e r e r s .
1 2
Women witches,
But a general fear o f a local w o m a n possessing the formidable p o w e r s attributed t o w i t c h e s does n o t automatically t r a n s m u t e i n t o legal p r o s e c u t i o n . C o n f r o n t e d b v p o w e r - w i e l d i n g w o m e n , v i l l a g e r s at first i n s t a n c e m i g h t s e e k t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t t h e v i c t i m s o f s u c h p o w e r , p e r h a p s t o c o n t r o l a n d d e p l o y it f o r t h e i r o w n p u r p o s e s . T h e w i t c h , in c o n s e q u e n c e , m i g h t b e t r e a t e d w i t h an e l a b o r a t e i f c a u t i o u s d e f e r e n c e . Edward Fairfax noted that the inhabitants o f K n a r e s b o r o u g h Forest c o e x i s t e d w i t h t h e w i t c h - c l a n s in t h e i r m i d s t , a n d t h a t t h e h e a d o f o n e o f t h e l a t t e r ' h a d so p o w e r f u l h a n d o v e r t h e w e a l t h i e s t n e i g h b o u r s a b o u t h e r , t h a t n o n e o f t h e m refused t o d o anything she r e q u i r e d , vea, I u n b e s o u g h t thev p r o v i d e d h e r w i t h and m e a t f r o m their o w n t a b l e s ' .
1 3
indictment bringing
t h e o f f e n c e w i t h i n t h e c o m p a s s o f t h e c l a u s e o f t h e s t a t u t e t h a t m a d e it f e l o n y ' t o
e l e m e n t s o f the elite, b o t h the T o r y divines crusading against infidelity and t h e c y n i c s o f t h e legal e s t a b l i s h m e n t w h o d e r i d e d a n d s o u g h t t o f r u s t r a t e t h e i r e f f o r t s , is v e r y a p p a r e n t . L o c a l s u s p i c i o n s a n d c o n c e r n s h a d t o b e m o u l d e d t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f legal categorization and p r o c e d u r e and, b e v o n d t h e s e , t o the political and theological c o n c e r n s o f the elite which i n f o r m e d and shaped the juridical forms. B u t s u c h t r a n s m u t a t i o n w a s n o t p e c u l i a r t o t h e p o s t - 1 6 6 0 c a s e s in w h i c h it e m e r g e s m o s t c l e a r l y . It w a s a p e r m a n e n t f e a t u r e o f t h e f o r m a l p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t . From them first, 1 5 6 3 s u s p i c i o n s r o o t e d in f o l k l o r e had t o b e o r c h e s t r a t e d t o to the machinery accommodate point and the values o f the elite. T h i s raises a critical
fire,
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s is a p p a r e n t in P e n d l e F o r e s t b e t w e e n t h e r i v a l w i t c h - f a m i l i e s , h e a d e d bv their r e s p e c t i v e m a t r i a r c h s , O l d C h a t t o x and O l d D e m d y k e , and the villagers. T h e latter n o t only tolerated the petty thefts, begging and e x t o r t i o n o f the suspected w i t c h e s , b u t e m p l o y e d t h e m r o u t i n e l y b o t h in d o m e s t i c i n d u s t r y a n d as h e a l e r s . T h e y sought p r o t e c t i o n f r o m the w i t c h e s ' p o w e r b o t h bv paying blackmail and bv recourse to counter-magic.
1 4
c o n c e r n i n g t h e analysis o f t h e r o l e o f w i t n e s s e s , m a l e a n d f e m a l e . W e m u s t c o n s i d e r : h o w local fears and suspicions w e r e drawn t o the attention o f the magistracy; some s e c o n d l y , h o w far the authorities tailored the e v i d e n c e t o the constraints i m p o s e d b y t h e c h a n g i n g a s s u m p t i o n s o f a s y s t e m in w h i c h t h e w i t n e s s e s w e r e , in measure, only marginal participants.
H o w did villagers w h o m a y have c o - o p e r a t e d , if uneasily, w i t h the s u s p e c t e d w i t c h c o m e t o t e s t i f y a g a i n s t h e r ? In b o t h K n a r e s b o r o u g h a n d P e n d l e t h a t t r a n s f o r mation was accomplished bv the direct intervention o f m e m b e r s o f the elite. Fairfax's e n g a g e m e n t in t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f t h e K n a r e s b o r o u g h w i t c h e s s t e m m e d f r o m the m v s t e r i o u s i l l n e s s o f his d a u g h t e r , H e l e n , w h o e v e n t u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d h e r c o n d i t i o n t o t h e i r m a l e f i c e n c e . In L a n c a s h i r e t h e z e a l o u s m a g i s t r a t e , R o g e r N o w e l l , 'a v e r y r e l i g i o u s h o n e s t g e n t l e m a n , p a i n e i u l l in t h e s e r v i c e o i his C o u n t r e v ' , w a s m o v e d b y
308
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by
T h e r o l e o f l o c a l m e n in o r g a n i z i n g t h e p r o c e s s w h e r e b y s u s p i c i o n a n d g o s s i p w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o f o r m a l a c c u s a t i o n , as in t h e 1 5 8 2 O s k l e v a n d W a l t o n d e n u n c i a t i o n s , is a p p a r e n t in o t h e r c a s e s , a d m i t t e d l y f e w , w h e r e w e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t a narrative with s o m e confidence. In 1682 Temperance Lloyd was convicted for afflicting G r a c e T h o m a s o f B i d e f o r d ; t h e b u l k o f the t e s t i m o n y was p r o v i d e d b y w o m e n w h o had a t t e n d e d the girl during h e r long sickness, b u t the accusation was driven on by her b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , T h o m a s Eastchurch, a respected local m e r c h a n t . H e had sought t h e advice o f a n u m b e r o f e m i n e n t physicians on G r a c e ' s with equal v i g o u r . behalf. O n c e the w i t c h c r a f t diagnosis had b e e n suggested, h e pursued L l o y d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n
1 6
local suspicions and t e n s i o n s , swiftly t r a n s f o r m e d t h e m . R e l e n t l e s s i n t e r r o g a t i o n o f eventually elicited the required confession o f diabolic activities. Such e x a m p l e s o f direct elite orchestration are, h o w e v e r , r a r e . In t h e b u l k o f c a s e s t h e d e c i s i o n t o b r i n g a w i t c h t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e authorities appears t o have b e e n u n d e r t a k e n entirely within the n e i g h b o u r h o o d , and t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m u t a t i o n , w h e r e b y s u s p i c i o n b e c a m e p r o s e c u t i o n , is o p a q u e . Y e t a f e w cases provide significant indicators c o n c e r n i n g that p r o c e s s . B r i a n D a r c y ' s s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y a c c o u n t o f his s h o r t b u t s p e c t a c u l a r c a r e e r as a w i t c h - h u n t e r in n o r t h - e a s t e r n E s s e x in 1 5 8 2 p e r m i t s s o m e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e l o c a l i n s t i g a t i o n o f p r o s e c u t i o n . D a r c y , l i k e R o g e r N o w e l l , w a s w e l l v e r s e d in t h e c o n t i nental theories c o n c e r n i n g the satanic dimension o f witchcraft, and he p r o v e d a v i g o r o u s a n d i n v e n t i v e i n q u i s i t o r ; in c a s e s f r o m S t O s y t h , D a r c y ' s h o m e , a n d its i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y , l o c a l b e l i e f s h i n t e d at in t h e e a r l i e s t d e p o s i t i o n s w e r e H o w e v e r , n o t all t h e 1 5 8 2 c a s e s w e r e g e n e r a t e d d i r e c t l y b y D a r c y ' s lvst, encouraging the villagers of Oakley and W a l t o n to voice quickly s w a m p e d by a plethora o f importations f r o m the current theology o f witchcraft. inquisitorial long-held to t e c h n i q u e s o r r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h his r i c h i m a g i n a t i o n . H i s a c t i v i t i e s a c t e d as a c a t a their suspicions o f their n e i g h b o u r s , Annis H e a r d and J o a n R o b i n s o n , t o the authorities. D a r c y , d e d i c a t i n g his e n e r g i e s t o t h e p u r s u i t o f t h e S t O s y t h ' s c o v e n , s e e m s have m a d e little a t t e m p t t o shape p r i m a r y t e s t i m o n y f r o m these peripheral c o m m u n i t i e s . A l l w i t n e s s e s c o n c u r r e d t h a t t o c r o s s t h e s e w o m e n , t o r e f u s e t o l e n d o r sell t h e m i m p l e m e n t s or goods, to demand the return o f b o r r o w e d articles or p a y m e n t , c o u l d b e d a n g e r o u s . Agricultural and d o m e s t i c r o u t i n e s had failed; s t o c k had sicke n e d , d i e d , o r a c t e d u n n a t u r a l l y ( T h o m a s R i c e ' s g o o s e , ' t h a t h a t h b e e n as g o o d f o r t h e b r i n g i n g f o o r t h o f h e r b r o o d e as a n y g o o s e in W a l t o n ' , h a d r e f u s e d t o h a t c h her eggs). Illness, occasionally mortal, had afflicted their enemies. Yet, as in K n a r e s b o r o u g h and P e n d l e , social relations w e r e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h the w i t c h e s . T h e v i l l a g e r s , i f t h e y d i d fall f o u l o f H e a r d o r R o b i n s o n , h a d r e c o u r s e t o c o u n t e r - m a g i c h e a t i n g a b e w i t c h e d s p i n d l e t o g e t i t t o w o r k a g a i n ; b u r n i n g t h e e a r s o f an a f f l i c t e d pig t o c u r e it; using a r e d - h o t i r o n t o g e t m i l k t o c h u r n and w o r t t o b r e w . e x p e r i e n c e o f their maleficence tended, not surprisingly, to concentrate on m e r e l y to a c k n o w l e d g e their use of, c o u n t e r - m a g i c to frustrate the w i t c h . Men the The a n d w o m e n c o n c u r r e d in s u s p e c t i n g H e a r d a n d R o b i n s o n o f w i t c h c r a f t , b u t f e m a l e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f d o m e s t i c r o u t i n e s . W o m e n also s e e m r e a d i e r t o d e p l o y , o r perhaps suspicions against H e a r d and R o b i n s o n , g e n e r a l l y h e l d , w e r e o b v i o u s l y o f long duration; thev c a m e t o the attention o f the authorities b e c a u s e the villagers w ere inspired
r
o f M a l m e s b u r y was ' o f very bad fame and very terrible to the p e o p l e ' , yet ' n o b o d y will e y t h e r b e at the c h a r g e to p r o s e c u t e h e r , o r r u n t h e hazard o f h e r r e v e n g e if she b e a c q u i t t e d . . . e x c e p t s u c h a p e r s o n as this M r W e b b ' .
