AHistoryofSocialThought 10033571

A HI S T O R Y O F
S O C I A L T HO U G HT
‘ ?
w “
E M O RY Sf
’
O G A R D U S , PH D . .
Prof en o r a nd Hea d of Dep a rt me nt of S o cio logy a nd S o cia l Wo rk

Uni ve m ty of S o u tlz em C a lif o rnia
'
A u th o r f
o
I N T R O DU C T I O N TO SO C I O L O GY
E S S EN T IA L S OF SO C I A L P S Y C H O L O GY
ES S EN T I A L S O F A M ER I CA N I Z AT I O N
19 2 2
U N I V ER S I T Y OF SO UTHER N C A L I FO R N I A P RESS
3 4 74 U N I V ER S I T Y AV NU E E
LO S A N G E L E S
Univ e rs it y o f S o u t h e rn C alif o rnia P re ss
D E D I C A T E D T O M Y ST UD E N TS
W HO A RE T R A N S FO R M I N G TH E I R S O CI A L TH O UG H T
I N T O H ELP FUL L I V I N G
C O N T EN T S
HE N AT U RE O F S O C IA L T H O U G HT
2 . E AR L IE S T S O C IA L T H O U G HT
3 . TH E S O C IA L T H O U G HT O F A NC IE N T C I V I L I ZATI O N S
4 . TH E S O C IA L T H O U G HT O F TH E H E B RE W S
5 . P L AT O A N D G RE C IA N S O C IA L T H O U G HT
I
6 . A RI S T O T L E A N D G RE C IA N S O C IA L T H O U G H T
7 . R O M A N S O C IA L T H O U G HT
8 . E AR LY C HRI S TIA N S O C IA L T H O U G HT
9 . S O C IA L T H O U G HT I N TH E M IDD L E A G E S
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10 M ORE A N D U T O P IA N S O C IA L T H O U G HT
ll . I N DI V ID UA L I S TI C S O C IA L T H O U G HT
— 12 . M A L TH U S A N D P O P U L ATI O N C O NC E P T S
I
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l3 . C O M TE A N D P O S ITI V E S O C IA L T H O U G HT
M AR ! A N D S O C IA L I S TI C S O C I A L T H O U G H T
15 . B U C K L E A N D G E O G RA P H I C S O C IA L T H O U G HT
S P E NC ER A N D O R G A N I C S O C IA L T H O U G HT ”4 ,
17 . T H E S O C I O L O GY O F L E S TER F W ARD
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18 . A N THR O P O L O G I C S O C I O L O GY
19 . E U G E N I C S O C I O L O GY
20 . C O NFL I C T T HE O RIE S I N S O C I O L O GY
21 . C o O P ERATI O N T H E O RIE S I N S O C I O L O GY
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22 . P S YC H O S O C I O L O G I C T H O U G H T
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23 . P S YC H O S O C I O L O G I C T H O U G HT ( co nt inu e d )
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24 . T H E T RE N D O F A PP L IED S O C I O L O GY
25 . T H E R I S E O F E D U C ATI O N A L S O C I O L O GY
26 . T H E S O C I O L O GY O F M O DER N C H RI S TIA N ITY
27 . M ET H O D S O F S O C I O L O G I C A L I N V E S TI G AT I O N
28 . T H E D I S S E M I N AT I O N O F S O C I O L O G I C A L T H O U G HT
I N DE !
P R EFA C E
This boo k is written for the o rld o f s t u d e nt s w .
I n it any seriously minded person should find a

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fundamental background f o r understanding the

central theme o f human progress a substanti al ,
basis for attack ing t h e mo s t impo rtant problems o f

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the day and a call t o renew hi s faith in the sound

,
ness of human aspirations .
I nasmuch as this treatise is written f o r students ,
it is not intended to be the last word o n the subj ect ,
but simply a first word The t h eme O f eac h c h ap

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ter i s in itself a subj ect f o r further investigati on .
I n fact the student w i th an al ert m ind w i ll find in

,
eac h ch apt e r m any subj ects c o ncern i ng w h ich he

will want t o lea r n more I f the d i scuss i ons in th is
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boo k st i mulate t h e student t o make in q uir i es on h is

ow n initiative t h ey will have accompli shed more
,
th an th e author could have expected .
EM O R Y S B O G A RD U S
. .
Unive rs ity o f S o u t h e rn Ca lif o rnia .
J u ne 1 1 9 2 1
, .
A HI S T O RY O F S O C I A L T HO U G HT
C H APTE R I
T H E N ATU R E OF S O C I A L T H O U G HT
Man faces a world o f social problems A s a re .
sult he i s perplexed beyond description ; his thinking

O ften ends in confusion I nasmuch as the average
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citizen f o r the fi rst time in th e world s hi story is
, ,
beginning to attack social problems he i s entitled ,
to all the aid tha t can be made available Upon the .
success o f th e average person in mastering the in

t ricacie s o f social t hinking t he cause o f democracy
,
depends .
A large proportion O f t h e analyses Of social

questions has been academic These discussions .
have O ften terminated in quibbles o r erudite gen

e raliz a t io ns I nsofar as social t h eories have been
.
correct they have un fortunately been reserved for

the theorists alone The people themselves have
.
no t understood the nature o f social thought ; they

have not benefited ; and hence they h ave held social
,
thought in contemp t S ound social though t needs

.
to be democra t ized that is t o be made available for

, ,
all people .
12 H IS T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
I n thinking about social problems the s o called -
w
,
practical person has proceeded in his o n way He .
has had personal experience and that t o him has —
been su ffi cient He has been motivated by a sense

.
O f inj ustice and stung into fervid thought by ci r

,
cu ms t a nce s which seemed to him unfair ; he has
concocted a make shi ft remedy or impulsively a c

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ce p t e d a ready made program

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Perhaps he has .
urged a single cause f o r all social ills and pre

scribed a single remedy f o r all social diseases .
U sually he has been very limited in his observ a

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tions untraine d in making proper inductions and

, ,
hence narrow and intolerant in hi s conclusions

,
.
He has been entirely ba ffled o r else he has felt ,
cock sure
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.
The practicalist is often a poor theorist H e .
may be ev en the most dangerous type O f theori st .
He has sco ff ed at theory and then fallen into th e

pit O f incorrect theory He h as failed t o see f o r
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,
example that a good bridge does no t proj ec t i tsel f

,
across a chasm but that a correct bridge building

,
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theory is essential With social practicalists and

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theorists calling each other names instead o f co ,
operating and u ns e lfish ly giving th e world o f people

the benefit of their combined points O f view the ,
world has fl o u nde re d and its social problems have

piled up mountains high
, .
A nother di f ficulty in the path way of sound social

thinking i s found in an absence of proper back
g rounds . People are prone t o O ff er solutions fo r
T H E N A T UR E OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT 13
social questions without first equipping themselves

with a knowledge o f foundational elements More .
over they are O ften unwilling to acquaint them

,
selves with these necessary factors I t i s only by .
accident however that current social movements

, ,
can be understood unless the historical sequences
O f social cause and effect are perceived N early all .
social problems are essentially the outcroppings O f

tendenci es which have had a long human his t ory .
A current social maladjustment is generally indica

tive O f a long line o f antecedent factors A knowl .
edge O f societary fundamentals i s essential t o sound

thinking about present day evils -
A h istory of
.
social thought furni shes a minimum social back
w
ground f o r the understanding o f current social
processes and problems .
S p cial though t as dfi n
, gI Hs h e d h ddu al
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t h ought treats O f the welfare O f one s associa t es
,
and O f groups I t may be very simple merely Ob

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s e rva t io nal the result o f daily experience or it may

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be a scientific study O f social processes S ociology .
as an organiz ed science has developed only during

the past few decades I nasmuch as sociology has
.
simply begun its work o f formulating the principles

of soci etary progress a large proportion of the
,
thinking that has thus far been done in human his

tory about the wel fare O f s o c ii or associates i s
either individual o r social rather than sociological
,
.
A h istory o f social thought there fore includes the

, ,
larger social field as well as th e more specific one

of recent develo p ment namely the sociological , ,
.
Th e time is hardly ripe for a history o f distinctly

s ociological thought .
S ocial thought as here used is a synthesis O f

, ,
the O bservations o f individuals about the welfare

o f other individuals considered as individuals o r as
,
groups The focus o f social thou ght is not the wel

.
fare of the ego but of the alter not O f the self but ,
o f others not of the individual but O f the class

, ,
group organization or process

,
S ocial thought
, .
draws from the thought li fe o f persons who have -
done unselfish thinking and who have focalized

their attention upon the nature and principles o f
associative activities I t tests group progress by .
the degree in which human personalities secure

constructive CO operative expression I t measures
,
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the individual in his relationships to the social

whole whether that unit be the family school
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church state o r the world society I t rates the in

, , .
dividual in terms o f a functioning unit in group

li fe I t evaluates the group both in regard to the
.
quality of the personalities which it produces in its

membership and to the loyalty which it mani fests
,
as a unit o f a larger group even o f human society ,
itsel f .
S ocial thought I S both concrete and abstract .
C oncrete thinking rarely goes deep I t asks few .
questions raises few doubts and perceives few

, ,
connections Abstract thinking seeks causal e x

.
planations classi fies conc r etenesses penetrates re

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T H E NA T UR E OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT lS
lat io nsh ip s , and proposes well balanced procedures -

,
The distinction however is largely o ne O f degree

, , .
C oncrete th inking is characteristic O f every normal

person but abstract perceptions are uncommon
, .
The ability to d o abstract thinking to get at the ,
deeper meanings o f phenomena to penetrate t h e ,
mysteries o f life i s rare C oncrete thinking con

, .
s t it u t e s the maj or sector of the thought li fe O f -
every person nearly all th e time

, .
H e re and there however in human history we

w
, ,
find individuals h o have been freed o r who have

freed themselves from the daily struggle for a liv
ing from the race to make money o r from the
, ,
selfish enticements of li fe long lo a fing and have -

,
joined the world o f scholars seeking to know the ,
truth the truth which makes men and women

,
free free t o develop useful personalities in a vast

—
Changing complex O f human living When man .

,
having leisure t o think abstractly has set himsel f ,
t o the task o f thought research h is mind has ven ,
t u re d along at least five pathways .
1
( ) Man has given considerable attention to
his relation t o th e universe Primitive man co n .
ce iv e d O f a personal universe p eopled with spirits ,

.
Throughout human history man has been a re

ligio u s being trying to solve the problems o f a
,
universe ruled by spirits and gods o r by one s u

preme Go d This type of thought has produced
.
polytheisms monotheisms theocracies I t has for

, ,
.
mu lat e d theological creeds and led t o bitter eccle

16 H I S T ORY OF SO CIAL T H OUG HT
s ia s t ical controversies I t has created fears hopes
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faiths social ideals and sacri ficial s tandards

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.
2
( ) I rrespective O f religious needs man has ,
endeavored to discover proper relations t o his uni

verse H e has philosophiz ed He has tried to r e
. .
duce to terms of thought thi s baf fling intangible , ,
universal environment He has searched f o r a .
specific ground f o r explaining the universe He .
has sought unity in change and monism in multi

p lic i t y . He has proclaimed that change i t sel f i s
L ord o f the universe o r perhaps h e has found
,
solace in a creative evolution A t any rate h e h as .

,
sought ultimate meanings in as unb i ased an inter

p r e t a t io n O f the universe as i s humanly possible .
( )
3 F rom the far fl u ng horizons
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o f religious
and philosophic theory man has turned his thought
,
in an opposite direction h e has directed hi s

—
thought upon itself He has maneuvered his

.
thought processes introspectively H e has puzzled

w
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over the structure and functions o f hi s o n mind .
These series of studies have led o n the o ne hand

to treatises suc h as the Crit iq u e o f P u re R e a s o n ,
and o n the other hand to the current expressions

o f behavioristic psychology o r O f psychoanalysis .
( )
4 Man has sought to fathom the material
secrets of the earth S ince the I ndustrial Re v o lu
.
tion in England inquiring minds have foc u ssed

,
tremendous energies upon attempts t o maste r the

physical elements R ocks and strata O f rocks have
.
been caused to yield a wealth O f ores and s u b t e r ,

T H E NA T UR E O F SOCIAL TH OUG HT 17
ra ne an caverns hav e been made to pour forth reser

vo irs of gas and o il Modern transportation has
.
been made possible by the use O f steam gasoline , ,
electricity Mechanical inventions have followed

.
one another in unanticipated fashion paying awe ,
i nspiring tribute t o the genius O f man A bstract .
thinking has given man a marvelous degre e O f con

trol over the material side O f li fe .
’
5
( ) R ecently the problem
, O f man s adj ustment
and responsibility to his fellowmen i s being ac
corded a worthy hearing at th e bar o f scienti fic
thought Fo r millenniums man has pondered hard
.
over hi s relations and obligations to his Go d and t o

his universe over the nature o f his mind and spirit
, ,
over ways and means O f acquiring individual suc

cess through a manipulation of the material re
sour c es o f the earth I ncomprehensible as it may
.
seem it is true how ever that man h as neglected

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almos t wholly until recently th e very heart O f all

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successful living namely hi s relations and obliga

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tions t o his fellow men and t o society S ocial .
thought the center o f all sound thinking has b e e n l

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‘
ignored C onsequen tly the world beneath its load

.
, ,
o f social ills has slipped backward nearly as O ften

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as it has advan c ed .
I n the present age however the world is making

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unprecedented demands upon social thought long ,
before social thought is adequately prepared for its

g igantic tasks R eligion
. is seeking re vitalization ~
through socialized thinking I n its modern e n

.
18 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
d e a vo rto win the world C hristianity is making tre
,
me ndo u s demands upon applied sociology .
A fter many vain searches among false theories

and impersonal ends philosophy is seeking to find
,
itsel f in a social universe Psychology likewi se i s

.
, ,
no longer individual structural and formal ; it is

w
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no trying to interpret itsel f in terms O f human

behavior G roup processes are being searched for
.
the origins Of stimuli that will explain individual

conduct .
Economic thought too has reached a stage, ,
where it is endeavoring to re d e fine its concepts in -
the light o f sociological knowledge The material .
resources of the earth as well as industrial and

business enterprises in fact all economic values are
, ,
being measured and re valued in terms O f thei r

,
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societary significance The meaning O f industrial

.
democracy is being sought in sociological terms .
I n the distinctively associative li fe enormous de

mands are being made upon sociology I t i s invited .
to formulate the criteria by which the worth O f an

educational system may be determined G roups are .
trying to provide f o r the use of the leisure time of

t heir members by methods that are socially valu
able Many attempts are being made f o r restoring
.
t o the family its fundamental prerogatives as a

social institution .
The history O f social thought rises out o f the b e

ginnings O f human li fe o n earth and with j agged
edges extends along the full sweep of the Changing
C HAPTE R I I
EA R L I E S T S O C I A L T H O U G HT
Primitive people were inquisitive They thought .
about what happened and they sought explana

tions Their attention was centered o n the tangible
.
p henomena O f li fe Thei r imagination worked o u t

