The 16 Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas Capitals Gandhara Kamboja Asmaka Vatsa Avanti Surasena Chedi Maila Kurus Taxila Rajpur

Potana Kaushambi Ujjain Mathura Shuktimati Kushinara, Pawa Hastinapur/Indraprastha Locations Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in North Western Province. Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank of River Godavari Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya Pradesh. Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the Uttarapath & Dakshinapath Covering the modern Budelkhand area Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of River Yamuna

Matsya Vajjis

Virat Nagari Vaishali

Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was the seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members. Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into Magadha. Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, etc. Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad. Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in Uttar Pradesh.

Anga Kashi Kosala Magadga Panchala

Champa Banaras Shravasti Girivraja/Rajgriha Ahichhatra (W. Panchala), Kampilya (S. Panchala)

Alexander Invasion

Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his soldiers In 325 BC, he began his homeguard journey. In 324 BC, he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada

FOUR VEDAS Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value. Has only 75 fundamental hymns 1. Karnataka - Jaiminga 2. Gujarat - Kanthun 3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya Sung by Udgatri Rigveda Collection of hymns Oldest of all vedas Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later. Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma Yajurveda Book of sacrifical prayers Rituals of yajnas Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"

Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice. Has been compiled in "fourth path" Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text Atharvaveda Mantras for magic spells Populate ritualistic system & superstitions Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community Collection of 711/731/760 hymns Not included in 'Trai' Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works Provides freedom from evils spirits. Oldest text on Indian Medicine. Vedas and their Brahmanas

1. 2. 3. 4.

Rigveda Samaveda Yajurveda Atharvaveda

Aitereya and Kaushitaki Tandya and Jaiminiya Tattiriya and Satpatha Gopatha

Aranyaka Literarily, it means 'Jungle' Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles Give stress on meditation Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

Upanishada 1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples 2. Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy 3. They are also called "Vedanta" 4. Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" 5. Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. 6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world. 7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas 8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani 9. Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

Indus Valley Civilization: Name of Sites Year of Excavation Excavators Region/River Features 1. City followed grid planning 2. Row of six granaries 3. Only place having evidences of coffin burial 4. Evidence of fractional burial and coffin burial 5. Cemetery-H of alien people. 1. City followed grid planning 2. A large granary and Great Bath, a college 3. Human skeletons showing invasiona and massacre. 4. Evidence of Horse come from superficial level. 5. A piece of woven cotton alongwith spindle whorls and needles 6. Town was flooded more then seven times. 1. The city has no citadal 2. Famous for bead makers shop 3. A small pot, possibly an inkpot 4. Foot prints of a dog chasing a cat 5. Three different cultural layers, Indus,Jhukar and Jhangar Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh Situated in Rajasthan on the Bank of Ghaggar 1. Shows both Pre Harappan and Harappan phase 2. Evidence of furrowed land 3. Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones 4. Many houses had their own well 5. Kalibangan stand for black bangles

Harappa

1921

Montgomery district of Punjab (Now in Daya Ram Sahni Pak) on the left bank of Ravi

Mohenjodaro

1922

R.D.Banarjee

Larkana district in Sind on the right bank of Indus(Now in Pak)

Chanhu-daro 1931

N. Gopal Majumdar, Mackey

Situtated in Sind on the bank of Indus

6. Evidence of wooden furrow 1. A titled floor which bears intersecting design of circles 2. Remains of rice husk 3. Evidence of horse from a terracotta figurine 4. A ship designed on a seal 5. Beads & trade ports 6. An instrument for measuring angles,pointing to modern day compass 1. Shows both Pre-Harappan and Harppan phase 2. Good quantity of barley found here 3. Surkotada 1964 J.P. Joshi Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat Situated in Baluchistan on Dast River Situated in Sind on the bank of Indus Situated in Gujarat in Rann of Kutch Situated on the bank of Mahar in Gujarat 1. Bones of horses, Bead making shops 1. Trade point between Harappa and Babylon, belong to mature phase 2. Evidence of horse Amri 1935 N.G. Majumdar 1. Evidence of antelope 1. Seven cultural stages 2. Largest site 3. Three party of city 4. Unique water management Rangpur 1953 M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal & S.R. Rao 1. Rice was cultivated 1. Wheel made painted pottery 2. Traces of defensive wall and well aligned streets 3. Knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc

Lothal

1953

S.R. Rao

Situated in Gujarat on Bhogava river near Gulf of Cambay

Banwali

1974

R.S. Bisht

Situated in Hissar district of Haryana

Sutkagendor 1927

Stein, R.L.