1 7
W a d d e and E a s t c h u r c h : a m a n w i t h w e a l t h , standing and c o n f i d e n c e . T h e s e characteristics w e r e essential, given that p r o s e c u t i o n was t i m e - c o n s u m i n g and expensive a n d its f a i l u r e m i g h t l e a v e a c c u s e r s h o s t a g e t o t h e m a l i c e o f t h e w i t c h , i f a c o m p l a i n t was to b e b r o u g h t t o the attention o f the authorities. Y e t the energetic p r o s e c u t o r w o u l d n o t s t a n d a l o n e ; his i m m e d i a t e c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t t h e w i t c h w o u l d b e b a c k e d b y c o r r o b o r a t i v e t e s t i m o n y f r o m his n e i g h b o u r s , b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n . It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e w o m e n w h o b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s o f t e n r e t a i l e d older grievances and suspicions that had festered b u t previously g o n e u n r e m a r k e d to the authorities. John Swettson, a Cambridge apothecary, indicted Margaret C o t t o n f o r t h e d e a t h o f his i n f a n t d a u g h t e r in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 6 0 8 ; tw'o p o o r w o m e n j o i n e d h i m in t h e p r o s e c u t i o n , c o m p l a i n i n g o f m y s t e r i o u s d e a t h s in t h e i r f a m i l i e s eighteen m o n t h s b e f o r e . Samuel Pacy, a L o w e s t o f t m e r c h a n t , held A m v D u n y and R o s e C u l l e n d e r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m y s t e r i o u s i l l n e s s o f his t w o d a u g h t e r s , a n d h e a n d o t h e r m e m b e r s o f his f a m i l y t e s t i f i e d t o t h e i r a f f l i c t i o n s at t h e a s s i z e s . T h e y w e r e joined by eight additional witnesses. T h r e e testified c o n c e r n i n g the ailments o f their children, subsequent t o , but mirroring, the t o r m e n t s o f the Pacy girls. T h r e e , t w o m e n and a w o m a n , deposed c o n c e r n i n g the interruption o f agricultural routines that t h e y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e w i t c h e s ; A n n e S a n d e s w e l l r e c a l l e d an i n c i d e n t s e v e n o r e i g h t years b e f o r e , while the m e n referred to occasions 'not long s i n c e ' . O f the witnesses, o n l y D o r o t h y D u r e n t b l a m e d t h e w i t c h e s f o r a d e a t h , t h a t o f h e r d a u g h t e r five v e a r s b e f o r e , a n d she a l s o t e s t i f i e d c o n c e r n i n g h e r i n f a n t s o n ' s i l l n e s s , f o r w h i c h she h a d s o u g h t h e l p f r o m a c u n n i n g - m a n , in 1 6 5 7 .
1 8
In s o m e c a s e s t h e a n c i l l a r y t e s t i m o n v
o f i e r e d b y w o m e n d e a l s w i t h i n c i d e n t s so r e m o t e as t o r o u s e t h e c o u r t ' s s u s p i c i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i t n e s s ' s m o t i v e s in c o m i n g f o r w a r d . W h e n E l i z a b e t h F i e l d t e s t i f i e d that her child had died m a n y years ago upon J a n e W e n h a m ' s t o u c h i n g it, the j u d g e a s k e d ' w h y she d i d n o t p r o s e c u t e . . . i m m e d i a t e l y ? ' H e r a r t l e s s r e p l y was a p o o r w o m a n , and the child had n o friends'
9
a n d e d u c a t e d b v D a r c y ' s c r u s a d e at n e i g h b o u r i n g St O s y t h . B u t t h e e f f e c t i v e d e c i s i o n t o t r a n s m u t e village s u s p i c i o n i n t o o f f i c i a l t e s t i m o n y , a n d t o o r g a n i z e n e i g h b o u r s f o r t h i s , w a s t a k e n bv l o c a l men. Edward U p c h e r had long R o b i n s o n f o r t h e d e a t h o f his w i f e . H e v i s i t e d t h e g a o l e d S t O s y t h w o m a n , their Ursley suspected
she a p p e a r e d
n o w , ' t h e O p p o r t u n i t y p r e s e n t i n g i t s e l f , a n d had n o t d o n e so b e f o r e b e c a u s e ' s h e d r e w f r o m the judge a stinging a n d i n s e n s i t i v e r e t o r t : ' w a s [she] g r o w n r i c h s i n c e ? " Y e t h e r e x p e r i e n c e , d r a w n i n t o the c o u r t to s u p p l e m e n t a case o r c h e s t r a t e d by o t h e r s , m a y have b e e n typical o f that o i m a n y w o m e n . In s e v e r a l c a s e s in t h e H o m e C i r c u i t in t h e E l i z a b e t h a n and J a c o b e a n period a witch w o u l d b e charged on a n u m b e r o f i n d i c t m e n t s , s o m e alleging malefic e n t a c t s u n d e r t a k e n y e a r s b e f o r e ; s o , in 1 5 7 2 at C h e l m s f o r d a s s i z e s , A g n e s F r a n c v s
K e m p , w h o , u n d e r D a r c y ' s r e l e n t l e s s q u e s t i o n i n g , h a d b e c o m e his s t a r w i t n e s s , c o n f e s s i n g s a t a n i c p r a c t i c e s a n d n a m i n g a w i d e c o v e n o f a c c o m p l i c e s ; she r e a d i l y c o n f i r m e d U p c h e r ' s s u s p i c i o n , a n d h e l e d t h e W a l t o n p r o s e c u t i o n . In O a k l e y , J o h n W a d d e , a v e o m a n w h o had suffered heavy stock losses for several years, was the first f o r m a l l y t o d e n o u n c e H e a r d , initially t o the ecclesiastical c o u r t , t h e n , e n c o u r Darcy.