.
fantastic and superstitious interpretations They .
reasoned about the daily occurrences O f li fe in co n

crete graphic and personal terms
, ,
.
Primitive people everywhere apparently sensed , ,
in a piecemeal and microscopic way the meaning

O f social relationships A rcheological records dis
.
close crude and simple but nevertheless genuine

,
social implications Early mythologies recognize

.
the importance o f social bonds O ut O f the dim .
dawn O f tribal li fe there appeared a rough hewn -
sense o f social property The proverbs o f primi .
tive people include implications i f no t definite state ,
ments O f social responsibility

, .
Primitive people lived simple group lives I f the .
paternal relationship was not always known o r

recognized the maternal relationship functioned
,
f o r at least a few years The loose family ties har

.
bo red a degree O f social responsibility Wherever .
ancestor worship developed the family group as ,

:
E ARLI E S T SOCIAL TH OUG HT 21
sumed large proportions and mani fested strong

social characteristics The clan o r ge ns betokened
.
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social fealty.
C ommunal property testi fied t o communal think

ing Th e exi stence O f common hunting grounds
.
and tribal flocks was indicative O f folk thought .
G roup dances feasts building enterprises celebra

, , ,
tions delineated the social spirit Warfare pro .
d u ce d bursts o f tribal loyalty A n examination o f

.
the folkways reveals indistinct but incipi ent notions

’
O f soci etal welfare S u ch a treati se as S umner s
w
.
F o lk ays chronicles a vast amount O f elemental

folk thinking .
F ol k thinking permeated p rimitive religions The .
earliest forms o f religion presupposed societies O f

spirits o r gods The conduct of the individual was
.
regula t ed by his ideas concerning t h e ways in which

he had pleased or O fi e nd e d the spirits o r gods A n
‘
.
infant was born into a society peopled with h uman

and spirit beings The latter were O ften more
.
numerous than the former ; they frequently were

mo r e feared ; and hence were more powerful The .
living people th e departed spirits and the gods in a

, ,
hierarchal order constituted an e ff ective society f o r

th e exercise o f many vigorous forms O f social
control.
I f pestilence came it was because the gods had

,
been o f f ended by some human being A s a result .
O f the O f f ense o f o ne individual the whole tribe ,
was considered t o be liable to puni shment Co ns e .

quently t he tribe in turn would punish th e O f fend
,
ing member and through the use O f force and fear

would exert a tremendous power over the conduct
and thought O f individuals .
Primitive people were dominated by custom .
They were subj ect to the autocracy of the past .
They were hopelessly caught between ancestral

ascendance and current fears They threaded their .
way mentally through tantalizingly uncertain and

, ,
narrow apertures They learned th e meaning O f

.
obedience but Obedi ence t o a harsh and rigorous

,
past and a fickle and di sconcerting future L eader .
ship was drastic and capricious ; followership was

frantic and tremulous .
S o me O f the incipient social concepts o f primi

tive peoples have been preserved in the form O f
proverbs maxims fables and myths Many o f the
, , , .
subtler social relationships O f li fe were recognized

by early man Hi s limited thinking dri fted into
.
simple formulae His vocabulary was scanty ; his

.
ideas were few He spoke in conventional sayings

. .
“ ”
Primitive man spoke in proverbs .
Many f o lk t h o u gh t s or primitive conceptions of

,
social Obligations have been preserved Th e early

, .
proverbs O f man reveal the beginnings O f social

thought Equally valuable and similar materials
.
are found in the sayings o f the tribes which today

are in a state O f arrested development A few illus .
t ra t io ns o f embryonic social thought will be given

1
here .
The first examples will be selected from the folk

th oughts o f the A fricans o f the Guinea C oast The .
proverb A shes fly back in the face O f him who

,
throws them recognizes that evil deeds return upon

,
t h e doer or as moderns declare C urses come home

, ,
to roost I n the saying C owries are men primi

.
, ,
tive man roughly but succinctly stated the theory

o f the economic determination O f human history It .
i s cowries o r money which molds human thought

, , ,
determines human evaluations and attitudes gives ,
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social power and makes the man A n age long -
w
, .
conception indicative O f a lo
, sense O f social
feeling but possessing great force in society is
, ,
revealed in the dictum F ull b elly child says to,

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“
hungry belly child Keep good c h eer
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,
Through .
o u t human history the fortunate glutton has always

,
recommended patience and tranquility t o the u nf o r

f unate hard working brother
,
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A n eminent A meri .
can financi er O f the multi millionaire class ex -
pressed pity f o r telephone girls who undergo har d

labor but declared that thei r harsh conditions were
,
what the good L ord h ad made f o r them But how .
far has this well groomed citizen O f o u r century

-
“ ”
advanced beyond the full belly social philosophy -
O f savage man ?
I n th e O bservation A fool O f I ka and an idiot

,
of I luka meet toge ther to make friends the A fri ,
ca n has noted that friends are persons o f similar
types of similar minds o f s imila r p re j u dice s and

, ,
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“ ”
that birds O f a feather flock together Whether .
24 H I S T OR Y OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
conscious o r unconscious association occurs amon g
,
persons O f a kind among fools O f I ka and idiots

,
O f I luka .
R omantic love evidently has always been fickle

, , ,
“
r the A frican has discovered that quick loving
w
a oman means quick no t loving a woman ”
If .
this naive but shrewd re flection concerning love

making were taken at its real worth at the present
time it would be crystalliz ed into a federal mar
,
ria ge law requiring that a license to marry should
be O btained at least fi fteen o r thirty days before

the marriage could be celebrated .
A rather keen sense O f social inj ustice i s e x

“
pressed in the monologu e : The ground pig said —
‘
I do not feel so angry with the man who killed me
as with the man who dashed me on the ground
’
afterward . Here the injustice o f stri k ing an in
dividual when he i s down is depicted Even primi .
tive man has a sense O f sympathy f o r the defeated

and helpless .
“
Th ree elders cannot all fail to pronounce th e
word e k a la ( antelope ) o ne may say e k i t li t ; another
'
’ ’
e lenli t ; but the third will say e k a la
(
,
which is co r
rect ) I n other words several h eads are better

,
than o ne ; o r in a multitude o f counsellors there i s

,
safety I t was thi s simple social precept which a

.
highly individualistic man like R oosevelt used f re

q u e nt lv t o the advantage of himsel f and the nation .
When a perplexing problem would confront Presi

den t R oosevelt he was wont to invite to the White
,
“
E A R L I E S T S OCIA L TH OUG HT 25
House persons whose beliefs were contrary to h is

ow n in order to secure thei r opinions H e acted .
independently but a fter taking counsel with several

,
“
elders .
I n Think ing B la ck Daniel C rawford h as pre

,
’
sented phases o f the colored man s philosophy .
2
While much i s individual more i s social philosophy , .
C ustom imitation prevails The social philosoph y .
o f the A frican N egro is summarized in th e rule :
F ollow your leader S ocial precedent no t principle

.
, ,
is the guide t o conduct I f you are a follower fol

w
,
.
lo patiently ; if you are a leader lead drastically , .
“
I f thou art an anvil be pati ent but i f thou
,
”
art a hammer strike h ard , .
T h e A frican understands th e social psych ology

o f language He watches the eyes more carefully
.
tha n the voice To him the human eye speaks all

.
lan gu ages under the sun Mr C rawford says that . .
“
the wary eye O f the A frican can easily fi sh news
o u t of th e t w
o deep liquid pools O f your eye balls
” -
.
I f yo u r eye says o ne thing and your tongu e an

“
other then the A frican will plump f o r the verdict
,
”
O f th e eye
T h e aphorism There i s n
.
o poc k et in a shroud
, ,
warns the individual against the possibility O f tak

ing his material goods into the next world T o .
share with other persons i s rated a high er ac t th an

to store from o th ers He is richest who s hares .
most A mong the A fricans with whom Mr C raw

. .
ford work ed the word f o r c r iminal was not applied

,
to the person who had stolen property o r who had
taken li fe but to the o ne h o eats alone
,
“
w
The .
high crime and mi sdemeanor O f the town is to dine

“
alone the criminal above other criminals i s Mr .
”
Eat A lone
-
He who refuses to share his food
.
with those who are less fortunate than himsel f i s

an arch devil S u ch a vice is common among
-
.
beasts ; it is beneath the dignity of man according —
to the A frican When several pri mitives were

.
taken to L ondon and shown the wealthy and th e

poor sections O f that city t ne y were dumbfounded
w
.
,
They were utterly unable t o understand h o any

persons with the slightest spark O f human nature
in them coul d endure to live to themselves in wealth
when in the same city there were the wretched and
prostrated multitudes O f Whitechapel and the other
cheerless slums .
“ ’
What baby lion ever trembled at his father s
”
roaring ? A few mornings a go I heard an angry ,
parent yelling at his s o n but the disobedient child

w
,
kept o n in his o n way I wondered how far thi s .
father had advanced in parental influence and dis

c ip line beyond the stage repres ented by the A frican
seer who drew his social images from a lion f re -
“
q u e n t e d environment I f a tree h as grown up
.
crooked it is because no o ne straightened it when

,
young . Thi s statement postulates social responsi

b ilit y for j uvenile delinquency and even f o r adult
crime The underlying principle i s the same as
.
that in the H e braic inj unction : Train up a child

temptation is a subtle element that ultimately may
destroy even persons who are supposedly t e mp t a ~
tion proof I n the proverb Boastfulness drives

-
.
,
away wisdom the F ilipino has pointed o u t that the

,
desire to make a strong impression upon associates

hinders intellectual progress The chief danger O f
.
luxury is stated in the saying : He who i s raised

in ease i s usually destitute The leading result of
,
.
being financially fortunate is summarized thus

Easy earning means quick spending The evils o f .
hypercriticism are bluntly phrased : The fault

find e r has the biggest faults The law o f social .
compensation is stated as follows : Y o u laugh to

day ; I laugh tomorrow The organic natu r e of
.
society is implied in the trui sm : The pain o f a

finger is the su ff ering o f the whol e body The .
need for independent thinking i s urged in the d e cla ~
ration : Whoever believes everything said has no

w
,
mind o f his o n O n th e other hand the e go

.
,
centric mind receives solemn warning in the dic

w
tum : He h o despises counsel i s o n the way to
mis fortune The value o f a social spirit i s p ro
.
claimed as follows : Kindness i s a great capital ;

and again : Good deeds are more precious than
gold o r silver A gentle hint o f social importance
.
is given in the formula : Kindness is with kindness

to be paid no t with gold o r silver I n these and
, .
related proverbs the earliest social thought O f the

F ilipino mind i s indicated
w
.
L et us no examine a few ancient Japanese

axioms ( 1 ) The mouth o f the mas s melts gold

. .
This proverb r efers to the fundamenta l force o f

public opinion ( 2 ) The world is like a looking
.
glass ; i f you smile others also smile H ere i s de , .
p ic t e d the elemental character of unconscious imi

t a t io n ( )
3. What the ruler wants the ruled also ,
wants I n other words what the upper C lasses de

.
,
sire th e lower classes long f o r ; o r as Tarde has

, ,
“ ”
said : The superior are imitated by the inferior .
4
( ) Three men get together and have knowledge
equivalent to that o f Monj u ( a famous Buddhist
thinker ) The A frican F ilipino and English
.
, ,
e quivalents of thi s adage have already been given .
A ll races apparently have early observed the

, ,
safety which comes from taking counsel The .
net o f Heaven i s rough but will never miss o ne ,
victim Ou r equivalent of Gra e co L atin origin is

.
,
-
,
The mills o f the gods grind slowly bu t exceedingly

w
,
small Evil brings its o n rewards sooner or later

. .
The law o f retribution cannot be overcome even ,
by social manipulations ( 6 ) I f o ne d o g barks a .
falsehood ten thousand others spread it as a truth

,
.
I n these words gossip i s condemned and th e hu

, ,
manity wide t endency o f hearsay evi dence to gai n

-
social force i s pictured 7

( ) The tongue is but .
three inches long bu t it can kill a man six feet ,
high A gain the vicious nature o f gossip i s shown

.
,
.
Further the severest puni shment is no t always

,
physical ; it may come from the human tongue .
( )
8 A man t akes a drink ; then the drink takes the
30 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH O U G HT
man I n this dramatic description the drinking of
.
,
intoxicating liquors i s effectively indicted ( 9 ) A p .
p lau s e is the root of abuse Even the Japanese

.
have recogniz ed the force o f opinion in influencin g

the individual and o f favorable opinion in unduly
,
expanding the ego A unique characteristic o f

.
many Japanese proverbs is the fundamental and

deep moving knowledge O f social psychology which
-
they show Judged by their proverbs the Japanese

.
,
possess an unusual understanding o f human nature .
Bulgarian proverbs disclose social thought The .
”
full belly philosophy of the A frican or the pig
-
,
trough philosophy that has been analyz ed by T .
N C arver has its Bulgarian counterpart : The

.
,
satiated man cannot believe the hungry man The .
S outh S lavs are noted for their weddings which

often continue for three days When these festivi .
ties are over the bride enters upon a more o r less

,
monotonous round of bearing and rearing children .
These social conditions are aptly described

Du m l D u m ! f o r th ree d a ys
Oh d e a r ! Oh d e a r ! f o r all d a ys .
Patience is enj oined in the Bulgarian adage

Endure O horse until the time of green grass
, , .
Hope that rises in the heart of man is paid homely

but genuine tribute in the rural S lavic proverb °
The hungry hen dreams o f millet .
The Danes have many sayings which emphasize

social dependence The individual l s I nstr ucted
.
A ct so in th e valley that yo u need no t fear those

that s t and o n the hill The shrewd man is socially
.
dangerous for : C unning has little honor G ossip

, .
i s shown as a swi ft messenger in the axiom : A

’
man s character reaches town before his person .
The most serious result o f cheating others i s the

e ff ect upon the C heater or : He is most cheated
,
'
who cheats himself The common character of sin

. .
i s recognized in the Danish proverb : He must be

pure Wh o would blame another C ustom i s a p o . w
e rf u l agency o f control The Danes command
.
F ollow the customs o r fly the country

, .
The Portu gu ese have a social saying to the e f fect

H e b uys very dear who begs The unscienti fic na
.
ture O f love is indicated in the Portuguese declara

tion : L o v e has no law The frequent antithesis
.
between money lending and friend making i s suc

cinct ly phrased : Money lent an enemy made
, .
A few A rabian proverbs state social ideas The .
laws of human association and imitation can be

found in the follow i ng axiom : A wise man asso
cia t ing with the vicious becomes an idiot ; a dog
w
traveling ith good men becomes a rational being .
The strength which comes from unity is forcibly

phrased : Three i f they unite against a town will
ruin it The trans forming power O f love is recog
.
ni z e d : L o v e can make any place agreeable An .
idealistic social standard is set f o r the individual in

the aphorism : I t is more noble t o pardon than t o
punish O n the other hand mercy may be mis
.
,
placed : Mercy to the criminal may be cru e lty t o
the people The individual mus t beware o f being
.
an ingrate ; he must not permit h is selfis h desires

t o crush o u t the spirit o f gratitude : A tree th at
a f f ords thee shade do no t order it cut down The
, .
omnipresence of envy i s understood : Envy assails

the noblest ; the winds howl around the highest
peaks The anti social tendency o f a vicious habit
.
-
i s well described : A hand accustomed to take i s

far from giving Perhaps the Malthusian advocate
.
will find solace in the simple dictum : I f the sailors

become t o o numerous the boat will sink H e who
, .
pleases everybody has done so at th e expense o f his

w n character o r as the A rabs say : H e deserves
w
o ,
’
no man s good will of whom all men spea k ell .
F rom C eylon comes the philanthropic request