Dholavira

1985-90

R.S. Bisht

Kot Diji

1953

Fazal Ahmed

Situated on the bank of Indus

Ropar

1953

Y.D. Sharma

Situated in Punjab of the banks of Sutlej

1. Evidence of burying a dog below the human bural 2. One example of rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed 3. Five fold cultures Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana - Gupta and Medieval 1. Remain of pre Harappan and Harappan civilisation

Balakot

1963-76

George F Dales

Situated on the Arabian Sea

2. The mounds rise to the height of about 9.7mts and are spread 2.8 sq hectare of area 1. The impression of cloth on a trough is discovered

Alamgirpur

1958

Y.D. Sharma

Situated on Hindon in Ghaziabad

2. Usually considered to be the eastern boundary of the Indus culture

Essay on the Administrative System Of Guptas The age of the Guptas has been regarded as the age of progress in India by all historians. Of course, Dr. Romila Thaper seems to be near the mark when she contends that when we accept the Gupta period as the classical age of ancient India we have accepted its limitations also.

That the living standard which reach 3d their peak were limited to upper classes alone and, further the classicism of the Gupta period was restricted to Northern India alone. With these limitation she agrees with others regarding the progress achieved during this period. Majority of scholars agree with the view that it was die "Golden Age" of Ancient India. Dr. V.A. Smith writes, "The age of great Gupta Kings presented a more agreeable and satisfactory picture than any other period in the history of Hindu India. Literature, Art and Science flourished in a degree beyond ordinary and gradual changes in the religion were effected without persecution." The empire of the Guptas was certainly less extensive than the empire of the Mauryas prior to them. The great Gupta ruler provided political unity to a large part of North India for nearly two centuries. The political institutions of the Gupta Age were not original but were rather "founded the historical traditions of the past and improved and adapted to suit contemporary conditions." They were both imposing and benevolent. The imperial perfection was achieved in the hands of the Guptas and their administrations was better than that of the Mauryas. I. The Central Administration (I) King Monarchy was the form of government which was in vague during the Gupta Age. But it was the benevolent monarchy The king was the head of the state as well as that of administration. The theory of the divinity of kings was popular during the Gupta period by which the royal power and prestige had increased. The guptas were fond of sounding titles and the whole administrative structure was saturated with designations and titles. The Gupta rulers assumed a number of titles such as 'Raja-dhiraja', 'Maharaja-dhiraja 'Paramaraja-dhiraja 'Rajadhirajashi', 'Eka-dhiraja', 'Pramdevata', 'Parambhattarka', 'Prithipala', 'Paramesvara', 'Samrat', and 'Chakravartin'. Samudragupta is described as equal to the gods "Dhanda" or "Kubera", "Varuna", Indra" and "Antaka" or "Yama". Who was battle-axe of the god "Kritanta" or "Yama"," Certainly, the establishment of a Vast empire had helped in increasing the powers of the rulers and divinity and assigned to the kings. The Gupta Kings enjoyed a large number of powers. Those powers covered the political, administrative, military and judicial fields. Samudragupta, Chandragupta-II and Skandagupta personally led their armies. The Gupta Kings appointed all the governors and important military and civil officers. They were also responsible to the king. The governors and their officers had to work under the control and guidance of the King. The King was the source of all honours and titles. All land in the empire was the property of the King who could give away the same to anybody he pleased. He could construct dams, give shelter to any one, impose, recover and remit taxes and impart the justice. Yet the Kings could not afford to be selfish despots. They had to ruled according to "Rajya Dharwa" and with the help of their ministers. In other words it is wrong to say that the Gupta Kings were autocrats. They shared their powers with ministers and other high officers. A large number of powers were delegated to the local bodies such as village Panchayats and town councils. The king was required to adopt all means to win popularity among the people by respecting their wishes and promoting their welfare. The King toured the country with a view to keep himself in touch with the people . The important matters were decided in the joint meeting. The king respected the advice given by his ministers.