1 5
a g e d b y t h e St O s v t h ' s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t o B r i a n
310
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was arraigned on four i n d i c t m e n t s ; t w o alleged r e c e n t incidents o f m u r d e r and the destruction o f stock; the o t h e r t w o dealt with m u r d e r s respectively t h r e e and six y e a r s e a r l i e r . In 1 5 9 6 at H e r t f o r d , A l i c e C r u t c h w a s a r r a i g n e d u p o n t w o i n d i c t m e n t s for the r e c e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t o c k , and u p o n a third i n d i c t m e n t for m u r d e r by w i t c h c r a f t f o u r y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y ; in this c a s e t w o m e n t e s t i f i e d t o t h e i r l o s s e s , w h i l e a w o m a n d e p o s e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e e a r l i e r d e a t h . T h i s l a t t e r c a s e is n o t u n t y p i c a l o f t h o s e i n v o l v i n g s e v e r a l i n d i c t m e n t s in w h i c h t h e n a m e s o f w i t n e s s e s a r e i c e n c e than t o those o f m o r e r e c e n t p r o v e n a n c e . listed: w o m e n f o r m e d a higher proportion o f the witnesses to the charges o f earlier malef2 0
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c o n t r a c t s d i r e c t l y w i t h his a c o l y t e , a n d has c a r n a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r . T h i s e x t e n sive g r o u p o f d e p o s i t i o n s is a t r i b u t e , in p a r t , t o M a t t h e w H o p k i n s ' s acquaintance accused's w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l t h e o r i e s , his skill as an i n q u i s i t o r , a n d his o w n p r u r i e n t f a n t a s i e s . B u t m a n y o f t h e c o n f e s s i o n s are far f r o m s t e r e o t y p e d , particularly the pedlar, met the divell midsomer
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a r t l e s s a c c o u n t s o f t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h S a t a n : so E l i z a b e t h S o u t h e r n e , a D u n w i c h
f r o m the H o m e Circuit indictments m a y reinforce the suggestion that w o m e n w e r e being mobilized by m e n , w h o w e r e the driving force behind the decision t o bring l o c a l s u s p i c i o n s a n d f e a r s t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e c o u r t s . In 2 7 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e w i t c h craft accusations b e t w e e n 1 5 9 6 a n d 1 6 4 2 m e n a l o n e a c t e d as w i t n e s s e s , w h i l e in 6 7 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e m m e n a n d w o m e n t e s t i f i e d t o g e t h e r ; o n l y in 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e c a s e s did w o m e n t e s t i f y a g a i n s t an a c c u s e d w i t c h a l o n e . M e n and w o m e n b e l i e v e d that their f e m a l e n e i g h b o u r s c o u l d deploy malefic e n t p o w e r s . T h e y treated such witches warily, guarding themselves by seeking to avoid conflict, bv elaborate d e f e r e n c e , and, w h e n necessary, by erecting a p r o t e c tive shield o f c o u n t e r - m a g i c . H o w e v e r , a n o t h e r r e s p o n s e had b e e n m a d e available by the legislation of 1563. This strategy, prosecution, was usually pursued by s u b s t a n t i a l m e n in t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o w o u l d lay t h e c h a r g e , a n d s o l i c i t t h e c o n f i r m a t o r y testimony o f their neighbours, often w o m e n . Y e t the elite w h o controlled the judicial m a c h i n e r y had their o w n agenda, and cases emanating f r o m local tensions and suspicions w o u l d have t o b e adjusted, and m i g h t b e t r a n s f o r m e d , w h e n b r o u g h t t o the attention o f magistrates and ministers. T h e s e groups w e r e c o n c e r n e d , with the trivia o f stock-loss or the interruptions of domestic and not agricultural
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W e c o u l d s i m p l v a r g u e t h a t t h e t e s t i m o n y o f w o m e n in p o s s e s s i o n c a s e s o r as s e a r c h e r s , in w h i c h t h e y r e p e a t e d a n d c o n f i r m e d e l i t e t h e o r i e s , is a n o t h e r i n d i c a tion o f the general transformation However, construction was involved, o f popular belief engineered by the complex process of divines. cultural and a d e t a i l e d analysis s u g g e s t s t h a t a m o r e
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T h e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r t e s t i m o n y in w i t c h - t r i a l s , w h i c h , in c o n s e q u e n c e , is o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s , w a s p r o v i d e d b y t h o s e w h o , it w a s c l a i m e d , w e r e possessed by the Devil through the agency o f a witch. Nine w o m e n were c o n v i c t e d at L e i c e s t e r assizes in 1 6 1 6 u p o n t h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e t h i r t e e n - v e a r - o l d E d w a r d S m i t h ; his fits d u r i n g t h e t r i a l , ' i n t h e s v g h t o i all t h e g r e a t e s t p a r s o n s h e r e , as d y v e r s k n y g h t s a n d l a d i e s a n d m a n n y o t h a r s o i t h e b e t t a r s o r t ' , w e r e W i l l i a m A v e r y , a f t e r r a v i n g in t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e j u d g e s , ' c a m e t o his 'most periect terrible to be tolld'. H o r r o r might be punctuated by m o m e n t s o f didactic piety. understanding, and . . . spoke very discreetly, Christianly, and charitably t o e v e r y p o i n t ' ; Jane T h r o c k m o r t o n , upon the witch's c o u r t r o o m confession, e m e r g e d from h e r fit, k n e e l e d a n d a s k e d h e r f a t h e r ' s b l e s s i n g .
2 2
s e c o n d l y , as e x a m i n e r s f o r t h e p h y s i c a l m a r k s w h i c h w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s e e n as k e y e v i d e n c e in p r o s e c u t i o n . S u c h t e s t i m o n y , it s e e m s , r e f l e c t e d a n d c o n f i r m e d i n t e l l e c t u a l e d i f i c e s o f w i t c h c r a f t as d i a b o l i s m ; o f t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f w o m e n as i n d i c a t e d by their g r e a t e r susceptibility t o satanic t e m p t a t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d by the elite. Protestant divines sought t o t r a n s f o r m the gross popular superstitions that
e m e r g e d in t h e w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l s . T h e i r m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t s , a p p a r e n t in t h e i n t e r r o gation o f M a r y S m i t h and the t r i u m p h a n t publication o f h e r eventual confession o f d i a b o l i s m , w e r e d e s i g n e d t o insist o n t h e i r t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , t h a t s a t a n i c c o v e n a n t was the e s s e n c e o f the o f f e n c e . T h e i r treatises, s e r m o n s and editions o f confessions, often explicitly designed for 'the capacity o f the simpler sort', w e r e r e i n f o r c e d by w o r k s that w e r e m o r e obviously popular chapbooks, broadsides War and ballads and by the t h e a t r e o f the c o u r t and the g a l l o w s . By the Civil
w o m e n , particularly adolescents, preponderate among 'possessed' a c c u s e r s . d e g r e e o f i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e s e g i r l s w h o in t h e i r t e s t i m o n y so reinforced academic theory, deserves discussion.
The
comprehensively
M o s t o f the published accounts o f possession cases provide a narrative w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e v i c t i m ' s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e w i t c h as t h e first act o f the subse-
312
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identification might prove seductive to those w h o s e s y m p t o m s bewildered medical experts, their families and neighbours, and, crucially, themselves. The victim behavb e c a m e t h e f o c u s o f an i n t e n s e a t t e n t i o n , o f t e n , as w i t h [Catherine W r i g h t a n d A n n e G u n t e r , demonstrably absent from their previous affective relations. T h e ioural traits o f possession, while c o n f o r m i n g t o a basic p a t t e r n , could b e individually s h a p e d t o p r o v i d e an o u t l e t f o r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s t h a t w o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e a c h i e v e s a n c t i o n e d e x p r e s s i o n s e x u a l f a n t a s i e s , r e l i g i o u s d o u b t s , r a g e at p a r e n t s , f r u s t r a tion with the constrictions i m p o s e d by social and g e n d e r r o l e s . Nicholas S t a r k e y ' s c h i l d r e n , a g e d n i n e a n d t e n , d e l i g h t e d in ' f i l t h i e a n d u n s a v o u r y s p e e c h e s ' ; they s c o f f e d at S c r i p t u r e as ' b i b l e b a b l e , b i b l e b a b l e ' ; t h e b o y b i t his m o t h e r a n d c a l l e d h e r ' w h o r e ' ; M a r g a r e t B y r o m , a p o o r k i n s w o m a n w h o lived on the Starkey family's charity, ' n i c k n a m e d and t a u n t e d ' h e r b e n e f a c t o r s .