When yo u eat thin k o f the poor The C ingalese
, .
however recogniz e the importance o f maintaining

,
the scienti fic at t itude in charity f o r they have a

m
,
saying : H e who gives alms ust do it with dis

cretion The blighting influence o f wealth is stated
w
.
in the C ingalese axiom : A covetous man h as t o

so u rces of iniquity how to amass money and h o
—
,
w
to use it .
A mong Mexican proverbs social ideas are not

,
missing The reader will catch the social s ignifi

.
cance o f the following : ( 1 ) A howling cat i s not

a good hunter ; ( 2 ) Everybody can climb up the
limbs o f the fallen tree ; ( 3 ) A rich widow cries
with o ne eye and rings th e wedding bells with the
E ARLI E S T SOC IAL TH OUG HT 33
other ; ( 4 ) The tongue slow the eyes quick ; ( 5 )

,
F rom January t o January the bankers have all the

money .
The illustrations which have been given from

several racial sources will su f fice to show the nature
o f the earliest social thought of primitive peoples .
By way o f comparison a few social proverbs which

,
are common among English S cotch F rench and

, , ,
German speaking peoples and which are of various

,
origins will be given I t will be unnecessary to

, .
comment upon the social thought which i s stated o r

implied in these p r overbs .
That is not lost which a friend gets .
’
The shortest road i s where the company s good .
A man is known by the company he keeps .
D O unto others as you would have others do to

you
w
.
A man who would have fri ends mus t S ho him

self fri endly .
O ne bad example spoils many precepts .
Honesty is the best policy .
O ne good turn deserves another .
Birds o f a feather flock t ogether .
A s th e twig is bent the tree is inclined

w
.
,
’
People h o live in glass h ouses mustn t th row
stones .
Bare is th e gi ft without th e giver .
What i s no t good f o r the swarm is not good f o r

the bee .
He laughs best who la ughs last .
To make a happy couple the husband must be

,
‘
deaf and the wi fe blind .
C harity gives itsel f rich ; covetousness hoards

itself poor .
The nature o f the primitive social thought that

has been preserved through proverbs and sayings
j usti fies the following observations ( 1 ) Primitive .
social thought was exceedingly simple crude and , ,
undeveloped ( 2 ) I t was uncorrelated and u nsys

.
t e ma t ic
.
( )
3 A classification o f the total number
o f known proverbs O f any primitive people into in
dividual and social types shows that not more than

ten per cent are social Primitive thinking was
.
done in terms o f the welfare o f t he individual him

self The social thought was commonly o f indi
.
v id u alis t ic origin A social idea was originally not

w
.
suggested f o r its o n sake o r disinterestedly but ,
f o r the reason that its observance would enable in

d ivid u a ls t o live together more harmoniously and
prosperously ( 4 ) S ocial proverbs employ figures
.
o f speech . S imiles from nature are frequent ; phys

ical analogies are no t uncommon Many o f these .
figures disclose a rural o r bucolic mind ( 5 ) Fre .
quently the social proverbs o f the various races

,
pertain t o family and community relationships .
The sense o f social responsibility does no t penetrate

as a rule beyond the small group The responsi .
bility O f group t o group i s rarely expressed o r im

C HAPT ER I I I
THE SO C I AL T H O UG H T O F A N C I E N T CI V I LI Z A T I O N s
I n this chapter the discussion o f earliest social

thought will be presented from the standpoint o f
the ancient civilizations o f Egypt Babylonia and ,
A ssyria I ndia C hina and Persia The evidences

, , ,
.
o f social thought are meagre and inchoate N ever .
t h e le ss there are data whic h cannot be i gnored

,
.
I nferential evidence and proverbial re ferences con

s t it u t e the main portion o f thes e data .
( )1 The ancient Egyptian social order was

bureaucratic and autocratic Th e king was s u .
preme With the rise of the Theban hierarchy

.
,
the priestly class came to power and established a

t h eocratic regime Then military leaders came
.
into prominence and overthrew th e theocracy O f

the priests .
With the historical ri se of E gy pt about 4000 ,
B C the emphasis upon law as the basis o f the

. .
,
social order stands o u t prominently The books of .
laws early acquired sacred significance They were .
reputed t o be O f divine and monarchical origins ;

they provided courts of j ustice ; and they prescribed
punishments f o r o ff enses .
The social ideas are to be gleaned almost entirely

ANCI E N T SOCIAL TH OUG HT 37
f ro m p ro ve rb ial
'
sayings Egyptian scholars refer .
to collections o f these moral precepts as being o f

a practical rather than a systematic philosophical
nature The most frequently mentioned of the
.
Egyptian books of proverbs are the Proverbs o f

Ptah h o t e p and the Prescriptions o f A ni
-
, .
The social order was dominated as a rule by the

king who was supposed to be divine The king
, .
and a relatively small number o f nobles owned the

land The large percentage o f th e people were
.
serfs and slaves Throughout ancient Egyptian .
history the middle class must have been weak and

, ,
small in numbers When the lands passed under .
the control of the temple authorities no change o c

.
curred in the social conditions O f the masses The .
priests shared the authority with their auxiliari es ,
the soldiers The unprivileged classes included the

.
farmers boatmen mechan i cs trades people besides

, , ,
-
,
1
the slaves .
Egyptian li fe was rural C ommerce was unde .
v e lo p e d Higher education was reserved f o r th e

.
very few although it appears th at elementary edu

,
cation was widespread The pri ests often used .
'
their e du ca t l o nal advantages to prey upon and ex

cite the superstitions o f the people thereby ,
stren gthening the social control which they enjoyed .
A n anomalous phase o f the Egyptian mind was

that it s h i fted back and forth from a h edonistic
enj oyment O f the moment to a serious co nt e mp laj
tion o f the future li fe A musemen t s were f ostered ; .
38 H I S T ORY OF S OCIAL TH OUG HT
the drinking of intoxicating liquors was extensive ,
and music was promoted The game of draughts

.
was perhaps the national pastime The people .
were not warriors They employed mercenaries

.
,
who ultimately became socially powerful

m
.
Polyga y was countenanced and practised but ,
only o f course among the wealthy A relatively .
high degree o f freedom was granted the women

among the pri vileged classes They appeared in .
public with their husbands ; they publicly engaged

in religious ceremonies ; and they were gi v en u m
usual property rights A t one time it i s reported
.
that Egyptian women could not only own property ,
but could dispose of it as they wished or could loan ,
money at interest to thei r husbands A t another .
time the following inj unction seems to have been

“
issued : Thou shalt never forget t hy mother and ,
what she has done for th ee that she bore thee and
, ,
nurtured thee in all ways C hildren were e n

.
j oined to obey th e ir parents t o be respectful to

,
their su p eriors and to be reser v ed G rea t ness was

, .
identifi ed with kindness Justice and kindliness

.
2
were urge d upon the l e aders .
’
The belief in the future world claimed a lion s
share o f the attention O f t h e Egyptian A s a re .
sult sculpture flourished I t was beli eved that i f

, .
the human figu r e was copied and the copy pre

served the spirit and th e body o f the de p a r ted per
,
son could be more easily re united Ar ch itecture

-
.
developed but with th e tombs o r pyramids and

,
other monuments as the chie f forms U rban mural .
divisions and forti fied walls are still t o be found

as evidences of Egy ptian social institutions .
I t was taught that in the next world the indi

vidual would be held accountable f o r his deeds in
this li fe This belief acted as a powerful social
.
control ; it involved speci fic social obligations The .
individual must deal openly with his fellowmen .
He must observe the rights o f the weaker members

o f society Fo r example he must no t make false
.
,
charges against a slave to the master O f the slave .
He must show that he has resp ected the social

rights that were invested in property F rom the .
moral and social writings o f the Egyptian scribes ,
it is apparent that in religious matters the indi ,
vidual was moved to give thought t o his duties as

a citizen and as a neighbor .
( )
2 The ancient Babylonian and A ssyrian s o
cial order was similar in many ways to Egyptian
civilization The Babylonian description o f a great

.
deluge resembles the account o f the F lood that i s

given in the O ld Testament and indicates though t
,
about morals and social li fe Both Babylon and.
A ssyria developed a religion which was expressed

in terms of the nation group The boundaries o f
-
.
one with M erodach at the head and o f the other

, ,
with A ssur in supreme control marked the national ,
gr oup divisions Merodach it was believed a c

.
, ,
companied the king in the wars an d fought f o r the

nation He was concerned enti rely according to
.
,
traditions with the we lfare o f Babylonia as a p o p u
,
lation group .
The attitude in Babylonian society toward the

institution o f slavery was distinctly di ff erent from
that in R ome but similar to the Egyptian practices
,
.
The slave was considered in a more social way than

by the R omans He was frequently regarded as
m
.
o ne O f the fa ily ; he could even become a free

“
member o f society S lavery was no bar to his
promotion . Moreover slavery did no t necessarily
,
imprint a social stigma upon th e slave .
The social rights O f women were similar to t h e

Egyptian customs The married woman o f th e
.
ruling classes possessed definite property rights .
S he could use the property that she owned as s h e

saw fit ; she could even bequea th it as she chose .
Her dowry gave her economic independence ; i t was

her absolute property which she could bequeat h by
,
will in any way that she desired .
The earliest well known Babylonian ruler was

-
Hammurapi ( 2 12 4 He i s known best

through his famous book o f laws the C ode o f ,
Hammurapi The C ode bespea k s f o r the author

.
the desire t o rule Babylonian soci e ty j ustly T h er e .
are minute regulations O f private business and of‘
labor conditions which give th e C ode some o f t h e

characteristics of modern mercan t ilistic thought .
The C ode contains perh aps the earliest forms of

labor legislation th at were enacted Hammurapi .
sought through legislation t o de t ermine wages f o r

A N CI E N T SOCIAL TH OUG HT 41
di f f erent classes of labor The C ode prescribed .
severe punishment for anyone who sheltered a run

away slave I n thi s and similar ways property
.
,
rights were protected and human elements sub

ordinated I t was no t until the Deuteronomic C ode
.
was written that the rights of labor received legis

lative recognition .
Hammurapi stood for a paternalistic control o f

society His idea o f j ustice was literally that o f
.
an eye for an eye I f a man has caused the loss

.
’
o f a patrician s eye hi s eye shall o ne cause to be
,
”3
lost. Justice moreover was subj ect t o th e law
, ,
o f social gradation A n O ff ense against a man o f

.
“
lower rank might be atoned by paying money If .
a man has caused a poor man to lose his eye h e ,

” 4
shall pay o ne mina of silver A dditional light i s
.
thrown on the concept O f j ustice by other passages

“
from the C ode especially by this o ne
,
I f a builder
has built a house for a man and has no t made strong
his work and the h ouse he has built has fallen
, ,
and he has caused the dea t h o f t h e owner of the

” 5
house that builder shall be put to death
, .
The intellectual progress and the inventions o f

the Babylonians are indicative O f social status The .
development along arti stic lines particularly in ,
architecture and sculpture must h ave exerted an ,
indirect but important social influence S i gnificant .
advances in surgery had been made preceding the

reign O f Hammurapi I n medicine however the.
, ,
demonic theory o f the causes o f disease enslaved

the people .
The A ssyrians who lived to the north of the

,
Babylonians were less social in type They were

,
.
little concerned about the future li fe ; th eir religion

was relatively undeveloped The A ssyrian artists .
gave their attention chiefly t o the king the court , ,
and t o war They reproduced in arti stic form the

.
king and the soldier but ignored the li fe and cus

,
toms o f the people .
( )
3 When we turn to early East I ndian rec
ords we find a higher development of social ideals
,
than among any peoples which have thus far been

considered I n the V edic documents there is co n
.
s id e rab le evidence o f communal li fe and of a r e
markable degree o f social spirit and broth erliness .
I n the East I ndian account o f a D eluge similar to —
the Deluge that i s described in G enesi s there i s a —
conce p tion o f punishment that falls upon the group

because o f the sins o f individuals S acri fice among .
,
t h e V edic believers had acquired a positi v e social

,
function I t was considered as a social act in

.
,
which the worshipper and the god took part The .
food strengthened the go d and the spiritual contact

strengthened the worshiper Hence mu tual sym .
pathy was generated .
With the rise o f Brahmanism the caste system ,
developed I t divided soci ety I t gave structure

. .
t o the concept t h at some people are naturally and -
a rt ificially superior to other people I n the laws

—
.
o f Manu several social concepts are broached

, The .
N oble Truths in pagan I ndia .
“
A mong the ten commandments of Buddha ,
eight represent social ideas and obligations :

1
( ) N o t t o kill any living being .
2
( ) N o t to take that which is not given ( not to
steal ) .
( )
3 T O refrain from adultery .
( )
4 T o speak no untruth ( n o t to lie t o other
people ) .
5
( ) To abstain from intoxicating liquors .
6
( ) N o t to slander .
( 7 N o t to covet.
N o t to be angry .
Buddha taught that hatred is t o be repaid by

love that li fe is to be filled with kindness and com
,
passion that the widest toleration i s to be practised

,
.
The teachings of Buddha engendered a delicate

social consciousness regarding the relation o f the
individual t o hi s fellows The precepts were strong
.
enough t o break down rigid class barriers The .
underlying conception was broadly human .
A dditional light i s thrown o n the social though t

o f Buddha by the following sayings which are cred
it e d t o him
’
Pity and sympathy i s the Buddha s mind
w
.
Pity to his parents is the S upreme L a .
Honesty is the Paradise o f the Bodhisattva

w
.
O my Disciples flee from fornication know h o

w
, ,
to be content with your o n wi fe and do no t even ,
for a single m oment lust after another woman .