The secret of the success of the Gupta rulers lies in the principle of succession to kingship which was based on sound principles. The old law of the primogeniture was not in vogue then. The usual practice was selection by the dying King of the best fitted prince from amongst his sons. Samudragupta represent this kind of selection. The use of words "selected by the father in the Mathura inscriptions points to this in the case of Chandragupta-13 as well. The personal life of the King was very simple. He took great interest in redeeming the poor from misery in protecting religion and in dispensing justice. (ii) Council Of Ministers It appears that the Gupta rulers had their councils. Perhaps, it consisted of princes, high officials and feudatories. Kalidas refers to the "Mantri-Parishad" or council of ministers. Some officers the designation of "Kanchuki" or "Chamberlain" acted as an agent between the King and the council. Whatever decisions were taken by the council of Mnisters were conveyed to the King through an "Amatya". It means that the matter was placed before the "Council of Ministers" and efforts were made to arrive at some conclusion then the decisions were conveyed to the King who was left to arrive at any conclusion he pleased. It was the duty of the "Council of Ministers" to advise the king but ultimately it had to obey the verdict of the King. The emperor was assisted by a council of ministers of "Mantri-Parishad". The prominent "Mantris" among whom was the "Prime Minister" of the state known as "Mantri Mukhya". The portfolios of war and peace, the chief Councillorship, military forces and law and order were held by different persons respectively known as, 'MahasandhiVigrahaka', 'Amatya', 'Mahabaladhikrita' and 'Mahadandanayaka'. Examiner's Choice The provinces were called Desas or Bhuktis and were governed by Uparikas. The Uparika may represent the pradesikas of the Ashokan epigraphs and in the same as the Amatyas of the Satavahana provinces. The provinces were divided into districts, called Vishyas. Each vishaya was administered by a royal official, known as the Adhisthana Adhikarna. Ranabhandahi-Karana was the military exchequer. Dandaparsadhikarna, office of the chief of police. Vinayasthiti-Sthapaka, office of minister in charge of law and order. Bhatasvapati, head of the infantry and cavalry. Mahapratikara chief chamberlain. Vinayasur, chief censor. According to Kalidas, there were three ministers foreign-minister, finance minister and the law-minister. The ministers were expected to be experts in their spheres of works. In many cases their office was hereditary. The great secrecy was maintained with regard to the deliberations in the meetings of the ministers. Further, it appears that the Question of the succession to the throne was a function of the 'Council of Ministers'. (iii) Civil Officers The Guptas entire central government was under the direct control of the King. The most important officers of the royal court were known as "Mahapratihara" or "Receptionist", "Rajamatya" or "Adviser to the king" and "Ajnasamchrikas" or courtiers. The Gupta civil administration was a "bureaucracy of high- sounding officials like "Rajapurusha", "Rajanayaka", "Rajaputra", "Rajamatya", "Mahasamanta", "Mahapratihara" and "Mahakumaramatya" etc.

(iv) Revenue And Police Officers The duties of revenue and police administration were not separate and were run by officials like 'Uparika', 'Dashparadhika', 'Chauroddharanika', 'Dandika', 'Dandapashika', 'Gaulmika', 'Kottapala' or 'Kottupala' 'Angarakshka' and 'Ayuktaka- Viniyuktaka', 'Rajuka' etc. (v) Military Officers The military officers referred to in the inscriptions are the 'Senapati', 'Mahasenapati', 'Baladhikrita' 'Mahabaladhikrita', 'Dandanayaka', 'Sandhivigrahika', Mahasandhivigrahika', Gopta etc. They were the key functionary in the Gupta army. The Gupta army had four wings such as- informatory, cavalry, elephant and the navy. The main weapons of war were bows and arrows, swords, axes and spears. (vi) Judicial Officers Inscriptions of Gupta's refer to such judicial officers as 'Mahadanda nayaka', 'Mahakshapatalika' etc. Probably, 'Mahadandanayaka' combined the duties of a judge and a general. The "Mahadandanayaka" was probably the "Great keeper of Records". It appears that the "Kumaramatya" a "Bhondapashika" and the "Uparika" had each his separate "Adhikarna" or "court or office" where the transactions pertaining to land were decided. It is possible that judicial matters were also decided there. According to Fa-Hien, punishments were very lenient and capital punishment was very rare. However, the testimony of Fa-Hien is not accepted and it is pointed out by the Kalidas, Visakhadatta that punishments were pretty harsh in the Gupta period-such as death, death by elephant etc. Four kinds of ordeals seemed to have been employed to ascertain the guilt or innocence of a person. These are by water, by fire, by weighing and by poison. ii. Administrative Divisions A study of the Gupta inscriptions shows that there was an hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as "Rajya", Rashtra", "Desha", "Mandala", "Prithvi" and "Avani". It was divided into provinces which were called as, "Bhukti", Pradesha" and "Bhoga". Provinces were divided into "Vishayas" and put under the control of "Vishaya Patis". "Vishaya" were divided in "Nagaras" and "Nagares" were divided into villages. A part of a "Vishaya" was called "Vithi ." A union of villages was called "Pethaka" and "Santaka". Smaller units or divisions of a village were "Agrahara" and "Patta". iii. Provincial Administration The head of the provincial administration was known by various names and some of them were- "Uparika", "Gupta", Bhogika", "Bhogapati" and "Rajasthaniya". In certain cases, the son of the King or "Rajaputra" was appointed the Governor. The minister in attendance on the royal Governor was called "Kumaramatya". There are the references to various provincial officials such as- "Baladhikaranika" or "Head of the army or military"; "Dandapasadhikaranika" or 'Chief of the Police'; 'Ranabhandarika' or 'Chief Justice'; 'Vinayasthiti Sthapaka' or 'Minister of Law and order"; 'Sadhanika' or 'Officer to deal with debts and fines'; 'Hiranya-Samudyika' or 'Currency Officer; 'Tadayuktaka' or 'Treasury Officers'; 'Audrangika' or 'Collector of the Udranga tax'; 'Aurna-Sthanika' or 'Superintendent of silk factories'; etc.