2 8
B u t , b y t h e t i m e it w a s e m p l o v e d b y C o t t o n
M a t h e r in his
a c c o u n t s o f t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e G o o d w i n c h i l d r e n a n d o f M e r c y S h o r t , this w a s simply the f o r m u l a i c c o n v e n t i o n o f a substantial literary g e n r e . T h e actual process w h e r e b v t h e s u f f e r e r ' s a f f l i c t i o n w a s r e c o g n i z e d as p o s s e s s i o n , a n d t h e w i t c h - i n t e r m e d i a r v n o m i n a t e d , i n v o l v e d far m o r e c o m p l e x t r a n s a c t i o n s . A f e w documents e n a b l e us t o s e e this p r o c e s s d i r e c t l v . A c c o r d i n g t o a p a m p h l e t o f 1 6 1 2 M r s E l i z a b e t h B e l c h e r , 'a v e r t u o u s a n d g o d l y g e n t l e - w o m a n ' , s t r u c k J o a n V a u g h a n , t h e d a u g h t e r o f a n o t o r i o u s l o c a l w i t c h , a f t e r J o a n had m a d e an o b s c e n e g e s t u r e at h e r : a fewdays l a t e r E l i z a b e t h w a s p o s s e s s e d , c r y i n g o u t in h e r fits, 'Heere comes Joane Vaughan, awav with J o a n e Vaughan'. A manuscript offers a very different account. E l i z a b e t h h a d b e e n s i c k f o r fifteen m o n t h s ; p h y s i c w a s u n a v a i l i n g , as w e r e t h e e f f o r t s o f the local practitioner o f astrological m e d i c i n e , Richard Napier. B e l c h e r ' s friends suspected witchcraft, b u t she r e f u s e d t o e n t e r t a i n this s u g g e s t i o n . Then, when the that E l i z a b e t h w a s in h e r fit, t h o s e a t t e n d i n g h e r b e g a n t o n o m i n a t e s u s p e c t s ; all w e r e r e j e c t e d until they n a m e d J o a n . bystanders named Joan again: ' H a t h she d o n e i t ? ' , t h e s i c k w o m a n a s k e d ; Elizabeth responded, 'Did she?', and from
a p p r o p r i a t i n g l a n g u a g e a n d b e h a v i o u r in w a y s t h a t w e r e i n t e n s e l y p e r s o n a l
liberating, the structure to which m o s t accusations c o n f o r m e d , including the assertion o f the responsibility o f a witch for the victim's e x p e r i e n c e , was the p r o d u c t o f a s o c i a l p r o c e s s in w h i c h k e y r o l e s w e r e p l a y e d b y a d u l t s a n d m a l e s . T h e p o s s e s s e d adolescents w e r e the tools o f the divines; their dramatic performances f r a i l t y o f t h e ' w e a k e r s e x e ' in t h e f a c e o f s a t a n i c t e m p t a t i o n . reinforced t h e w i t c h c r a i t - a s - d i a b o l i c - c o v e n a n t t h e o l o g y , w i t h its a n c i l l a r y e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e
In o t h e r c a s e s , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m a t o f t h e n a r r a t i v e 'who
b a r e l y c o n c e a l s t h e m o r e d i f f u s e r e a l i t y . T h e o r t h o d o x b e g i n n i n g o f t h e a c c o u n t of t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e d a u g h t e r o f L a d v J e n n i n g s h e r f e a r o f an o l d w o m a n s u d d a i n l y a p p e a r e d t o h e r att t h e d o r e a n d d e m a n d e d a pin o f h e r ' s e e m s q u i t e i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t s t o r y . T h e girl n o m i n a t e d w i t c h e s o n l y a f t e r a s e v e r e i l l n e s s o f f o u r m o n t h s d u r i n g wdiich d e s p e r a t e m e d i c a l r e m e d i e s h a d b e e n u n s u c cessfullv a t t e m p t e d , and t h e r e had b e e n m u c h discussion a m o n g the family visitors o f the possibilitv o f w i t c h c r a i t . If the possession-through-witchcraft and diag-
IV
A s i m i l a r analysis is a l s o a p p r o p r i a t e in d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e t h i r d g r o u p o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s , those w h o testified t o the physical m a r k s that w e r e to characterize a witch. T h e y t o o confirmed, if m o r e tangentially, thought suppositions
c o n c e r n i n g b o t h the diabolic nature o f witchcraft and female inferiority. And equally it is t h e e l e m e n t o f e l i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e i r t e s t i m o n y t h a t is most apparent. A t L a n c a s t e r assizes in 1 6 3 4 s o m e t w e n t y p e o p l e w e r e c o n v i c t e d as w i t c h e s . T h e accusation, levelled by a ten-year-old boy, was firmly r o o t e d in l o n g - s t a n d i n g found l o c a l s u s p i c i o n : it w a s c o r r o b o r a t e d b y e v i d e n c e o f t h e w i t c h - m a r k s o n t h e a c c u s e d . F o u r m e n and sixteen w o m e n w e r e accused; thirteen o f the w o m e n w e r e t o h a v e m a r k s o r p a p s , a n d t h e s e w e r e l o c a t e d in t h e g e n i t a l a r e a o f e l e v e n o f t h e m . T h e L a n c a s t e r c a s e p r o v i d e s t h e first i n s t a n c e o f t h e fullv d e v e l o p e d , o f f i c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d , s e a r c h f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k in E n g l a n d , a n d t h e i r u s u a l d i s c o v e r y in t h e p u d e n d a . L a n c a s t e r s h o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n t h e last i n s t a n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n they sought a respite of execution while further investigations w e r e of s u c h e v i d e n c e in c o u r t . T h e 1 6 3 4 c o n v i c t i o n s t r o u b l e d s o m e o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a n d undertaken: re-examHarvey. other t h e s e , s a n c t i o n e d b y t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l , i n c l u d e d an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e . F o u r o f the c o n v i c t e d w o m e n w e r e b r o u g h t to L o n d o n and in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p a n e l o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d p h y s i c i a n s h e a d e d b y W i l l i a m ined. T e n L o n d o n m i d w i v e s ' m a d e diligent search and inspeccion o f those w o m e n ' T h e y r e p o r t e d t h a t o n e o f t h e w o m e n had u n u s u a l b u t e x p l i c a b l e m a r k s ; o n t h e o t h e r t h r e e t h e v f o u n d ' n o t h i n g u n n a t u r a l l n e y t h e r in t h e s e c r e t s o r a n y p a r t e s o f t h e i r e b o d y e s , n o r a n y t h i n g e l y k e a t e a t e o r m a r k e , n o r any s i g n e t h a t a n y s u c h e t h i n g e h a i t h e v e r b e e n e ' . Y e t d e s p i t e this c r i t i q u e , a n d f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s
n o s i s is t h e p r o d u c t o f a d i a l o g u e i n v o l v i n g m a n v a c t o r s , so t o o w a s t h e s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o u r o f t h e v i c t i m s , c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e i r c o u r t r o o m p e r f o r m a n c e s . A b a s i c p a t t e r n o f l a n g u a g e a n d g e s t u r e , g a i n i n g d e f i n i t i o n in t h e c e n t u r y a f t e r 1 5 9 0 , was l e a r n e d b v t h e p o s s e s s e d , l a r g e l v in r e s p o n s e t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h o s e w h o g a t h e r e d a b o u t t h e m t o o f f e r c o n s o l a t i o n and t o p a r t i c i p a t e v i c a r i o u s l y in t h e c o n f l i c t with Satan. M i c h a e l M a c D o n a l d , analysing D r S t e p h e n B r a d w e l l ' s a c c o u n t o f the possession o f M a r y G l o v e r , shows h o w h e r s y m p t o m s , initiallv clarity' a diagnosis o f possession through w i t c h c r a f t . 1619, (1603) 'undistinc-
D r J o h n C o t t a , w r i t i n g in 'ordinarily' sick',
w h i l e in s e v e r a l c a s e s p a r a d i g m s o f a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o u r , in t h e f o r m o f e a r l i e r
2 7
T h e b e h a v i o u r and testiother of
medical professionals and divines. T h e possessed themselves w e r e not simply malleable puppets articulating the c o n c e r n s o f o t h e r s in a p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l v e n t r i l o q u i s m . T h e witchcraft-possession
314
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c o n c e r n i n g the reliability o f the search p r o c e d u r e during the wave o f prosecutions in E a s t A n g l i a in 1 6 4 5 6 , p r e - t r i a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c c u s e d b y ' a n c i e n t skilfull m a t r o n s a n d m i d w i v e s ' c o n t i n u e d as a f e a t u r e o f t h e w i t c h a c c u s a t i o n s in E n g l a n d and the A m e r i c a n colonies into the eighteenth century.