A state without a ruler is like a body without a

head ; it cannot exis t very long .
The king looks upon his subj ects with a heart of

mercy as i f they were hi s children ; and th e people
,
regard the king as their father .
I f th ere is no Buddha in the world be good t o ,

’
your parents ; for to be good to one s parents is to
minister unto Buddha .
N ursing a sick man is the great field where the

righteous tree O f mind grows .
Even a strong man cannot li ft himself .
Ten p eople have ten colors ( opinions ) .
The paint which is painted by ten fingers ( men )

i s accurate ( I n the multitude o f counsellors there
.
is safety ) .
The sayings of Buddha may be summed up in

the statement that like many o f the teach i ngs o f
,
Jesus they accent the gentle virtues and the passive

,
traits of a people bearing a yoke against which th ey

are powerless t o revolt the virtues of obedience
, ,
respect t o those in authority long su f f ering p a ,

-
,
t ie nce even resignation

, .
( )
4 The social thought of early C hina ca n best
be gleaned from the writings o f C onfucius This .
scholar was not a reformer o r a religious leader ,
but prim arily a conserver He was interested in .
civil and political a ff airs His books reflect not his

.
own ideas for his originality was no t great but

, ,
the concepts which had been worked o u t before his

time I n the Li Ki o r R ecord o f R ites there are
.
, ,
many social and domestic precepts I n a way the .
”
Li Ki ,
“
the Ch iname n s manual of conduct is a
’
,
treati se o n social as well as individual ethics .
A round the family group Chinese social ideas re,
volved O n the death o f hi s mother C onfucius

.
, ,
f o r example went into seclusion for twenty seven

,
-
mon ths O n sacri ficial occasions the living mem

.
bers and the departed spirits o f the household were

accustomed t o gath er in o ne filial communal group .
The welfare of the individual was completely sub

ordinated to the interests o f the family group o f
spirits.
The C hinese worship o r honor their ancestors

, , .
The worship o f the past has paralyz ed new thought .
C ustom imitation has ruled and tradition has been

reverenced .
Marriage receives special attention but the ar ,
“ ”
rangements are made by parents o r go betweens -
.
S ocially the sexes d o no t intermingl e The par

, .
ents exercise complete control over the children ;

the mother bears a considerable portion of the bur
dens o f parental discipline F ilial piety is the ca r
.
dinal virtue A lthough polygamy i s d isco u nt e

.
na nce d concubinage is permitted ; The sexes dress

,
very much alike except in headdress and footgear

, .
The style o f wearing apparel i s no t only simple and

“
aesthetic but it minimizes the vi sible distinctions
,
”
O f sex.
C onfucius o r Kung f u t s z e believed in t h e e ffi

,
- -
,
cacy o f setting good examples I mitation woul d .

then accomplish the desired results By these meth .
o ds, C onfucius expected that soci ety would be im

proved F undamental principles o f a stable social
.
order more than o f social progress were in the

, ,
mind of C onfucius He conceived o f the universe

.
as a perfect order L ikewise he thought O f the

.
,
state as a perfect social order C onfucius urged .
that the individual strive for perfection A ccord .
ing t o the C onfucian doctrine o f the S uperior Man

w
,
the individual should master his o n passions and

desires substituting an enj oyment o f music cere
, ,
mony and o f friendship f o r the enj oyment that

, ,
comes from the exercise o f the bodily passions .
He should seek salvation through t h e study o f

nature and of things Moral character and intel
.
lige nce i f accompanied by bravery will produce the

highest type o f personality .
I n C hinese social thought the family and state

were early recognized as the two leading ins t it u
tions in society I n the civil organization it is
.
worth while to note the h ie n o r city district The

, .
“
hie n has been pronounced the real unit of C hinese
“
corporate li fe and the hie n magistrate the heart ,
”
and soul o f all o f ficial li fe S ince this magistrate
.
keeps closely in touch with the masses he i s called ,
“ ”
by the people the father and mother O f ficer The .
hie n contains some O f the germ ideas O f d e mo c

racy ; it emphasizes local self government -
.
The ancient laws were elaborate giving an u n ,
usual degree O f power to the j udges A lthough .

customs ruled the j udges often possessed a liberal
,
mar gi n O f freedom in determining the nature o f

punishments C ontrary to Western procedure the
.
,
C hinese consider an accu s e d man as guilty until

‘
proved otherwise Excessive corporate punishment

.
6
i s deplored C onfucius obj ected to the mainte
.
na nce o f a government by t h e use o f fear and of

coercive measures H e predicted that capital pun
.
is h me nt ( even ina land ruled by custom ) would be

abolished in a hundred years .
The ideas o f peace and harmonious social rela

t io ns hip s have long held sway in C hina Militarism .
has been scorned and war held in contempt I t i s

, .
ironical that as C hina begins to function as a world

power in contact with Western and C hristian na
tions she is compelled to find her C hie f defense in
,
an unciviliz ed and u nCh ris t ian militarism .
S ympathy is a fundamental concept among the

C hinese U nfortunately it has been instrumental
.
,
in producing a highly specialized and profess i onal

iz e d class o f beggars I ndustry and patience are
.
characteristic social virtues L ao tse the founder .

-
,
of Taoism and a contemporary O f C onfucius ,
taught the social precept : R ecompense inj ury with

kindness C onfucius who di sagreed taught that
.
, ,
kindness should be paid with kindness and in ,
jury with inj ury This conception led C onfucius

.
t o formulate his golden rule O f human conduct

D o no t do to others what yo u would no t have others
do t o yo u .
ANC I E N T SOCIAL TH OUG HT 49
O bedience authority has been f o r centuries a

to
cardinal social p r inciple o f the C hinese I t was .
enunciated by C onfucius who spoke as a re p re

,
s e nt a t ive o f the ruling classes I n stressing obedi

.
ence to temporal authori t ies and in shunning the

gods C onfucius has been accused of fostering a
,
materialistic philosophy Thi s charge i s partly o f f

.
'
set by his ethical teachings C onfucius was a h u

.
manit a rian rather t han a materialist ; he was a

utilitarian rather than an idealist I n these attitudes
w
.
he reflects not his o n opinions so much as the

thought of the generations which preceded him
w
.
Mencius h o lived shortly after C onfucius was

, ,
an environmentalist in the sense that he believed

’
that external evil influences have corrupted man s
original good nature O n the other hand M en ci us
.
,
urged progress through regeneration o f the heart .
Mencius was a more thoroughgoing humanist t han

C onfucius f o r he made the happiness o f the people
,
the supreme goal f o r th e individual He co n .
demmed war and warriors alike and declared that

generals are criminals He asser t ed that it i s
.
wrong to conquer a territory against the will O f the

people o f that territory .
A dditional sidelights upon early C hinese social

thought are a ff orded by the following social prov
erbs o f ancient Chinese origin
I f a ca t cries after ea ting the mouse this is false
,
sympathy .
F ollow good learn good ; follow beggar learn to

, ,
50 H I S T OR Y OF SOC IAL TH OUG H T
be g .
G entlemen use heart ; lesser men use strength .
N ew clothes but O ld friends are good .
Within th e four seas all are brothers

w
.
I f t o people were 1000 miles apart and be like

minded they will come together ; i f they sit opposite
,
o ne another and are no t like minded there will be

-
no mutual acquaintance .
S peak language fitting to station of man yo u

meet .
A ll under heaven is o ne home .
A lthough a man i s away from home his heart is ,
there .
The big fish eat the little ones the little ones eat ,
the shrimps and the shrimp s are forced to eat mud

,
( applied t o the classes o f soci ety who pay taxes ) .
He who praises me o n all occasions is a fool who

w
despises me or a knave h o wish es to cheat me .
Govern thysel f and yo u will be able t o govern

,
the world .
The hearts o f the people are the only legitimate

foundations o f an empire .
By nature all men are alike ; but by education ,
widely di ff erent .
Fo r the sake O f o ne good action a hundred evil ,
ones should be forgotten .
’
T O forget one s ancestors i s to be a brook with
o u t a source a tree without a root
, .
R ogues di ff er little ; each began fi rst as a di s

obedient s o n .
o ne clo s e co mp e t it o r the ancient Hebrews
'
, .
(5) The Persians who after their defeat by

,
A lexander the G reat in 3 3 1 B C have been cred . .
it e d with having turned over the torch O f civiliza

tion to the G reeks made a contribution to social
’
thought similar to that of th e other ancient peoples .
U nder Cyrus the G reat Darius and X erxes a sys , ,
tem of state education was fostered which was de

signed chiefly to train soldiers I t did not stress .
social and intellectual development although it ex ,
is t e d in a land that produced the Ma gi The indi .
v id u als who were no t in the army received slight
educational benefits .
I t i s in the teachings o f Zoroas t er O f the six

t e e nt h century B C that w e fi rst find the main
. .
trend O f Persian social thought The Zend A vesta .

,
the document from which Z o ro as t e ris m and the

modern Parsee religion have evolved emphasizes ,
the principle o f kindliness in all important human

relationships . S anitation business honesty and , ,
chastity in family relationships are taugh t .
The ancient Hebrews and the G reeks each made

such large contributions t o social thought that sepa
r ate chapters will be devoted to these peo ples I n .
.
a summary O f the social thought O f the Egyptians ,
Babylonians and A ssyrians East I ndians C hinese , , ,
and Persians it may be said that there is a rather

,
uni form emphasis upon th e elemental vi rtues par ,

’
t icu la rly upon kindliness While the individual s.
salvation is given prominence the individual l s ,

urged t o be socially considerate and t o cultivate

sympathetic relationships with the gods and with
hi s fellow human beings.
C HAPTE R I V
THE SO C I AL T H O UG H T O F T HE HEB RE w
s
A nci ent Egyptian Babylonian and A ssyrian

, ,
East I ndian C hinese and Persian records disclose

, ,
a set o f elemental and yet more or less passive s o

cial backgrounds against which t h e social ideals o f
the Hebrew prophets shine forth li k e s t ars of the

fi rst ma gnitude The Pentateuch and the wr i tings
.
o f the Hebrew wise men are rich in gleams o f a
social spirit while the Hebrew prop h ets notably

, , ,
A mos Hosea I saiah and Jeremiah utte r ed flam

, , , ,
ing indictments o f social evils .
Th e Hebrews stood head and shoulders above

thei r contemporaries in social thinkin g Th ey left .
a series o f historical documents covering several

,
centuries and revealing a speci fic evolution in social

concepts They expressed the fundamentals from
.
which Christian social though t developed and from ,
which much o f the ethical and social thinking

o f Western civilization o n i t s practical side has
evolved .
T h e social th ought o f th e Heb r ews was born o f

group suffering Through the mists o f the earli es t
.
Hebrew traditions we discern that confl i c t s o c

curred in the Euphrates V alley which sent Abra
HEB R EW SOC IAL TH OUG HT
.
55
ham o u t o n hi s perilous j ourney toward unknown

and ho s t ile C anaan The gaunt spectre famine.
, ,
brought distress t o the household o f the domestic

loving A braham and drove him to Egypt where he
soj ourned f o r a time A bram exalted fa t h er or.
, ,
A braham father o f a mu lt u d e became the founder

, ,
in a s ense o f three world religions f o r to him ,
Judaism C hri stianity and Mohammedanism trace

, ,
their origins .
Throughout the years o f migration exile and , ,
su f fering A braham maintained h is religious faith

,
and belief By means o f h i s simple religion h e was

.
able t o in t e rpret sanely the troubles and conflic t s of

li fe O ut o f su ff ering interpreted reli gio u sly
.
,
Abraham developed a r emarkably well balanced and -
social personality F rom this beginning H ebrew

.
,
social thought evolved U ltimately I srael crea t ed

w
.
,
social concepts which has o n f o r her the dis t inc

“
tion O f being th e leading social teacher o f the
” 1
h uman race .
A s a social entity the Hebrews were th e result o f

a ti tanic social struggle they aro se o u t o f an in
’
du s t rial crisis The scene was laid in Egypt The

. .
descendants o f Jacob were working long hours with

little pay as slaves and under harsh social condi
, ,
tions O ne o f their number more favored th an th e

.
,
rest by h eredity and environmen t saw a H ebrew ,
“ ”
workman being beaten by an Egyptian boss The .
favored o ne Moses felt the surging passions of

, ,
social injustice ri sing within his breast and he —

S6 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
slew the boss Mose s thereby became the founder
.
’
of the world s labor movement By _an act O f v io .
lence in the impassioned days o f youth Moses b e ,
“ ”
came a social agitator ; by years of patient service
O f hi s people in the name o f J e h o v o h he became ,
’
one of the world s greatest social seers .
“
R ameses I I was an unprincipled captain o f in
”
d u s t ry He was haughty hard hearted and with
.
,
-
,
o ut social conscience M o ses was sympathetic

.
,
socially sensitive and keenly religious R ameses I I

,
.
was a leading representative o f an ancient a ris t o c

racy ; Moses was the first great exponent o f an in
cip ie nt democracy and the fi rst man in history
,
with a well developed social consciousness

-
.
A ccording to the Exodus record Moses as the ,
murderer o f an Egyptian boss felt no qualms of ,
conscience but he did fear the mighty Pharaoh A t

, .
that time in history it was a minor matter to kill

a slave ; but to have killed a boss was vastly di ff er
ent The slave represented weakness ; the boss was
.
the o f ficial representative o f political and financial

power C onsequently Moses fled the country I n
.
,
.
Egypt he was helpless and in danger of losing h is

,
li fe He fled t o Midian
. .
I n Midian Moses pondered over the economic

,
and social inj ustices to w h ic h hi s people were being

subj ected He communed with Go d from w h om he
.
,
received the motive power to correc t a gigantic

social wrong His vision o f Jehovah gave him t he
.
conviction that Jeh ovah is a G od o f justice and

HEB R EW SOCIAL TH OUG HT 57
mercy who understands social and industrial evils

and sympathizes with the socially defeated classes .
Moses reports this remarkable social message from

Jehovah °
“
I have surely seen the a f fliction o f my people
that are in Egypt and have heard their cry o f
,
anguish because o f thei r taskmasters for I know ,
their sorrows and I am come down t o delive r them

,
”
o u t of the power o f the Egyptians
2
.
I n oth er words against the union o f great wealth

,
and political power in the hands of an unj ust man ,

“
Go d revolted and Go d said to Moses
, R escue t his
”
I sraelitish people from the heels o f autocracy
w
.
“
Moses conceived o f J ehovah as a Go d h o i s full
of sympathy f o r the a fflicted and dependent and
ever eager t o c h ampion their cause against cr uel
’
oppression . Moses conception of Jehovah as a
socially spirited G od i s unique for that day in
human history Go d is described as a lover Of
.
justice and even a love r o f mank ind When God .
speaks it i s usually in t erms o f democracy The

,
.
first social teachings o f the O ld Testament co ns id ,
ered chronologically are those against social and

,
industrial oppression .
A momentous conflict ensued F ired by t he

.
promises and presence and power o f Jehovah ,
Moses j ourneyed back t o Egyp t He proceeded t o

.
organize the fi rst labor stri k e known t o mankind .
Thereupon the angry P h araoh commanded the

,
workers to mak e brick without straw A nd when .

the workers cried o u t against the impositions and
“
burdens the agents O f the fi rst great captains o f
,
industry taunted the workers and cried at them :