iv. District Or "Vishaya" Administration The head of the "Vishaya" administration was the "Vishayapati" or District Magistrate'. The District Magistrate or "Vishayapati" was assisted in his work by the "Mahattaras" or "Village elders". "Gramikas" or "Village Headmen", "Saulkikas" or Collectors of Customs and tolls', "Gaulmika" or "officers in charge of forests and forts", "Agar harikas", "Dhruvadhikaranikas" or "Treasurers" etc. There were many clerks in the department whose duty was to write and copy out the records and documents. The writers were called "Lekhakas" and "Diviras". The officer-in-charge of the documents was known as the "Karanika". v. City Administration The head of the city administration was known as the "Nagara-Rakshaka" or"Purapala". "Purapala Uparika" was another officer who controlled the heads of the various cities. A city was governed by a "Parishad". In the city, there was a reference of" Avasthika", who was a special officer who acted as the "Superintendent of Dharamsalas." vi.VillageAdministration The village was the smallest unit of the administration. "Gramika" was the head of the village but there were other officials known as "Dutas" or "Messengers", heads men, Kartri, etc. He was assisted by a village assembly but due to the lack of references, it is not possible to describe the exact duties and functions of the assembly. Examiner's Choice The administrative and judicial business of villages were carried on by the Gramikas. He was assisted by a group of village elders, such as Kutumbikas, Mahamataras etc. The royal servant in the village was the Gram-Vridha. Vii. Source Of Revenue In order to meet the vast expenditure incurred on the maintenance of such a vast administration of the empire, the king levied different types of tax. Land revalue has always been an important source of income in an agricultural country. Land revalue was one of the primary sources of the income of the Guptas and they helped in increasing agricultural production and provided security to the cultivators. Waste lands was brought under cultivation and pasture land was also protected and increased. The government increased the man-made means of irrigation at both-capital and provincial levels. All this helped in the growth of agricultural and animal husbandry. During the Gupta days "Uparika" or "land- tax", which was levied on cultivators who had no property rights on soil, "Vata", "Bhuta", "Dhanya", "Hiranya" or gold, "Adeya" etc. Perhaps, it was one sixth of the total produce. Though there were other means of source of income like surplus or income tax known as "Bhaga", customs, mint, inheritance and presents etc. In addition to these taxes, fines known as "Dasa-Paradha" from offenders and free labour due to the king known as "Vaishtika" formed the source of income. On the whole, the Gupta administration was well organised. Peace and prosperity of the subjects and the progress achieved by them in practically all walks of their life was its proof. It is to be observed that the designation of Gupta officials continued even after the passing away of the Gupta empire.

The early Kala curiyas were the first to be influenced by the Gupta administrative system. Likewise the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani were also accepted the Gupta administrative system.