2 9
cepts and insular f o l k l o r e . T h e w i t c h e n t e r s a c o v e n a n t with Satan w h o m a r k s h e r and draws b l o o d ; the D e v i l t h e n provides a familiar w h o regularly sucks b l o o d f r o m t h e r e s u l t i n g w o u n d , d r a w i n g it i n t o a t e a t ; this i n v e r t e d E u c h a r i s t is d e s i g n e d t o ' p u t h e r in m i n d o f damnation'.
3 3
T h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e s e ' k n o w i n g w o m e n ' r e s u l t e d in t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s . M o r e o v e r , w i t h its e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e f e m a l e g e n i t a l s , it r e i n f o r c e s t h e g e n d e r - o r i e n t e d d i m e n s i o n o f the a c a d e m i c t h e o r y o f w i t c h c r a f t , and r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e m o r e o v e r t c o n t i n e n t a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f w o m e n ' s i n s a t i a b l e l u s t as a m a j o r e l e m e n t in t h e i r c o m p a c t a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S a t a n . As w i t h t h e p o s s e s s e d a d o l e s c e n t s , h o w e v e r , a full u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e i r r o l e as w i t n e s s e s d e v e l o p e d a l l o w s us t o s e e t h e m a t r o n s a n d m i d w i v e s as m a r g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in p r o c e d u r e s o r i g i n a t i n g in t h e c o n c e r n s o f e x c l u s i v e l y m a l e g r o u p s : t h e c l e r g y , a g a i n , and t h e m a g i s t r a c y . A c a d e m i c writers w e r e frequently embarrassed by aspects o f the popular beliefs a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t t h a t e m e r g e d in a c c u s a t i o n s . Yet 'that which by e x p e r i e n c e is found t o b e t r u e ' could n o t simply b e dismissed, and c o n s e q u e n t l y had t o b e read o r s h a p e d in a w a y t h a t p e r m i t t e d its i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s h e n c e the misogynous explanations developed by the divines to a c c o u n t for the plurality o f female witches that e m e r g e d f r o m popular accusation. T h a t the a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f and intellectual t h e o r y o f t e n p r o v e d a w k w a r d , and the resultant problem synthesis uneasy, is v e r y apparent in t h e divines' wrestling with the to posed by the witches' familiars. These creatures, which according professional
T h e w o r k o f the academics had b e e n to i n c o r p o r a t e local ' e x p e r i e n c e ' e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e s u b s t r a t e o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f i n t o a g e n e r a l t h e o r y , w h i l e still m a i n t a i n i n g the c o h e r e n c e o f the latter. T h e i r theories w e r e to b e r e i n f o r c e d , and d e v e l o p e d , by a n o t h e r g r o u p : lawyers and magistrates. B y t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o m e l o c a l officials w e r e c l e a r l y t r o u b l e d b y the evidential p r o b l e m s p o s e d b y the usual f o r m o f w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n . A c c o u n t s o f the v i c t i m ' s sufferings that f o l l o w e d a c u r s e , r e i n f o r c e d by various dubious bits o f c o n f i r m a t o r y c o u n t e r - m a g i c , i n c r e a s i n g l y s e e m e d i n s u b s t a n t i a l . A c c o r d i n g l y , in the absence o f a confession, magistrates sought tangible p r o o f o f the w i t c h ' s status. T h e i r q u e s t t o o k a n u n i b e r o f d i r e c t i o n s . In 1 6 1 2 t h e N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e J P s , f a c e d with a difficult case, experimented with the water-ordeal as p r a c t i s e d on the C o n t i n e n t a n d a p p r o v e d b y K i n g J a m e s ; t h e t h r e e a c c u s e d w i t c h e s all f l o a t e d , a n d 'the suspition that was b e f o r e n o t well g r o u n d e d , was n o w c o n f i r m e d ' .
3 4
So effec-
tive a litmus test p r o v e d attractive t o o t h e r magistrates b e f o r e the Civil W a r , and t h e t e c h n i q u e w a s u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y in t h e 1 6 4 5 6 w i t c h - h u n t in e a s t e r n E n g l a n d . H o w e v e r , its lavish e m p l o y m e n t b y H o p k i n s a n d S t e a r n e h a r d e n e d o b j e c t i o n s t h a t had already b e e n e x p r e s s e d by a n u m b e r o f clerics, notably the influential W i l l i a m P e r k i n s , w h o d e n o u n c e d t h e p r a c t i c e as u n w a r r a n t e d b y S c r i p t u r e , a n d t h u s m e r e l y a f o r m o f i l l i c i t c o u n t e r - m a g i c . In 1 6 4 6 J u d g e G o d b o l t h a l t e d t h e u s e o f t h e w a t e r o r d e a l b y H o p k i n s a n d his e n t o u r a g e a n d , a l t h o u g h it s u r v i v e d as a v i g o r o u s e l e m e n t in t h e p o p u l a r r e s p o n s e t o w i t c h c r a f t , its official e m p l o y m e n t c e a s e d save in v e r y r e m o t e jurisdictions. T h e discovery o f the physical peculiarities thought to m a r k a w i t c h p r o v i d e d , as did t h e w a t e r - o r d e a l , t h e d e s i r e d p o s i t i v i s t i c t e s t o f g u i l t . A n d , l i k e t h e o r d e a l , it w a s an i m p o r t a t i o n f r o m c o n t i n e n t a l p r a c t i c e , t h o u g h r e w o r k e d t o accommod a t e p a r o c h i a l e x p e r i e n c e . E u r o p e a n c o m m e n t a t o r s a s s e r t e d t h a t at t h e m a k i n g o f t h e c o v e n a n t t h e D e v i l c l a w e d o r b r a n d e d his n e o p h y t e , l e a v i n g an i n s e n s i b l e s c a r ; p r o p e r physical e x a m i n a t i o n could reveal such satanic stigmata and, by 1 6 0 0 , their d i s c o v e r y b y q u a l i f i e d e x p e r t s w a s e s s e n t i a l f o r c o n v i c t i o n in s o m e j u r i s d i c t i o n s . A f e w E n g l i s h t h e o r i s t s f o l l o w t h e i r c o n t i n e n t a l c o u n t e r p a r t s in d e s c r i b i n g t h e a n a e s thetic mark, but in other writings and in local police practice the test was t r a n s i o r m e d , d u p l i c a t i n g t h e E n g l i s h a c c o u n t o f t h e c o v e n a n t b y an e m p h a s i s o n t h e f a m i l i a r . In E n g l a n d , t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e s u c k e d t e a t b e c o m e s an a p p r o p r i a t e demonstration, before 1634: e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e i n s e n s i b l e b r a n d in S c o t l a n d the earliest surviving instance is t h e demand of a or G e n e v a , o f the w i t c h ' s pact with Satan. T h e search was e m p l o y e d intermittently Southampton marks
popular b e l i e f w e r e k e p t by t h e w i t c h and e m p l o y e d t o e x e c u t e h e r designs, w e r e a l m o s t u n i q u e t o E n g l i s h f o l k l o r e . In c o n s e q u e n c e t h e y w e r e o f t e n t h e b u t t o f t h e j i b e s o f s c e p t i c s , a n d d i v i n e s w e r e t a x e d t o e x p l a i n t h e i r p r e s e n c e in t e r m s o f t h e i r t h e o l o g y o f w i t c h c r a f t . G i f f o r d set o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y : S a t a n was the efficient cause 'to o f t h e w i t c h ' s m a l e f i c e n c e ; S a t a n a n d his m i n i o n s w e r e d e s c r i b e d in S c r i p t u r e m a s q u e r a d i n g as ' s u c h p a l t r i e v e r m i n , as c a t s , m i s e , t o a d s and w e a s i l s ' ?
m o r e detailed narrative o f the w i t c h ' s transaction with Satan that assimilates further as J o s e p h
3 1
It a p p e a r s in t h e e a r l i e s t t r i a l s t h a t it w a s c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t
that the w i t c h h o u s e d and fed h e r familiars: U r s l e v K e m p l o d g e d h e r t w o c a t s , a l a m b a n d a t o a d in a l a r g e w o o l lined p o t , maintaining t h e m on b e e r , cake and w h i t e b r e a d . T h e mented with the witch's blood. So, after accomplishing diet s e e m s o r d i n a r y e n o u g h , i f e x t r a v a g a n t , b u t it w a s o c c a s i o n a l l y s u p p l e Mother W a t e r h o u s e ' s fell p u r p o s e s , h e r i a m i l i a r , a c a t , w a s r e w a r d e d w i t h a c h i c k e n and a d r o p o f h e r b l o o d ; this she g a v e h i m b y p r i c k i n g h e r h a n d o r f a c e a n d p u t t i n g t h e b l o u d t o his m o u t h w h y c h e h e s u c k e d .