“
Y e are idle ye are idle ,
”
But Go d and Moses o n
. w
against the hosts of autocracy and plutocracy The .
workers were freed .
O ut of thes e struggles the Hebrew nation took

form G roup loyalty o r patriotism became a con
.
, ,
scious Hebrew concept The idea o f kinship was .
supplemented by an appreciation o f the meaning o f

national li fe F urthermore a sense o f social and
.
,
economic justice received a clear cu t and positive -
human expression and divine approval Fo r t h e .
fi rst time the social problem was defined .
The major social chord which the Hebrew

prophets kept vibrating was j ustice S ome o f the .
recurring interpretations o f th e needs o f th e h our

were : L et justice roll down like waters ; R ulers
shall govern in justice ; Hear I pray you ye heads , ,
o f I srael i s it not f o r yo u to k now j ustice

,
?
“
The Hebrew word f o r the English j ustice is
mis hpa t I t is used in various senses such as
.
, ,
j ustice order law right legal right A mos wanted

, , , , .
mis hpa t established in the land Mica h asser t ed .
th at Jehovah requires the individual to do mis hpa t ,
and t o love kindness and to walk humbly with his

,
Go d I saia h urged the people to do well and to seek

.
mis hpa t ; h e pronounced woe upon those who turned

aside the needy from ni is hpa t ; he declared Jehovah
to be a God o f mis hpa t Jeremiah made plain that .
60 H I S T ORY OF SOC IAL TH OUG HT
age and ability t o make the concept clear t o all who
would listen to him A mos spoke for j ustice o n
.
’
the throne o n the j udge s bench in the activities O f
, ,
the wealthy in the transactions o f merchants and

, ,
in the daily dealings of individuals with o ne an

other.
The campaign against inj ustice i s carried f o r

ward by the first I saiah th e statesman and orator
, .
I n the Kingdom of Judah I saiah found the same

,
social evils that A mos had earlier preached against

in the N orthern kingdom The boldness o f hi s
.
attack is startling :
Thy princes are rebellious and companions o f ,
thieves : everyone loveth gi fts and followeth after

,
rewards : they j udge not the fatherless neither does ,
the cause o f the widow come unto them .
Then I saiah enters upon perhaps th e most open ,
darin g and indignant challenge to doers o f social

,
iniquity that is t o be found anywhere :

Y e have eaten of the vineyard ; the spoil of the
poor is in your houses W h at mean ye that ye beat
.
my people t o pieces and grind t h e faces of the

,
5
poor ?
A fter the manner o f A mos I saiah protested vig

,
o ro u s ly against the j udges and O f ficers o f the law
w h o f o r a bribe vindicate the wicked and deprive

the innocent man o f his innocence H e denounced
w
.
in no doubtful language the scribes h o devote

themselves to writing oppression who turn aside ,
the dependent from securing justice who prevent ,

HEB R EW SOC IAL TH OUG HT 61
’
Jehovah s followers from receiving honest treat
ment who prey upon widows and despoil orphans
, .
S pecial condemnation was heaped upon those who

set up iniquitous decrees .
I saiah was a forerunner in an indirect sense of

H enry George f o r he vehemently rebuked land
,
monopolists His new principle i s contained in a

.
pronouncement o f woes upon the persons who j oin

house to house and add fi eld to fi eld until there is ,
no land left except for the monopolist who dwells

as a lord over all I saiah protested against social
.
inj ustice not only because o f the harmful e f fects

upon the individual but also because o f the destruct
ive and enervating national results .
A fter the fashion o f A mos and I saiah Micah ,
conceived o f J ehovah as a j ust God Micah de .
picts the social inj ustice o f his day in terms of t h e

persons who hate the good and love the evil who ,
pluck o ff the skin o f the weak even the flesh from

w
,
“
the bones O f Jehovah s followers ;
’
h o also eat the
flesh o f my people and flay their skin from Off
,
them ; and they break their bones and chop t hem ,
in pieces as f o r the p o t and as flesh within th e

, ,
” 6
caldron .
Micah unhesitatingly condemns the priests who

are giving oracles for a reward and t h e prophets
,
who are divining for silver and who are trusting

in Jehovah to protect them Micah was perhaps
.
the first person to describe the activities o f the

criminaloid which have been so care fully analyz ed
62 H I S T ORY O F S OCIA L TH OU G HT
by Professor E A R oss H e grasped the concept
. . .
of the social sinner who keeps within the law He

’
attacked wealthy landowners who crush th e small

holders he spared neither high officials no r priests , .
H e presented his social concepts with precision and

e ff ectiveness .
The invectives against social inj ustice are carri ed

into th e teachings o f Jeremiah They appear later .
in the Deuteronomic C ode The Psalmists depre .
ca t e d inj ustice The wisdom teachers uttered pro

.
found warnings o n the subj ect Th e writer of J o b .
deplored inj ustice Throughout the O ld Testament

.
the almost countless re ferences j usti fy the conclu

sion that justice i s the leading social concep t w h ich
is presented by ancient Hebrew th ought .
The O ld Testament p arallels its denunciation o f

unj ust social relationships with diatribes against
luxury The evil effects of great riches are again
.
and again described A mos boldly pointed the

.
“
finger o f scorn at the idle rich at t hose who lie ,
upon beds o f ivory and stretch themselves upon

thei r couches .
The possession of vast wealth has usually been

considered by those persons h o are immediately w
concerned as an expression O f divine favor A mos .
exposed the fallacies in thi s belief commanded the ,
owners o f wealth t o assume social responsibili ty ,
and instantly t o cease their unholy practices o f se

curing gain .
I saiah united with A mos in t reating the posses

HEB R EW SOCIA L TH OUG HT 63
sion o f wealth no t as a matter o f favor o r luck ,
but as a social tru s t With o ne stroke J eremiah

.
tore Off the gilded frame from about the li fe o f

the sel f indulgent lux ury loving King Jehoiakim
-
,
-
.
What powerful and autocratic monarch was ever

charged with indulging in luxury in suc h relentless
and uncompromising language as t hi s ?
Woe un t o him th at buildeth his house by unright

e o u s ne s s and his chambers by inj ustice
,
S halt thou reign because thou closest thysel f

,
in cedar ?
Bu t thine eyes and thine heart are no t but fo r thy

covetousness and f o r to S hed innocent blood and
, ,
f o r oppression and f o r violence to do it

, , .
T h e ways o f the dishonest rich are vividly de

scribed by J eremiah They set snares and catch
.
people with lying Thei r houses are full o f evi

.
de nce s O f their crooked dealings They maintain.
themselves in luxury despite wanton expenditures

by violating the needs o f the fatherless and the
needy .
Zephaniah was no less direct in pointing o u t the

dangers in wealth He declared that ill gotten gains
.
-
shall themselves become a prey and that the houses

o f the sinful rich shall become desolate A ll their .
silver and thei r gold shall not be able to deliver

them from their ultimate desolation .
I n a beauti ful and e f f ective style the Wisdom

writer in Proverbs unconsciously sums up the O ld
Testament philosophy concerning wealth
64 H I S T ORY OF SOCI A L TH OUG HT
L abor no t become rich ; cease from thine o n
to w
wisdom Wilt thou s et t hine eyes upon that which
.
is not ? F or riches certainly make themselves

wings ; they fly away as an eagle toward heaven .
The O ld Testament with surpri sing uni formity

supports the cause o f labor The welfare o f the
.
slave is frequently espoused A ccording to t h e .
Deuteronomic Code a runaway slave who was

caught did not necessarily need to be returned to
his owner I n fact a person h o harbored such
.
,
w
a slave was expressly enj oined no t to return him .
By this inj unction the rights o f property and vested

interests in slaves were ignored S u ch an attitude .
was in opposition t o the C ode O f Hammurapi and

to the codes of vested interests throughout his t ory .
S lavery however was a well established institution

, ,
-
8
among the ancient Hebrews .
A lthough the law book o f Hammurapi fixed the

wages o f laborers the O ld Testament law book re
,
s t rict e d the hours of labor N o t only i s the master

.
to limit his labor to six days a week but he is co m ,
mand e d to see that his slaves mal e and female do , ,
not work more tha n six days Modern industry .

,
even twentieth cen t ury manufacturing enterprise

in the U nited S tates has been persistently violating
,
the labor rules o f the H ebrew law givers Employ -

.
ers are commanded no t to take advantage O f poor

and needy hired servan t s They shall not oppress
.
labor simply because they are powerful and labor

i s weak Even the poor immigrant laborer i s not
.
to be exploi t ed !
Th e fi rst legislation in behal f of immigrants is
found in Deuteronomy Employers must respe c t
.
the needs o f alien workers The foreigner shall not

.
be oppressed I n th e ordinary dealings between

.
citizens and foreigners j ustice must not be per

,
v er t ed The Hebrew law makers e v en wen t so far

.
as t o issue the command : L o v e ye t h erefore the

strangers for ye were stranger s in the land of
,
Egyp t.
The institution o f marriage is early accented in

the O ld Testament I n th e second chapter of Gene
.
sis divine approval is placed upon marriage I n .
accordance with biological and social needs the in

s t it u t io n o f marriage is made sacred A lthough .
the Hebrews are noted f o r th eir emphasis upon the

responsibility o f children t o parents the h usband i s
,
ordered t o forsake his father and his mother and

’
cleave unto his wi fe A man s Obligation to his
.
helpmate exceeds even his O bligations t o hi s father

and mother .
The concept o f a long su ff ering patient husband

-
,
is extensively elaborated in th e teach ings o f Hosea .
This prophet o f the eighth century B C demon , . .

,
s t ra t e d the sanctity O f the marriage relation by re
ma i n i ng true to it even after his wi fe bore children

of whom h e was no t t he father I t is remarkable
.
that Hosea should no t h ave divorced his wi fe at

once when he learned o f her unfaith fulness to the
marriage v o w .Hosea taugh t by example that
, ,
66 H I S T O RY OF SOCI AL T H OU GH T
divorce should be the las t resort after all the m eans
o f love have been used in trying to win back the
erring partner .
’
The description o f Hosea s domestic di f ficulties ,
wheth er allegorical o r no t is an early protest ,
against the double standard o f morals for man and

woman The attitude of people in modern society
.
who blame and shun the fallen woman but permit

the guilty man to continue to enj oy the company o f
respectable men and women i s vigorously chal
lenged by Hosea .
The last word agains t sex immorality was p ro

no u nce d by Hosea Hi s description o f th e e ff ects
.
o f widespread sex immorality i s brief but incisive .
Whoredom and wine and new wine take away

the hear t .
Their glory s h all fly away like a bird from the

’
birth and from th e womb and from the co nce p

, ,
t ion.
Their root is dri ed up they s h all bear no fruit

,
.
I n the D euteronomic laws we find the duties o f

parents t o children and of children to parent s care
fully outlined Parents primarily are made re
.
, ,
sponsible for moral and religious educa t ion in the

home ; and children are under obligations to O bey
their parents This teaching is summed up in th e
.
Honor thy father and thy moth er ,
that thy days may be long upon th e land w h ich th e

L ord thy Go d giveth thee ; and in the imprecation
Whoso curseth his father o r his mother h is lamp ,
68 H I S T ORY O F SOCIA L T H OUG HT
I t has already been intima t ed tha t the O ld Testa
ment w r iters frequently stress the importance of
high s tandards of conduct for women A mos re .
b u k e d th e wives of nobles and the weal th y who

(
fritter away their bes t i mpulses in idlenes s and

sinful living and who dissipate t h eir deepe s t in
s t inct s in debauchery . A mos and I saiah agreed ap ,
’
p a r e nt
, ly t h at a nation s welfare depends o n t h e
attitudes of its women T h e wrath of God will fall

w
.
upon women h o are h augh ty who wal k with heads

,
held high and with wan t on glances w h o go t rip ,

“
ping along makin g a t inkling with t h ei r fee t
, .
The anti social character o f sin was poin t ed o u t

-
. w
in G enesi s C ain as the fi rst t o raise nai vely and
’
blandly the question : A m I my brother s keeper ?
S inful living narrow s th e S oul in c reases selfishness
, ,
and vitiates a genuine social attitude S inning i s .
repudiatin g social responsibility A mos advan c ed

.
the idea that selfish living was noth ing less than dis
’ ’
loyalty to on e s coun t ry To dissipa t e one s ener gy
.
’
i s to undermine one s us efulness t o his country .
I ntemperance was deplored I saiah has been

.
called the fi rst temperance reformer o f the world .
His impassioned and classic utterances are well rep

14
resen t ed by the following lines :
W o e unto them th at rise up early in the morni ng
that they may follow strong drink ; that continue
until night till wine inflame them
, .
I saiah warned especially the pri ests and prophets

of the evils o f intemperance Wine will swallow
.
HEB R EW SOCI A L TH OUG H T 69
them up it will put th em o u t of the way it will

, ,
cause th em to err in wisdom and t o stumble in j udg

men t .
I n both L eviticus and N umbers th e danger that

lurks in the wine cup i s recognized T h e special .
servan t s of Je h ovah are commanded t o separate

themselves from wine and strong drink I n Prov .
15
erbs th e Wi sdom wri t er declares : W i ne is a
mock er strong drink i s raging and whoever is
,
deceived t hereby is no t wi se T h e sa m e authority.
admonis h es rulers and j udges not t o drink wine

les t they forge t the law and pervert th e j udgment
o f th e afflic t ed O n the other h and a reversion to
.
,
a lower s t andard is made in Proverbs w h en th e

legitimacy o f giving s t rong drin k t o t h e poor and
miserable i s recogniz ed s o that th ey may forget
,
16
thei r pover ty and misery T h e general teaching
.
,
however i s that s t rong drink lead s to social in

,
e fficie ncy and t h e disintegration o f human person
alit ie s .
T h e ci t ies o f refuge r ep r e s ent a new social i dea .
A pe r son w h o h a s ta k en li fe with out intention may

flee t o and find p r o t ection in the cities of refuge .
The altar and t h e sanc t uary a r e designated as places

to which persons may flee h o are no t wilful mur w
de re rs
17
.
The s ocial concept o f democ r acy occupies an in

t e re s t ing place in the O ld Tes t ament literature In .
the days of A bra h am th e kinship group prevailed .
With in this group th ere were many h ou s eh old s ,

r uled by patriarchs Within th e kinship groups
.
high standards o f honor were maintained but anti ,
social attitudes toward outside and foreign groups

were encouraged I t was j usti fiable f o r example
.
, ,
t o lie t o foreign groups and even to kill the re p re

s e nt a t iv e s o f such peoples .
The concept o f democracy develop ed p ari pas s n

with the evolution o f th e idea o f Jehovah I n the .
minds o f the Hebrews Jehovah o r Ja h weh was , , ,
fi rst a tribal go d then a national god ; and finally

w
, ,
a universal Go d that is a being h o i s interested

, ,
in th e welfare of all peoples and no t simply in the ,

“ ”
wel fare o f the chosen people .
The Hebrew conception o f the state contained

several democratic elements The fundamental .
purpose of the state was declared t o be the wel fare

no t of an irresponsible monarch but o f the people ,
th emselves This idea s t ands ou t in mar k ed con

.
t rad ict io n to the practices of t h e C anaanites who ,
submi t ted themselves helplessly t o capricious and

autocratic r ulers .
T h e Hebrews t rea t ed th e state a s a p ar t o f a the

ocracy But w h en Jehovah spo k e h e usually ar
.
,
ra igne d false wealth arbitrary political power

, ,
selfi sh ambition o f k ings luxurious living and spe , ,
cial privileges Je h ovah spo k e f o r th e oppressed

.
,
Tthe poor the defeated the laborer in sh o rt for

, , ,
3
,
humanity .
C onsequently loyalty t o the nation was p o sitive

,
and pe r s i s t en t C onsider th i s s t a t emen t f r o m Psalm

.
13 7 of Hebrew patriotism o n the part o f e xiled

w
Hebrews h o longed f o r their native land
By the rivers O f Babylon there we sat down yea , , ,
we wept when we remembered Zion

, .
We hanged o u r harps upon the willows in the

midst thereo f
I f I forget thee O Jerusalem let my righ t h and
, ,
forget her cunning .
I f I do no t remember thee let my ton gue cleave ,
to the roof o f my mouth ; i f I prefer no t Jerusalem

above my chief j o y .
A ccording t o Hosea Jehovah c h arged the citi

,
zens o f the land t o deal with o ne another o n the

basis o f fidelity and true love and t o stamp o u t all ,
social evils such as p erj ury stealing committing

, , ,
adultery and mo b violence The writer o f the Book

, .
o f Job portrayed a good citiz en as o ne who delivers
the poor ,
’
w
h o helps those about to peri sh who
18
,
causes the widow s heart t o sing f o r j o y H e is .
eyes to th e blind feet to th e lame and a father t o

, ,
the needy He searches o u t the cause o f social

.
evils Moreover h e brea k s the j aws of th e u n

.
,
righteous and pluck s the prey from their mouths

,
.
He defends the blameless He does no t put hi s

.
confidence in gold o r rej oice at his enem i es when

evils beset them o r they are destroyed I t may be .
t ruly said that fundamen t al ideas o f democracy

were originated by t h e Heb r ews .
A mos rai sed the question o f in t ernationalism .
F or the first time in h i story the idea of a unive r sal

,
Go d was postula t ed A mos pronounced Je h ovah
.
th e God of other peoples besides th e I sraelites .
“
Have no t I brought up I srael o u t o f the land of
”
Egypt ? said Jehovah and the Philistines from ,
C aphtor and the S yrians from Kir

,
The day
would come according to I saiah and Micah when
, ,
Jehovah would j udge over many peoples and r ebuke

strong nations The conception of Jehovah as a
.
Being who t ranscends both time and space gave t o

the Hebrew mind at its best a broader cas t and a
more universal comprehension th an the peoples of
contemporary tribes and nations possessed .
The concept o f universal peace was invented by

the Hebrews I saiah and Mica h share th e h onor
.
of being the fi rst persons to advocate world peace

w
,
and t o predict the day when all nations sh all o r

s h ip a jus t God and thereby be enabled to bea t th eir
swords into plowshares and their spears into prun
ing h ooks w h en nation shall not stand against na
-
,
tion and w h en th e meth ods of warfare s h all no

,
longer be taught The spirit o f hatred and o f

.
blind selfish an t agonism shall pass away N O mod

, .
ern writer has ever spo k en the doom o f militarism

so t renchantly as the O ld Testament prophet ,
I saiah who said according to th e translation by

, ,
’ 0
C harles F oster Kent :
Fo r e v er y b o o t o f t h e w w
a rr io r it h no isy t re a d ,
And e v er y w
a r-Cl o a k d re nch e d in t h e b l o o d o f t h e S l a in
”
Will b e co mp l et ely b u r ne d u p a s f u e l f o r t he fl a me .
HEB R EW SOCIAL TH OUG HT 73
The Hebrews s t rongly emphasiz ed laws as a s o

cial dynamic L o v e will make socialized individuals
.
.
I t will demons t rate t o a person hi s responsibilities

as a member of soci e ty and his duties to his fellow
human bein g s I t will stifle hatred I t will even
. .
return good f o r evil I t i s the cardinal v ir t ue and

.
an eternal principle o f right living .
Th e O ld Testament teaches social salvation J e .
h ova h i s fundamen t ally interested in th e improve

men t of social and living conditions H e co m .
mande d th e soc i ali z ation o f all h uman r ela t ions h ips .
His teaching s as given by th e prophets and Wi s

,
dom writers take cognizance o f the influence of e n

,
viro nme nt upon character .
Hebrew social t h ought deals largely with so cial

injustice S ocial evils are vividly described and
.
evil doers chi efly k ings and j udges are vigorously

—
, ,
and fearlessly arraigned The family is made the

.
chief social institution and love is c rowned servant

,
of all Education i s centered in the home and moral

.
,
discipline i s m ade the keynote O f education ; hence

the Hebrews surv i ved the G ree k s and R omans A .
new and perfect social order directed by a j us t J e

,
hovah and motivated throughout all its individual

,
and social relationships by love i s prophesied ,

.
C H APT E R V .
P L AT O AN D GR E C I A N S O C I A L T H O U G HT
I n turning to a s t udy o f G recian civilization we

find a development o f social t hought which o n the
rational side excels in many particulars th e soci al
w
thinking o f th e He b r e s b u t w h ic h in its a ff ective
,
elements falls far below the quality of Hebrew s o

cial th ough t . We may e x pect t o find therefore in , ,
G recian social th ough t i mportan t new c ontributions

which are complemen t ary to th e legacies from th e
Hebrews and whic h w h en t a k en in conjunction
,
with the early C hristian forms o f H ebrew soc i al

thought constitute the main foundations o f modern
s o cial thought .
T h e th ough t li fe o f th e G reeks reached th e cre

scendo in the ideali sm O f Plato ( 42 7 3 47 B C ) and-
. .
t h e oppor t un i sm o f A ris t o t le B In .
'
an idea world Pla t o depicted an id e al society A fter

-
.
studying 1 5 8 consti t utions A ri stotle for m ulated

,
’
r ule s of practical social procedure Plato s R e p u b
.
’
lic and A ri stotle s P o lit ics are the two leading
source books o f G recian social though t .
Plato and A ri s t otle were th e firs t two th i nkers

in h isto ry w h o le f t defini t ely o r gani z ed analyses of
s ocie t a ry li fe A lth ough in po i n t o f ti m e th ey s tand
.
76 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH O U G HT
began to put into legi slative practice certain ideas o f
social reform thereby preventing revolution A t
,
.
that time it was customary to sell persons into

slavery who could not pay their debts a procedure —
which S olon ended The cost o f living was ver y

.
high consequently S olon forbade t h e export o f food

,
products and thereby reduced prices f o r th e con

sumer H e introduced a measure w h ic h t oday
.
would be considered revolutionary namely t h e , ,
limiting of th e amount o f land which an individual

might hold Fo r the classi fication of people o n the
.
ba sis of wealth h e substitu t ed a classi fication on

the basis o f inco m
,
e H e lessened th e severity of the

.
laws o f D raco and in o ther ways increased th e

,
’
freedom o f the individual A lthough S olon s régime .
was followed by a tyranny S olon is credited with ,
initiating certain essential ideas o f democracy .
A fter th e Tyrants A thens under th e leadership

,
“
of men li k e C leisthenes became a pure demo c racy .
C leisthenes democratiz ed the A th enian Co ns t it u

tion Fo r th e four phylae h e sub s ti t uted ten p hylae
.
,
o r units O f government th us securing a new and,
be tt er distribution of authori ty H e i s c redi t ed wi th .
introducing ostraci sm as a mode o f punishment ; he ,
it is alleged was th e first individual to be ostracised

,
by his government .
The fi fth century precursors of Pla t o and A ri s

t o t le were numerous A eschylus ( 5 2 5 4 5 6 B
.
-
.
the fi rst o f the famous A th enian tragic poets de ,
scribed in general t erms the evolution o f civilized

GR E CIA N SOCIAL TH OUG HT 77
socie ty .
3
The arti stic historian Herodotus devel , ,
oped through hi s imagination a world point o f v iew .
F rom an almost unlimited store of legendary and

ethnological materials he elaborated a plane t ary
,
theme which had its beginning in the Troj an War

and its culmination in the conflict between Eastern
and Western civilization s Th e basic social prin.
cip le in th e writings o f H erodo t us i s that downfall
awaits th e insolent autocra t s o f ea r th Herodotus .
’
describes th e custom s and h abits o f th e peoples
whom h e v isi t ed on h is numerous foreign travels in
such a de t ailed and elabo r ate fashion th a t he h as
’
been styled t h e world s fi rst descriptive sociologist .
Pericles ( 49 5 42 9 B-
per h aps th e greatest
.
sta t esman of G reece furthered th e cause o f d e mo c

,
racy Hi s conception o f democracy led him to make

.
the entire body of citizens eligible t o Office holding -

.
Pericles initiated a social program which in cer

tain aspects was paternali stic He instituted th e .
plan o f granting allowances f o r performing public

duties A s a resul t unselfish public service was
.
,
minimiz ed and political morale was weakened .
5
Pericles was led into this error by th e desire to
compete f o r public esteem with C imon who made ,
extensive gi fts t o t h e poor in th e form o f dinners

and clothes .
I n his tragedies Euripides ( 48 0 406 B C )

,
-
. .
aroused in t eres t in th e experiences no t of legendary ,
characters as many o f h is predecessors had done .
bu t o f th e ordinary member s o f A th enian society .

78 H I S T O RY O F S O CI A L TH O U G HT
He was a spokesman for the emancipation of
6
woman ; h is writings reveal the social chang es that
were occurring in the fi fth century in A thens .
L ikewise the comedies of A ristophanes reflected

,
social changes and in addition caricatured social

, , ,
conditions .
Hippocrates th e s o called fath er O f medical sci

,
—
ence wrote several works which attracted the studi

,
o u s attention o f Plato He gave as th e fi rst o f two

.
chief causes o f disease the influence o f climate , ,

’
seasons weather o n the individual
,
He might be .
called th e first anthropo geographer A t any rate he -

.
opened the field which has recently been so well

covered by Ellen C S emple in her I nflu e nce s o f
.
Ge o grap hic E nviro nme nt .
By their disconcerting and sceptical teachings the

S ophists who also lived in the fi fty ce nt u cy B C
, , . .
,
stimulated th e intellectual activities o f S ocrates .
Th e influence o f the S ophist leaders such as P ro ,
t ago ra s G orgas Ca llicle s T h ra syma ch u s brought

, , , ,
forward the problem of t raining pupils t o solve

CI V I C questions rather than scienti fic or philosoph
ical questions A ccording to Plato Callicle s b e

.
,
lie v e d that government was an instrument for ex

p lo i t ing t h e masses T h ras yma ch u s arg
. u ed that
s o called j ustice is that type o f activity which favors
-
the interest o f the strongest members O f society ,
8
and that might determines what i s called right .
Epaminondas the Theban statesman personi fied in

w
, ,
his o n career an unusually high interpretation o f

G RE CI AN SOCIA L T H O U GH T 79
the con c ep t of p at r io t ism per h aps a m ore u nselfish

,
expression of patriotism than i s represented by any

other political spokesman o f th e Hellenic states .
The ar gument o f the S ophists that what is best

fo r the individual i s best f o r society aroused t h e
antagonism of S ocrates ( 46 9 3 99 B -
w h ose .
ideas a r e repor t ed by Pla t o and X enophon S o cra .
tes the son of an A thenian sculptor asserted that

, ,
the qualities of j ustice wisdom t emperance and

, , ,
courage which make a p erson a good member of

,
socie ty and which increase social wel fare are the ,
same qualiti es which make a person a good indi

vidual and secure hi s individual advancement .
S oc r ates spent many years a t the market places on ,
the streets where people congregate and at the pub

lic resorts in studying the a c tions of individuals and
in engaging th em in conversation conce r ning thei r
moral li fe A s a result S ocrates evolved a s ignifi
.
cant social philosophy The h eart O f t h is philo s o

.
phy i s found in th e statements that virtue i s k nowl

edge not in the sense of me r e memorized facts but
,
of a thorough understanding I f a person under
w
.
stands compl e t ely the good and evil p h ases of a

proposed act he ill choos e the righ t Fo r example
,
.
,
when o ne is completely convinced of the h armful

e ff ects of poor teeth h e will employ the regular
,
services of a dentist t o k eep hi s teeth in good co n

dition When h e perceives th e e v il e ff ects o f di s
.
honesty he will establish h onest habits The co n

, .
clu s io n might be drawn t hat social V irtue rests upon

societary knowledge .
S ocrates was convinced that somethin g was fun

dame nt ally wrong with A t henian society Every .
where he saw that ignorance led to vice O nly in .
t h e mechanical and professional activities did h e

discover correct ac t ion b u t th is was preceded by
,
9
correct knowledge .
A good carpenter i s an individual who thoroughly

understands carpentry ; a good man i s an individual
who truly knows the value o f good actions S imi .
la rly it might be said th at a good urban resident

,
is an individual who deeply appreciates what it

means to have a city of mutually developing p e ople .
S ocrates wi shed t o make all men intelligent His .
teachings raised the deep sea t ed social question —
How can s o c1al organization be made highly a dvan

t a ge o u s to the individual and the individual made
,
so aware o f these advan t ages th at he will always

act s ocially I nasmuch as S ocrates left no writ
ings it is impossible to explain with certainty his
,
teachings F ortunately he left a p ermanent im

.
,
press O f his personality o n the lives of his associ

ates and particularly upon h is able and brilliant
, ,
pupil Plato
, .
I n the fundamental dictum that virtue i s k nowl

edge S ocrates is theoretically correct but p rac
w
, ,
tically he ignores th e o ve rp o e rmg I nfluence that

oftentimes is exerted by the ins tincts and estab
lish e d habits He underestimates the power th at 18
.
represen t ed by a deeply ingrained instinct o r a habit

which has existed fo r several years I ns t inct s and

‘
. .
nearly all habits are firmly established i I euro lo gic

' '
ally whereas knowledge i s often new to the indi

,
vidual and merely a veneer o n t h e surface of th e

’
individual s li fe Th e acquisition o f knowledge is
.
no guarantee t ha t ins t incts centuri es old will be

promptly overcome o r re directed -
.
F ur the r more with a youn g child th e instinctive

,
tendenci e s be gin to as s er t themselves and t o give

direction to the growth of the character o f the child ,
long before h is mentali ty has unfolded and devel

oped t o th e point where h e i s capable o f g enuinely
understanding the real meaning of many forms of
activity and where many phases o f knowledge a r e
,
entirely beyond h is ability t o comprehend .
L i t tle is known concerning Plato s early li fe and

’
training .The most influential factors were t h e

life and teach ings o f S ocrates T h e strong S ocra t ic .
personality left its indelible impres s upon th e

thought li fe O f Plato
-
A s a young man Plato
.
,
became greatly interested in A thenian social and

civic li fe When he was perhaps twenty three years
.
-
“ ”
of age the sel f styled F air and Good rulers came
,
-
into control O f A thens The failure o f these men

.
,
whom history calls the Thirty Tyrants to govern ,
wisely produced an attitude o f thorough disgust in

,
the mind of Plato F urther the legalized murder

.
,
of S ocrates by the restored democracy in 3 99 B C . .
aroused the bitter antagonism o f Plato to the exist

ing forms o f government I n the years which fol .
82 H I S T ORY O F SOCIAL TH OUG HT
lowed th e dea th o f S ocrates p opular rule produced ,
loos e and licentious social conditions A s a co ns e .
q u e nce Plato turned

,
to the realms of the thou ght
world in order to find a perfect society A s a result .
o f his contact with every day li fe and government

-
,
Plato evolved in hi s mind an ideal republic .
The S ocratic principle that virtue is knowledge

’
was accepted by Plato I n Plato s thinking this
.
proposition led to the generaliza t ion t hat education

is the most important thing in the world U pon .
’
thi s doctrine more t han any other Plato s twentieth ,
century influence thrives .
What shall be the nature o f a world molding -
education ? Theoretically Plato gives his answer ,
in his epistemology I deas are the ruling forces in

.
li fe O ver against the uncertain fluctuating sense

.
world Plato set up a realm of eternal changeless

, ,
ideas A n individual man is simply an ephemeral

.
expression of Man Plato created a concept o f u n

.
changeable reality which he found in I deas These .