3 2
l e e t j u r y in 1 5 7 9 t h a t W i d o w W a l k e r s h o u l d b e s e a r c h e d f o r a n y b l o o d y D e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d a n d a n a l y s e d in i s o l a t i o n , t h i s b l o o d - g i f t b o r e s o m e affinities t o the idea o f P r o t e s t a n t continental theorists, that Satan, after m a k i n g the c o v e n a n t , in t h e 1 5 8 2 S t O s y t h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , as did t h e D e r b y s h i r e J P s in 1 5 9 7 .
But the
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p r a c t i c e w a s n o t u n i v e r s a l : in 1 5 9 3 M o t h e r S a m u e l ' s m a r k w a s d i s c o v e r e d
after
c r a f t sayd t h a t s o m e o f t h e d e v i l e s i m p e s h a d s u c k e d h e r ' ; b u t , d e s p i t e t h i s w e i g h t y p r o f e s s i o n a l o p i n i o n f r o m S t e a r n e a n d his c i r c u s , t h e n t o u r i n g t h e Isle o f E l y , t h e l o c a l m i d w i f e w a s f a r m o r e c i r c u m s p e c t in h e r t e s t i m o n y . S o m e , l i k e t h e m i d w i v e s in 1634, were prepared to exculpate individuals, validity o f the e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e ; J o h n H a l e , m i n i s t e r o f B e v e r l e y , r e p o r t e d t h e d o u b t s o f 'a skilful m i d w i f e ' c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i t c h ' s colonial j u r i e s , hardly p e r m i t any exhaustive analysis o f h o w London the or to question mark.
Massachusetts,
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their emphasis on female sexuality, and the f r e q u e n t appearance o f similar t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h e d i t i o n o f The Countrey Justice by Michael Dalton, lawyer
T h e l a c o n i c r e f e r e n c e s in t h e E n g l i s h r e c o r d s , a n d e v e n t h e f u l l e r v e r d i c t s o f the 'Ansient and K n o w i n g W o m e n ' p e r c e i v e d t h e i r m a r g i n a l r o l e as s e a r c h e r s . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h o s e s e a r c h e s in w h i c h n o i n c r i m i n a t i n g m a r k s w e r e f o u n d , t h u s e x c u l p a t i n g an a c c u s e d w i t c h , l e a v e f e w t r a c e s in t h e E n g l i s h r e c o r d s , t h o u g h s u c h o c c a s i o n s m a y have b e e n f r e q u e n t . It is t e m p t i n g t o fill t h e l a c u n a e b y i n t r o d u c i n g a c o m p a r a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o t h e r r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s w h e r e w o m e n p l a y e d a r o l e in t h e p e n u m b r a o f the legal s y s t e m . W h i l e w o m e n w e r e a p p o i n t e d t o c o n d u c t physical e x a m i n a t i o n s in civil a n d c r i m i n a l cases turning on virginity or p r e g n a n c y , they w e r e most execuJ. S. frequently employed on juries empanelled to test the claim that a w o m a n convicted o f a c a p i t a l f e l o n y w a s p r e g n a n t . In t h e e v e n t o f a p o s i t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n where the jury's 'pregnant' verdict was subsequently proved incorrect. t i o n w a s d e l a y e d , aryi t h e r e s p i t e u s u a l l y b e c a m e a r e p r i e v e , e v e n i n t h o s e c a s e s C o c k b u r n , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h s u c h ' m i s t a k e s ' w e r e m a d e , has argued that the j u r y o f w o m e n e m b o d i e d the s e n t i m e n t o f the c o u r t and the w i d e r c o m m u n i t y in f a v o u r o f m e r c y in a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e .
4 1
o f t h e s e a r c h e r s t h e r e a f t e r , is t h e p u b l i c a -
C a m b r i d g e s h i r e J P , in 1 6 3 0 . D a l t o n r e v i s e d his i n f l u e n t i a l v a d e - m e c u m f o r l o c a l m a g i s t r a t e s in t h e l i g h t o f t h e 1 6 2 7 Guide to Grand-Jury Men b y t h e d i v i n e , R i c h a r d B e r n a r d , w h i c h sets o u t t h e full-fledged t h e o r y e x p r e s s i n g t h e r o l e o f the familiar in t e r m s o f the diabolic c o m p a c t . D a l t o n cites B e r n a r d with enthusiastic approval a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e u t i l i t y o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e m a r k s as i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e proof ' m a i n e points t o d i s c o v e r and c o n v i c t . . . for t h e y p r o v e fully that t h o s e w i t c h e s h a v e a f a m i l i a r a n d m a d e a l e a g u e w i t h t h e D e v i l ' . Y e t D a l t o n a l s o t r a n s f o r m s his s o u r c e in a k e v r e s p e c t . B e r n a r d insists, w i t h c o p i o u s citation o f t h e available English c a s e s , t h a t t h e m a r k m a y b e a n y w h e r e , b u t t h a t , s i n c e it is l i k e l y t o b e in hidden places', the search must be diligent. Dalton, in his s u m m a r y , language o f Bernard's argument: the teats, 'these the Devil's marks . . . in t h e i r s e c r e t e s t p a r t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d i l i g e n t a n d c a r e f u l s e a r c h ' .
3 7
'very the
shifts
be often Fortified
bv Dalton's confident p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , magistrates after 1 6 3 0 , confronted by the e v i d e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t t y p i f i e d all w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s , e m p l o y e d t h e r e c o m m e n d e d b o d v s e a r c h as a r o u t i n e a s p e c t o f p r e - t r i a l p r o c e d u r e . A n d t h e authoritative. T h e r o l e and s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n of the w o m e n w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e search colonial search f o c u s e d u p o n t h e g e n i t a l a r e a , as D a l t o n ' s m i s r e a d i n g o f his s o u r c e p r o v e d e q u a l l y
s o m e o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s in s e a r c h e s f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k s ; t h e y w e r e
expressions o f local s e n t i m e n t c o n c e r n i n g the i n n o c e n c e o r guilt o f the accused. Searchers w e r e often p r e p a r e d t o testify n o t only t o the a c c u s e d ' s physical m a r k s , b u t t o h e r r e p u t a t i o n as a w i t c h , o r t o t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e o f h e r m a l e f i c e n c e . Frances W a r d , with three other w o m e n nominated by the constable o f Heath, found incriminating marks on M a r g a r e t M o r t o n . Y e t W a r d was hardly a neutral o b s e r v e r : she a t t r i b u t e d t h e d e a t h s o f t w o o f h e r c h i l d r e n t o M o r t o n , a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a c c u s e d , h e r m o t h e r a n d h e r s i s t e r w e r e 'all a l o n g t i m e s u s p e c t e d ' o f w i t c h c r a f t . Y e t l o n g s t a n d i n g p o p u l a r s u s p i c i o n s did n o t i n v a r i a b l y l e a d t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e conclusive physical e v i d e n c e ; the search o f the W i d o w C o m a n o f Coggeshall, g e n e r ally s u p p o s e d t o b e a w i t c h , f o u n d n o d i s c o v e r y o f t h a t n a t u r e .
4 2
p r o c e d u r e s d o n o t a d m i t o f e a s y a n a l y s i s . It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d , in t h e
c o n t e x t , t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r l y a c t i v e p a r t w a s p l a y e d b y m i d w i v e s w h o , g i v e n an official d i s t r u s t o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a n d t h e s u s p i c i o n s o f w i t c h c r a f t t h a t f o c u s e d o n t h e i r presidency belief. myth. over the enclosed process of birth and their use of charms, were protecting their o w n precarious positions by associating themselves with o r t h o d o x
3 8
B u t this h y p o t h e s i s c a n n o t s u r v i v e D a v i d H a r l e y ' s d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t its the vulnerability of midwives to witchcraft prosecution, is a Certainly s o m e midwives w e r e prepared to assert categorically that physr
The
searchers arguments
essential p r e m i s e ,
3 9
o b v i o u s l y t o o k t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s s e r i o u s l y , a n d this m i g h t l e a d t o in g e n e r a l .
a m o n g t h e m r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i r d o u b t s in i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s o r a b o u t t h e p r o c e d u r e
i c a l m a r k s w e r e u n n a t u r a l , a n d t o d e n o u n c e t h o s e t h e y s e a r c h e d as g u i l t y o f d i a b o l i c r e l a t i o n s . In 1 6 4 5 B r i d g e t R e y n o l d s o f R a m s e y s e a r c h e d t h r e e l o c a l w o m e n , d i a g n o s e d t h e i r m a r k s as s u s p i c i o u s , a n d t e s t i f i e d a g a i n s t t h e m a t t h e a s s i z e s . In 1653 another m i d w i f e , M r s Odill o f Fairfield, C o n n e c t i c u t , authoritatively silenced those w o m e n w h o , in a m a c a b r e s c e n e b e n e a t h t h e g a l l o w s , h a d e x a m i n e d t h e c o r p s e o f an e x e c u t e d w i t c h a n d a r g u e d t h a t t h e g e n i t a l m a r k s w e r e ' s u c h as o t h e r women by in m i g h t h a v e ' . Y e t , while s o m e midwives affirmed and r e i n f o r c e d the search p r o c e d u r e s t h a t h a d b e e n s h a p e d in t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e o l o g y a n d j u r i s p r u d e n c e divines and l a w y e r s , o t h e r s w e r e m o r e w a r y , using a n e u t r a l , e v e n l a n g u a g e in t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n s . W h e n Ellen Garrison o f U p w e l l was searched ambiguous,
T h e s e a r c h e s w e r e an u n s t a b l e c r e a t i o n t h a t j u x t a p o s e d t h e c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e s o f the theologians with a pragmatic response by the magistracy to increasingly troubling evidential p r o b l e m s . T h o s e w o m e n , midwives and o t h e r s , w h o affirmed that their searches had revealed the D e v i l ' s m a r k r e i n f o r c e d , often unwittingly, ministerial theories c o n c e r n i n g the satanic d i m e n s i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t and the inferiority o f w o m e n . But a r g u m e n t s a m o n g the searchers and the ambiguous language with which they often hedged their findings m a y equally have led t o elite c o n c e r n that, the intellectual regarding the b o t h the efficacy o f the test and, b e y o n d viability o f
d e m o n o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n u p o n w h i c h i t r e s t e d so u n e a s i l y .
1 6 4 7 , ' s o m e t h a t w e r e t h e r e t h a t p r e t e n d e d t o h a v e skill in t h e d i s c o v e r y o f w i t c h -
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V
T h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h e s in e a r l y m o d e r n E n g l a n d , a n d t h u s t h e r o l e o f w o m e n as w i t n e s s e s , is a p r o c e s s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a l c o m p l e x i t y . It i n v o l v e d a c o n t i n uous b u t shifting dialogue a m o n g a variety o f social and professional g r o u p s . P o p u l a r belief, shared by m e n and w o m e n , was that the m y s t e r i o u s , harmful p o w e r that c o n s t i t u t e d w i t c h c r a f t w o u l d i n h e r e in c e r t a i n w o m e n . T h e r e s p o n s e t o this p o w e r , t o t h e t h r e a t s t h a t it p o s e d t o l i f e , t o h e a l t h , t o p r o p e r t y , a n d t o d o m e s t i c r o u t i n e s , was essentially instrumental: t o placate o r 'curry favour' with the witch; to secure an e f f e c t i v e c o u n t e r - m a g i c a g a i n s t a s s a u l t s . In 1 5 6 3 t h e e l i t e , f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e i r c o n t i n e n t a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , c o n s t r u c t e d a m a c h i n e r y o f p r o s e c u t i o n a n d so a d d e d a n e w w e a p o n in t h e a r m o u r y a g a i n s t w i t c h c r a f t . V i c t i m s c o u l d n o w c h o o s e t o d e s t r o y t h e i r assailants t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a l l y s a n c t i o n e d p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e c o u r t s . T h e opportunity created by the legislation was e m p l o y e d by b o t h m e n and w o m e n , b u t m e n , u s u a l l y t h o s e o f s o m e s t a t u s in t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s , w e r e t h e m o r e e n g a g e d p a r t i c i p a n t s . It w a s t h e y w h o b r o u g h t c h a r g e s a n d w h o o r c h e s t r a t e d t h e p r o s e c u tion, organizing their neighbours t o testify t o earlier e x p e r i e n c e s o f the accused's m a l i c e . W o m e n , t h o u g h a c t i v e in t h e c r e a t i o n o f l o c a l s u s p i c i o n s t h r o u g h g o s s i p , a n d in t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o t e c t i v e t h e r a p i e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s t h a t r a t i f i e d a c c u s a t i o n , w e r e a n c i l l a r i e s in t h e f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e s o f q u a r t e r and assizes. T h o s e w h o c h o s e t o e m p l o y t h e official m a c h i n e r y a g a i n s t w i t c h e s w e r e o b l i g e d t o shape the local fears and r u m o u r s f r o m which the p r o s e c u t i o n e m a n a t e d t o the f o r m a l i t i e s o f t h e l a w as d e f i n e d b y t h e s t a t u t e s a n d t o t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e s e magistrates and j u d g e s . T h e changing c o n c e r n s o f t h e latter g r o u p s explain g r o w i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l s , a p p a r e n t in t h e by the sessions
presuppositions. So the animals w h o frequently attended the witch w e r e diabolized as f a m i l i a r s p i r i t s o r e m a n a t i o n s o f S a t a n h i m s e l f . F r o m this t h e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g o f f o l k l o r e e m e r g e d t h e t e s t o f t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k in its i n s u l a r E n g l i s h f o r m , a n d w i t h it t h e c o m m i t t e e s o f w o m e n w h o s e a r c h e d t h e a c c u s e d . All w i t n e s s e s , b u t particularly those girls w h o d e s c r i b e d their possession and the m a t r o n s w h o discovered the genital m a r k s , ratified the misogynous rationalizations p r o f f e r e d bv the divines t o explain the p r e p o n d e r a n t n u m b e r s o f w o m e n accused o f witchcraft. T h e i r testimony apparently confirmed that w o m e n w e r e the w e a k e r s e x , m o r e easily s e d u c e d b y s a t a n i c t e m p t a t i o n . B u t t h e m a c h i n e r y in w h i c h t h e v b e c a m e i n v o l v e d , o f t e n at t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f m e n , w a s c r e a t e d , c o n t r o l l e d , a n d u l t i m a t e l y d i s c a r d e d b y t h e m a g i s t e r i a l a n d c l e r i c a l e l i t e . A n d it w a s t h e y w h o r e a d l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e in t e r m s o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e l l e c t u a l s c h e m e . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n section of divergent and shifting systems o f ideas. We can show that figures of a p r o s e c u t i o n was a c o m p l e x , dialogic p r o c e s s , involving m a n y actors, and the interfemale is n o t p a r t i c i p a t i o n as w i t n e s s in t h e E n g l i s h t r i a l s w a s e x t e n s i v e a n d , proportionately,
Notes