,
alone are the permanent worth while elements

, ,
-
which man must seek to k now and understand .
B ecause o f his aristocratic attitudes and o f hi s

early disgust with the experiments in democracy in
his day Plato turned away in his social philosophy
,
from the direct study of the people such as had ,
engaged the attention o f S ocrates to a search for ,
a j ust soci ety in th e world o f ideas This line o f .
thinking found expression chiefly in the R e p u blic

w
,
’
ritten during Plato s mature manhood A dis .
Plato uses mature individuals O ut of th e needs
.
and through th e activities o f fully developed per -
sons Plato builds an ideal commonwealth

, .
N o individual i s sel f s u fficing Each has his

-
.
peculiar bia s o r ability By unitin g all will profit

,
.
, .
There are not only specialized classes but there is ,
specialization with in the occupational groups A n .
essential rule f o r the building of a j us t society is

that each individual shall find his place in the social
order and shall fulfil his special func t ion Plato .
recognized the need f o r correlating the diversiti es

14
of nature and t h e di ff erent types of occupation .
The common people are engaged in the foun

dat io nal occupations as skilled arti sans The ad .
vantages of a special education are no t open to

th em They receive th e common edu ca t ion in
.
,
cluding gymnastic and music training But in .

,
’
accordance with th e ari stocratic strain in Plato s
social philosophy it is useless t o try t o give a higher
,
education t o that large proportion o f the population

who are mentally incapable o f profiting by higher
education The logic is good but the maj o r premise
.
is faulty in this pedago gi cal rule .
The second C lass the soldi ers will maintain order

, ,
at home repel invaders and conduct territorial

, ,
wars The growth o f population will create a de

.
mand for more territory O ther s t ates likewise w ill

.
need more territory and war will become ine vit

,
15
able . Plato frankly admits th e territorial basi s o f
wars F rom this factor he sees no e s cape al
.
,
GR E CI AN S OCI A L TH OU G HT 85
though he declares p eace t o be better th an war .
I n hi s Ta mias and Crit ias he pictured a peace state -

,
“ ”
A tlantis .
’
The soldier s occupation i s an art which requires
years of training Th e chie f physical trait o f a true
.
soldier i s courage The social psychological sig

.
nificance o f a military régime is that soldi ers are

continually inciting their country t o go t o war .
S uch a régime raises up enemies against itself ,
many and mighty and results either in ruining th e

,
specifi c people o r in enslaving the foes o f these

17
people O n th e o ther hand th e no n soldier classes
.
,
-
,
since they prefer t o lead a peaceful li fe and seek to

conduct their a ff airs quietly unduly endeavor to ,
avoid war By degrees they become unwarli k e ;

.
their children develop a like attitude Eventually .

,
they find themselves at the mercy o f their enemies

18
and are enslaved .
A mong the members o f the state there will be a

few especially able individuals destined by birth ,
and reinforced by training to be rulers and true

"
guardians of the w elfare of all They are lovers .
of wisdom and p h ilosophy F labbiness of ch arac .
ter drunk enness selfishness are unbecoming to

, ,
20 ”
them . S elfish living is condemned The guar .
dians are characterized according to Plato by th e

, ,
greatest eagerness t o do what is for the good o f

their country They show u t ter repugnance to any
.
thing that is contrary t o th e best interests of the

22
state .
The guardians however rule aristocratically
, , .
They do no t inquire O f the citizens the kind o f laws

which they want passed f o r the same reason that a
,
physician does not ask th e patient the kind of medi

cine which h e wants I n the R e p u blic the L a s and
.
, w ,
the other dialogues where the nature of rulers and

“ ”
philosophers is discussed Pla t o s best men S how
’
,
an indi ff erence to earthly o r material things and

uni formly seek righteousness even social righteous ,
ness .
The candidates for guardianship receive fi rst the

elements of education A t twenty years o f age they
.
must pass a general education in order that they

'
may go o n with a special course including arith ,
”
metic geometry and astronomy
, , A t thirty they .
are subj ected to a further examination after which ,
the successful individuals devote five years to the

study o f philosophy A t thirty fiv e they enter p rac
.
-
tical li fe hold minor offi ces balance their theoretical

, ,
training by practical studies and submit to diverse ,
temptations They undergo a civil service e x ami

.
25
nation which extends over a period o f years A t .
the close they are subj ected to a final seri es o f th ree

fold tests The fi rst test is that o f logic ; they must
.
ar gue success fully that it pays an individual espe ,
cially a guardian to serve society The second

,
.
test is th at o f fear ; they are faced with dangers ,
f o r example the dangers to li fe which beset those

, ,
w h o undertake t o rule without favoritism and with ;

o u t c om p romising their p rinci p les w h e n c onfron t ed
GR E CIAN SOCIA L TH OUG HT 87
with the ambitions and de s ires of powerful selfis h

interests The third t est i s that o f pleasure ; they
.
are submitted to all the pleasures which thrill the

heart o f man I n other words they mus t show
.
,
proof that the highest interest o f the s tate is to

be the ruling interest o f their lives N either pain.
26
nor threats must a f fect their loyalty The t e mp t a .
tions which come from pleasures and enchantments

must not disturb their sel f control o r weaken their
-
qualiti e s o f guardianship F rom these requirements

.
it will be seen that Plato provided f o r a long period

of intensive and extensive training f o r the rulers .
His idea varied widely from the ancient theory o f

the divine right o f kings and from th e current p rac
tice o f distributing political spoils t o friends .
Plato saw that the rulers w h en once selected and

installed in O f fice would be tempted t o become avari
cio u s at th e expense o f th e state I nstead of b e
.
coming and remaining allied t o all the citizens they ,
”
will be prone t o become tyrannical Plato per .
ce ive d that it would be diffi cult a fter good rulers

,
had been selected t o keep them o n the plane o f good

,
rulership I n order to preserve their virtue as guar

.
dians and t o remove the powerful temptation to

wink at exploitation that is carried o n by the eco
no mically powerful Plato indicated certain pro
,
t e ct iv e devices Th e guardians shall be permitted

.
no private property beyond a few incidentals They .
shall no t live in private houses but shall dwell and

,
e at to e ther
g .The y sh all r e cei v e a fix e d s alar y ,
su f ficient t o m eet necessary expenses but no more .
They shall not be allowed to touch gold and silver

or t o wear gold and silver ornaments They shall .
b e taught that they are made of divine gold and

silver a n
, d therefore shall have no need o f th e
earthly dross They shall no t be subj ect to pollu
.
tion from any earthly contacts I f the guardians .
should acquire lands o r moneys o r homes o f their

own they would be unable t o give their undivided
,
attention to the state and they would become no t

,
guardians of th e wel fare o f the citi z ens bu t tyran t s , ,
28
plotting and being plot t ed agains t I n h i s zealous
.
care tha t th e rulers might no t be distracted fro m

guarding with undivided attention the in t eres t s o f
the state Plato advocated community o f wives and
,
29
children f o r the rulers .
The question arose : Will the people be c on t en t

to accep t t he divi sion O f th e population in t o h ie ra r
chal classes ? I n reply Plato suggested that the
,
power of public opinion be utilized and that all t h e ,
inhabitants o f the state be taught that th ey are

broth ers that is children o f t heir commo n Mother
, ,
Earth . This instruction will serve to keep the

masses in a humble at t itude F urther they are to
.
,
be told that di ff erent metals have been used by

Mother Earth in making di ff erent individuals .
Those persons in whose make u p gold has been min

—
gled have the power o f command and may become

rulers O thers who are made o f silver may become
.
auxiliaries o r soldiers ; w h ile t h e masses being

, ,
made o f brass and iron are destined t o become

,
30
artisans .
The obj ect ion is raised that people will not b e

“ ”
lieve this audacious fiction The truth o f the
.
O bj ec t ion i s admi t ted and a solution o f th e proble m

,
is o ff ered Teac h the c h ildren th e gold silver brass

.
, ,
and iron fiction ; and they will believe it When they

w
.
grow to maturity they will t ell th e i r children h o

, ,
I n t urn will teac h it Pos t erity th us will accept

.
, ,
it
. I n this way Plato founded h i s s o cial philosop hy
upon education Pla t o made clear th at any k ind
.
o f social or economic th eo r y can be foisted upon
a w h ole people thr ough th e u t iliza t ion o f th e educa

t io nal processes A few s el fish exploiters by co n
.
,
trolling th e educa t ional system can ruin a na t ion

,
in a generation .
The guardians are ins t ruc t ed t o examine the chil

dren in order to discover of w h at metals t h ey are
made Plato admi t ted a democracy o f talent in
.
the sense th at t alent is li k ely t o appear in th e chil

dren o f brass and iron parents while gold pare nt s
,
may beget brass and iron children I f a gold child .
is found amon g th e children o f th e artisans h e i s ,
to be encouraged and t rained t o become a guardian .
I f a brass and iron child is found among t h e chil

dren of the gold parents he must descend th e social
,
32
scale and be t rained f o r husbandry or arti sanship
w
.
Plato foresaw the fact no ,

scienti fically estab
lish e d tha t geniuses are born indiscriminately
,
among all classes o f society from th e highest t o th e

lowest They are j ust as likely to be born in the
.
hovel o r overcrowded tenement as in the spacious

‘
and luxuriant palace C onsequently society should

.
,
seek out potential genius and give it opportunities

commensurate with its possibiliti es and not allow
its dynamic and divine spark to be snuffed o u t in
a heavy laden tenemen t atmosphere
-
.
F urthermore according to Plato th e gu ardians

, ,
are to seek out the imperfect children and put t h em

o u t of the way as easily as possible and without
33
attracting public attention I f the capable must
.
devote their energies to the care o f imperfect chil

dren they would presumably be wasting their
,
ability and would be prevented from devoting

themselves to upbuilding the state Thi s doctrine .
neglects the consideration o f the h ars h u nsymp a ,
thetic attitude which it would engender A lthough .
rigorously eugenic t h e doctrine i s undemocrati c

, ,
unchivalric and u nCh ris t ian I t i s thoroughly

, .
ari stocra t ic .
The guardians are to supervi se marriage Pla t o .
especially deplores the fact tha t almost all persons

choose their li fe partners in marriage w i th ou t
—
proper regard t o the kind o f children th at will be

” 4
procreated . The marriage relationship should
no t be primarily an individual a ff air but should ,
be gove r ned by the thought of the children that are

not yet born and by due regard t o the wel fare o f
the state and society The true purpose o f mar
w
.
ria e i s no t f o u n
g d in ealth or
power or r ank ,
b u t
92 H IS T ORY O F SOCIA L TH OU G HT
vidual i s hypnotised by th e wealth get t ing delusion -
,
the less attention does he give t o the maintenance

of virtue When th e desire f o r virtue is in compe
.
tition with th e desire f o r riches the former de ,

" 0
creases as the latter increases .
When the state becomes establi s h ed o n a proper ty

basis the rich exercise power and th e poor are
,
41
deprived of it I n ordinary times the rich are as
indi ff erent t o th e wel fare of the poor as to the de
v e lo p me nt o f virtue bu t in times of group cri ses
,
they will no t despise the poor I n th e days o f pros

.
p e ri t y and peace the poor man i s gi v en t h e hind

most position bu t when war comes t h e wiry s un
, , ,
”
burn t poor man i s placed in battle at the side O f
"
the wealthy man and social democracy obtains
—
.
But in battle the poor man fight s long e r and better

than the ric h man “
w
h o has never spoil t h is com
”
plexion and h as pl enty o f superfluous fles h In .
the words O f th e poor man Plato draws the astound

ing conclusion th at many persons are rich because
”
no o ne h as had the courage t o despoil them At .
this poin t Plato has given a stri k ing explanation of

the rise o f socialism syndicalism and economic
, ,
radicalism .
When you see paupers according t o Plato you

, ,
may safely conclude that somewhere there are also

present t hieves robbers o f temples and male f ac
, ,
“
tors . The causes o f pauperism are given as ( 1 )
a lack o f proper education ( 2 ) ill training and ( 3 )
,
-
,
unjust social laws and an unjust constitution o f th e

GR E CIA N SOCIAL TH OU G HT 93
state.
Plato suggested t wo instruments for preventing

extreme wealth and poverty legislation and edu—
cation . Each individual is to be guaranteed a mini

mum amount o f property H e may acquire as much
.
as four times this amount but above th e maximum

,
" 6
a one hundred per cen t excess t a x operates Plato .
planned a form of communism no t primarily to se ,
cure the material well being of the state but to

-
,
safeguard the rule r s agains t falling before selfi sh

temptations Plato also wanted t o protect the state
.
from splitting asunder because of the distractions

that arise from labor capital controversies By
-
.
educational m eans the children are t o be trained to

be satis fied with th e necessaries o f li fe a t least
47
—
some children are t o be s o trained Paren t s should .
bequeath t o their children no t riches but th e spirit

of reverence .
The guardians shall be censors They s hall e s .
t ablis h a censors h ip ove r the ar t s in order to pro t ect

the children from seeing indecen t sights and hear
ing vulgar sounds T h e works o f fiction s h all be
.
censored in order to prevent the children from read

ing and adopting bad ideas The creative artists
.
shall be p r evented from exhibiting forms o f vice

and intemperance in order that the future guar
,
dians may no t grow up in an atmosp h ere contami

nat e d by images o f moral deformity and in order ,
that all children may develop in an environment

of fair sigh t s and should and may receive u nhin
dered and unhamp ered the good in everything .
The guardians shall protect the mo re s When .

'
Plato described a perfect state any change in the

,
established customs would mean retrogression .