1 K e i t h T h o m a s , Religion Macfarlane, 2 Witchcraft D e m o s , Entertaining in the Shape Wicked 3 and the Decline in Tudor and of Magic ( L o n d o n 1 9 7 1 ) , 5 6 8 . S e e also Alan Stuart England (London 1970), 160; John Devil and
Satan
1630s
and after 1 6 6 0 . T h e judiciary w e r e n o l o n g e r p r e p a r e d to entertain indictments for s t o c k - d a m a g e , t o w h i c h m e n had testified; fearful m o r t a l illness o r m e n t a l anguish a l o n e w o u l d sustain a p r o s e c u t i o n and w o m e n , a t t e n d a n t at t h e s i c k b e d o f t h e v i c t i m , w e r e b e t t e r p l a c e d t o give e v i d e n c e . T h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e legal elite also e x p l a i n t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f w o m e n in t h e s e a r c h e s f o r t h o s e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s tics w h i c h indicated c o n j u n c t i o n with diabolic familiars. L a w y e r s , t r o u b l e d by the absence o f evidence that m e t increasingly strict n o r m s for conviction, e x p e r i m e n t e d with a n u m b e r o f p r o c e d u r e s that might provide tangible p r o o f o f guilt or innoc e n c e . T h e search for the w i t c h ' s m a r k by c o m m i t t e e s o f w o m e n , approved bv the leading practical manual for local magistrates, proved the m o s t enduring o f these o f f i c i a l c o n f i r m a t o r y t e s t s . Its j u s t i f i c a t i o n lay in t h e d e v e l o p i n g t h e o r i e s o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c r a f t p r o s e c u t i o n , t h e d i v i n e s . W i t c h c r a f t p r o s e c u t i o n s a f t e r 1 5 6 3 p l a c e d t h e c l e r g y , w e l l r e a d in t h e c o n t i n e n t a l t h e o r y o f t h e e s s e n t i a l l y d i a b o l i c o r i g i n s o f t h e o f f e n c e , in a q u a n d a r y . M u c h o f t h e p o p u l a r b e l i e f t h a t e m e r g e d in t h e c o u r t s s e e m e d t o t r i v i a l i z e w i t c h c r a f t a n d t o g i v e a m m u n i t i o n t o s c e p t i c s . In c o n s e q u e n c e , e n g a g e d d i v i n e s u s e d e v e r y o p p o r tunity to educate the populace concerning their witchcraft-as-heresy formulation, 11 to transform popular belief with, to judge by the mid-seventeenth-century evidence, s o m e s u c c e s s . Y e t in t h i s p r o c e s s a s p e c t s o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e d i v i n e s . T h e f e a t u r e s o f w i t c h c r a f t t h a t e m e r g e d r e g u l a r l y in t h e t r i a l s c o u l d n o t easily b e d i s m i s s e d , a n d h a d t o b e a c c o m m o d a t e d t o theological 10 4 5 6 7 8 9
J . A . S h a r p e , ' W i t c h c r a f t and W o m e n in S e v e n t e e n t h - C e n t u r y E n g l a n d : N o r t h e r n E v i d e n c e ' Continuity C h a p t e r 2 2 in this c o l l e c t i o n . C . L ' E s t r a n g e E w e n , Witch Hunting o p s e s o f all t h e assize i n d i c t m e n t s . and Change,
Some
6 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 7 9 9 9 . S e e also S h a r p e ' s
F o r full citations o f t h e archival s o u r c e s used in this c h a p t e r , see t h e original v e r sion in Past and Present, 140 (1993), 145-79. T h e s a m p l e consists o f t h o s e assizes at w h i c h E s s e x w i t c h c r a f t cases w e r e d e t e r m i n e d ; t w e n t y c o u r t s b e t w e e n 1 6 0 0 and 1 6 2 4 ; six b e t w e e n 1 6 6 0 and 1 6 7 5 . F o r a g e n e r a l discussion o f t h e 'fall in t h e levels o f i n d i c t m e n t f o r England 81. Witchcraft (London 1720), 'The 15 and Witch Trials, Essay Concerning property o f f e n c e s ' , s e e J . A. S h a r p e , Crime in Early Modern T r a n s c r i b e d in E w e n , Witch Hunting Francis Hutchinson, An Historical 5 9 - 6 0 ; P R O , ASSI 3 5 / 1 3 5 / 1 4 . F o r t h e local conflicts s u r r o u n d i n g this p r o s e c u t i o n , (1982), 4 8 - 7 1 . F o r f u r t h e r discussion o f this issue, see C l i v e H o l m e s , ' P o p u l a r C u l t u r e ? W i t c h e s , Magistrates Understanding and Divines in Early Modern England', in S. L. Kaplan ed., Popular Culture (Berlin 1 9 8 4 ) , 945. see Phyllis G u s k i n , Century Studies, C o n t e x t o f W i t c h c r a f t : T h e C a s e o f J a n e W e n h a m ' , Eighteenth (London 1 9 8 4 ) , 5860.
320
CLIVE
HOLMES
WOMEN:
WITCHES
AND
WITNESSES
321
12 13 14 15
B a s e d on an analysis o f t h e E s s e x d e f a m a t i o n cases listed in M a c f a r l a n e , in Tudor and Stuart England, E d w a r d F a i r f a x , Daemonologia, T h o m a s P o t t s , The Wonderfull 1 6 1 3 ) , sigs C , E l v , E 2 v . W . W . , A True and Just the Witches, Rosen, Witchcraft Recorde, of the Information, Examination 278301.
Witchcraft
31 32 33 34
Triumphatus,
ed. William Grainge (Harrogate 1 8 8 2 ) , 325. Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster (London of All
and Confession
o r d e a l , see R o b e r t B a r t l e t t , Trial (Oxford 1986). 35 36 E w e n , Witchcraft Most Strange Discoverie 37 and Demonianism,
at S. Oses in Essex ( L o n d o n 1 5 8 2 ) . T h e t e x t is r e p r o d u c e d in B a r b a r a in England Relation (University of Massachusetts 1 9 9 1 ) , 10357. This of the Informations Wiltshire JP of against 1672, Three Witches ( E x e t e r 1 6 8 2 ) , Gentleman's 38 (London 1682). of Sorcery and Witchcraft 39 and Witch Trials, and Antiquities 127, 185. 40 of the County and Demonianism, 23997. 42 of Leicester, 4 vols ( L o n d o n Strange 41 2 0 9 1 2 ; The Most Account of the Discovery
' a n o n y m o u s ' t r a c t is o b v i o u s l y D a r c y ' s o w n w o r k . 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 A True and Impartial esp. 1 7 - 2 3 . L e t t e r o f an a n o n y m o u s Magazine, A Tryal of Witches, p u b l i s h e d in t h e 1 0 2 pt T ( l 8 3 2 ) , 4 9 2 . at the Assizes Held at Bury St Edmonds
and Admirable
Discoverie,
M i c h a e l D a l t o n , The Countrey Justice, nation, after 2 7 6 . S a n f o r d F o x , Science Massachusetts Social and Justice:
and Religion
F r a n c i s B r a g g e , A Full and Impartial (London 1 7 1 2 ) , 28. E w e n , Witch Hunting Ibid., 2 9 9 . J o h n N i c h o l s , The History and Admirable Discoverie
D a v i d H a r l e y , ' H i s t o r i a n s as D e m o n o l o g i s t s : T h e M y t h o f t h e M i d w i f e - W i t c h ' , Hist. Medicine, J o h n H a l e , A Modest Enquiry S. C o c k b u r n , Introduction into the Nature of Witchcraft (Boston, Mass. 1 7 0 2 ) , 7 2 .
( L o n d o n 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 2 2 . T h e r e is a
1 7 9 5 1 8 1 1 ) , ii pt 2 ; E w e n , Witchcraft
v e r y useful discussion o f t h e various c o u r t - a p p o i n t e d b o d i e s m a d e up o f w o m e n in J a m e s C . O l d h a m , ' O n Pleading t h e B e l l y : A H i s t o r y o f t h e J u r y o f M a t r o n s ' , Criminal Justice Hist., 6 (1985), 1-64. G i l b e r t , ' W i t c h c r a f t in E s s e x ' , 2 1 1 , 2 1 5 .
last t e x t is r e p r o d u c e d in R o s e n , Witchcraft, 23
24
of a Certaine
Witch Named of
Alse the
(London 1622),
4 6 ; C o t t o n M a t h e r , ' A B r a n d P l u c k ' d o u t o f t h e B u r n i n g ' , in Narratives ed. G . L. Burr ( N e w Y o r k 1 9 1 4 ) , 2 5 9 - 6 0 . 25 The Witches of Northamptonshire Witchcraft, Healing 26 27 in Seventeenth-Century
( L o n d o n 1 6 1 2 ) , sigs B 2 C I . T h i s t e x t is in R o s e n , Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety and England (Cambridge 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 1 2 . in Elizabethan London Practisers (London 1 9 9 1 ) , (London 1619),
x x x v i ; s e e , in g e n e r a l , x x x i i i x x x i x . Sorts of Ignorant 6 9 . T h e a c c o u n t o f t h e possession o f t h e T h r o c k m o r t o n c h i l d r e n , p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 9 3 , was m a d e available t o t h e d e m o n i a c W i l l i a m S o m m e r s at N o t t i n g h a m in 1 5 9 7 8 , and t o Ann G u n t e r in B e r k s h i r e in 1 6 0 4 . S a m u e l H a r s n e t , A Discovery the Fraudulent 28 Practices of J. Darrell Concerning the Pretended and Grevous the Doctrine Concerning Possession of W. (London 1 5 9 9 ) , 9 3 . J o h n D a r r e l l , A True Narration Persons in Lancashire of Demoniah.es ination, 29 30 Dispossession is Applyed of the Strange Wherein Vexation by the Devil, and of 7 and W. Somers: of Possession Dispossession and of Somers
T h e s e a r c h was e m p l o y e d in a V i r g i n i a case o f 1 7 0 6 and in t h e a c c u s a t i o n against J a n e W e n h a m o f W a l k e r n in 1 7 1 2 . G i f f o r d , Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcraftes, 223.