50
H ence the rulers should j ealously guard the cus

,
toms allowing no insidious innovations F urther

, . .
i f any change is p ermitted to take place in small

things there may be no s t oppin g the s piri t of
,
change .
Plato rested his argument f o r an ideal society

upon the education o f wise leaders Their j udg
ment is better even than government by law La w
.
i s too rigid and inflexible I n vi ew of t h e change

.
able character o f human conditions which Plato ,
recognized no final o r absolute laws can be laid

,
5 1
down Th e chief advantage of laws h owever i s
.
, ,
no t that they make men honest but that they make

men act uni formly and hence in a socially reliable
,
way L aws are to be respected because they re p re

.
”
sent the ripe fruits o f long experience .
C onsiderable attention is given to p enolo gy in t h e

La s w I n view of th e sanctity o f custom and o f
.
2
the necessity o f law obedience i s a highly impor t ant

,
social virtue I n theory Plato i s modern and s cie n

.
t ific for he advocated puni shment not as a v ind ic

, ,
54
tive but as a preventive and reformatory measure .
55
R eformation is the true aim o f punishment In .
practice Plato is rigid and harsh F or example .

,
beggars are simply to be sent o u t o f the city and

“
o u t o f the country The death penalty is utilized
.
GR E CIA N SOCIA L TH OUG HT 95
freely .
Plato opened all occupations to women as well as

58
men even the highest that of ruling
, , The only .
di ff erence between the sexes that needs to be recog

niz e d occupationally is that men are s t ronger phys
59
ically than women Women like men vary in
.
, ,
occupational temperament O ne individual is fitted .
f o r o ne kind o f vocation ; another f o r some other ,
type o f wo r k .
A lthough the fundamental importance of bearing

children is appreciated Plato observed that it i s ,
unnecessary that a woman devote her whole li fe

to the rearing o f children A ll women should have .
opportunities for the development o f their per

s o nalit ie s Those women w h o have special talent
.
for public service should enter thereupon Al .
though a social conservative Plato admits an inno

vation in the ideal republic universal woman —
su ff rage .
S ince women have the same duties as men t h ey ,
receive the same opportunities for training .
Women must share in the toils of war and the de

61
f e ns e o f their country Women are priestesses ;
.
they serve o n committees f o r the regulation of mar

62
riage and for deciding divorce cases
,
.
A lthough Plato was averse to change he a dvo ,
cat e d a dynamic type o f education This educa .
t io nal system however is to be definitely controlled

, ,
by the guardians I t is also paternalistic C ommon

. .
education shall be O f two kinds : gymnastic for the ,

96 H I S T ORY O F S OCIAL TH OUG HT
body ; music for the s oul
, Gymnas t ic training will
.
produce a temper o f hardness and music will lea d ,
t o gentleness The extreme of t h e o ne is ferocity

.
and brutality ; the extreme of th e other i s softness

“
and e f f eminacy When t aken t ogether they pro
.
,
duce a well ordered p ersonality The one sustains

-
.
and makes bold th e reason the second modera t es ,

-
and civilizes the mil d ness of passion

65
Gymnastic .
exercises p r ovide f o r the care and training of th e

body through childhood and youth so th at in ma
66
t u rit y t h e body may best s erve th e soul Music .
,
including literature train s th rough the infl u ence of

,
its qualitie s o f harmony and rhythm F o r example .

,
through exercises in harmony the child de v elops

a harmonious temperamen t .
Education i s no t a process of ac q uisition bu t of ,
the developmen t of the power s wi t h in th e indi

67
vidual . I t i s a li fe long process ; it begins with
-
birth and continues until death I t however slows .

, ,
up as t he individual grows o ld A n aged person .
68
cannot learn much no more than h e can run much
,
.
Education in the early years Of li fe is th e most im

portant A s a child i s educated so will his future
.
,
69
be de t ermined A child should be taught early to
.
respect his parents G reat care should be given t o

.
the fi rst years o f li fe F rom three to si x years o f

.
’
age the children in Plato s republic come under th e
supervision of chosen matrons and nurses .
Education shall be universal but not compulsory , ,
that is all shall be taught but not compelled t o

, ,
G R E C IAN S OCI A L TH O U G H T 97
learn Educa t ion shall be made at t rac t ive almost

.
,
70
a form o f government The laws o f imitation .
shall be utilized The tutor shall car ry out his

.
71
teachings in practice .
A well trained individual i s a replica of a j ust

-
society Plato draws a parallelism which i s inac

.
,
curate between t he three classes in society and

,
th r ee traits o f the individual Th e rulers soldiers .

, ,
and artisans are compared respectively t o the rea

son the spiri t and the passions O f the individual
, , .
The passions must be subordinated t o the spirit ,
and both must be controlled by reason The result .
72
will be a j ust individual I n society a similar .
hierarchal relation shall hold between th e rulers l

,
soldiers and artisans Th e fundamental aim in

, .
education shall be t o secure a change in th e atti

tudes o f people S uch changes are more important
.
than modi fication in external matters Thus ac .

,
cording to Plato the divine foundations of a stat e

,
are laid in education .
R eligion plays a basic rOle in the ideal R epublic .
Plato held that belief in Go d superseded in import

ance the doctrine that might is right I mpi ety u n .
dermine s the strength o f th e social kingdom Go d .
created the individual for the whole bu t not the ,
whole f o r the individual The worship of Go d is .
necessary f o r t h e individual in order t o prevent him

from reverting to selfishness and from mak ing his
humanitarian beliefs purely egoistic p h enomena .
I nasmuch as Plato outlined a t t he s t ar t a p erfect

98 H I S T OR Y O F S OCIAL TH OUG HT
republic any ch ange would likely c onstitute a de
,
t e rio ra t io n But even an ideal state i s not imm u n e

.
t o the entry of destructive ideas The wise men .

,
the rulers are not p r oof against th e temp t ations

,
of absolute power To r emove the s ti rrings of

.
self interest in t h e minds of the gua r dians Plato

-
,
planned a communistic order H e overlook ed how .

,
ever the weaknesses o f communism bu t th e s e we r e

, ,
pointed out a t a later time by A ris t o tle .
I n spi t e o f excellent safe gu ards th e wi s dom of

the best rulers will occasionally fail th em S ooner .
o r late r they will err I n e x amining t h e youth th ey

.
will allow warrior youth to be tr ained for th e guar

dian class With their s pirit of conten t ion and o f
.
ambition for honor t h ese adventitio us gua r dians

will s t art the perfect sta t e upon th e downward
74
road . When th e ruler s see k personal power and
honor the ideal republic will be su p e r seded by a
,
timocracy .
I n a timocracy th e r uler wi th the mos t priva t e

wealth will possess th e grea t est personal power and
r eceive the h ighest honor Moreo v er oth e r p ersons
.
,
will be stimulated th ereby to acquire weal t h and

, ,
power I n th e meantime the masse s will lose nearly

.
every thing Th e result is an oligarchy in w h ich

.
75
t h e wealthy are honored and made rulers Th e .
poo r are treated wi th dishonor and depri v ed of

position .
I n suc h an oligarchic state th ere i s a fundamental

w
division ; there are t o sta t e s ins t ead of one I n .
"
100 H I S T ORY O F SOCI A L TH OUG HT
est usefulness t o th e state and fulfils his entire obli
ga t io ns in that place
. O n the whole Plato exhibited
an impassioned faith in the moral and social order .
Plato believed that I deas are real and that t hey

are the tools with which the world i s made over .
He perceived perfect F orms even a perfect social

,
F orm Through intellectual control Plato planned

.
,
a new social order .

C H APTE R V I .
A R I S T O T LE AN D GRE C I A N S O C I A L T H O U G HT
A ristotle ( 3 8 4 322 B -
the distinguished pupil
.
o f Plato did no t make

, like his master a unified
, ,
contribu t ion to social thought H e sacri ficed unity .
for the examination of parts A ristotle was an .
opportunist a pragmatist and a practical student

, ,
o f conditions a nd constitutions U nlike Pla t o A ris .

,
t o t le did not look for I deas separate from but in

things .
A ri s t otle studied 1 5 8 constitutions inductively

and comparatively Hi s primary attention was
.
g i ven to what is rather,than to what ought t o be .
His eyes were directed fi rst of all to the parts and ,
then t o the whole I n this examination he found

.
that th e parts are related and further that they , ,

’
hold a developmen t al relation I nstead o f Plato s
w
.
’
perfection we shall no conside r A ristotle s proc
,
ess of becoming A lthough unsystematic the social

.
,
ideas o f A ristotle reveal the concepts o f process and

progress .
’
I n A ristotle s E t hics the discussion o f vi rt ue i s
socially valuable V i rtue is a mean V irtue i s an
. .
impulse which is expressed neither in excess o r in

deficiency I t i s an impuls e expressed t emperately
.
until it beco m es a habit Excess and deficiency .
are equally fatal The coward is he who avoids

.
and fears anything ; the foo lhardy i s he who rushes

into danger anywhere L iberality is the mean b e
.
1
tween prodigality and avarice ; civility i s the mean

between O bsequiousness and insolence V irtue itself .
is the m ean between sel f indulgence and asceticism

-
.
I n vir t ue lies happiness man s s u mmu m bo nu m

,
’
,
.
’
A ri s t otle s P o lit ics a ff ords a searching analysis
o f many phases o f societary li fe The family and .
t h e state are by na t ure prior to t h e individual since ,

2
the whole mus t exist before any indivi dual part .
When isolated th e individual i s not s el f s u ffi cie nt

,
—
.
Thus t h e sta t e i s founded on t h e social needs of

,
th e individual By virtue of t h ese social needs

.
,
man possesses the gregarious or social ins ti nct , , .
3
By nature man is a political animal t h at i s h e i s
, , ,
a being who by nature or necessity lives in associa

tion wi th his kind Man can attain his highest good
.
only as a member o f society .
Property is accorded by A risto tle a fundamental

social position Physical necessities can best be
.
provided through the e f f o rt s of individuals Co m .
mu nal ownership o f property on a large scale will

’
fail I n re ferring t o Plato s communism A ris t otle
.
,
“
declared : Fo r t h at whi ch i s common to the great
” 4
es t number has th e least care bestowed upon it .
F urth er when one feels a thing to b e his own how

, ,
s
much greater is his pleasure in it Then i f o ne has .
,
private property he may have the great pleasure

,
oth er types A successful o r virtuous gove rn m en t
.
, ,
depends o n the attitude o f the people Human na .
ture must be changed A ll people mus t become .
socially virtuous before a perfected government

can be established .
Theoretically A ri stotle believed that t h e best

,
government would come through the absolute ruler

ship o f o ne man provided that there i s available a
,
man pre eminently wise and virtuous But prac

-
.
tically A ristotle held th at in choosing a form o f

,
government which will succeed it is necessary to ,
consider the actual social conditions the state o f ,
development of the people and the attitude o f the ,
ruler o r rulers I t does no t matter whether o ne

.
person o r a few persons o r a large number o f per

, ,
sons perform the function O f ruler so long as th e

bes t interests o f the state are kept uppermost I f .
the in t erests o f the entire group are the guiding

principles then royalty aristocracy o r constitution
, , ,
alis m i s commendable T h e o ne the few o r the

.
, ,
many are good rulers providing they are dominated

,
by t he common interests I n these declarations .
A ristotle overlook ed the fact that participation in

government by th e governed is essential H e also .
“ ”
neglected the fac t that a best ruler would be sub
j e ct to very many temptations as a result o f personi
f ying in h imsel f all th e forms o f political economic , ,
and social power th at exist within the state A f t er .
a period o f time he would probably yield to some

interests which are inimical to the wel fare of t h e
GR E C IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 105
W h ole .
Wh en p r i v a t e interests con t rol the government ,
the resultant forms o f government are either

tyranny oligarchy o r democracy A ccording to
, , .
A ristotle the chief di f f erence between oligarchy and

democracy i s that an oligarchy is the rule o f the
rich and a democracy is the rule o f the poor Evi .
d e nt ly he believed that the poor are as sel fish as the

,
rich and that the poor are incapable o f being

trained to th e levels of virtuous citizenship .
A lth ough A ri stotle is aristocratic in his political

science and advocated frequently the rule O f the
best few h e endorsed a constitutional republic
, .
S uch a form o f government will succeed where

there are many wise and vir t uous individuals He .
admitted that in large numb ers there is a stability

o f judgment and that common sense bulks large .
Under constitutional government the extremes will ,
cancel one another and the virtuous mean will rule

,
.
L arge numbers o f persons are less likely to be cor

ru p t e d than a few persons o r even the o ne best per
11
son
w
.
There are t o fundamentals i n a good govern

ment : first actual obedience of the laws by the
,
citiz ens ; second the social goodness o f the laws

,
.
’
A ristotle s formula f o r an ideal society is thi s
V irtuous people and good laws bot h judged by the ,
common wel fare A nd prac t ically the form o f

.
,
political organization a monarchy an aristocracy

—
, ,
or a constitutional republic de p ends upon th e place

—
o fthe members o f the social order o n the incline of
socialization .
I f a constitutional republic is establi shed then ,
rotation in O ffi ce should be practiced The t enure .
12
of o f fice should be restricted to six months An .
O f fice should rarely be held more than once by the

same person .
O n the other hand the laws should be changed

,
slowly .L aw has no power to make people o bey

in spirit except through force O f habit The sta t e
, .
must guard itsel f against small changes in laws .
A ny apparently slight neglect o r disregard of law

"
is insidious ; transgression creeps in unperceived .
A t fi rst small transgressions may not be Observed ;

,
then they may gain such momentum that th ey will

,
ruin the s t ate H ence there s h ould be at all t imes

.
,
strict Ob s ervance o f laws .
’
The maj or chord in A ristotle s ideal society is the
social mean The existence of two classes only the
.
,
very rich and t h e ve ry poor will bring disaster to ,
the state The very w ealth y consider th emselves

.
above legalistic o r social authority ; the very poor

are too degraded t o understand the necessity for
and the reason f o r authority I n fact all h o .
15
,
w
possess not simply an unusual degree o f wealth but
, ,
“ ”
great beauty great strength o r a noble bir th feel
,
th at they should be accorded special privileges .
F urther no t only those who are very poor but also

, ,
the persons who are very weak o r very disgraced ,
find it d ifli cu lt t o follow the dictates o f law o r o f

108 H IS T ORY OF SOCI AL TH OUG HT
But poverty is not the only cause o f crime .
R iches O ften lead to crime Wealth causes the com .
mit me nt O f greater crimes than does poverty The .
greatest O f f enses are not occ asioned by necessity but

19
by excess I n order t o grati fy some passion or
.
desire crime is O ften committed O f the passions

,
.
”
ambition and avarice are the chief causes O f crime .
21
I ntoxication produces crime .
The causes o f social revolution are mani fold .
Th e desire for equality and the desire f o r inequality

22
are common factors I nferiors revolt in order that
.
they may attain a state O f equality with other per

sons Equal s revolt in order that they may gain
.
superior le v e lS of honor and status A ri stotle cited .
a long list o f addition al factors in social re v o lu

tion : insolence fear political graft a d is p ro p o r
, , ,
t io na t e increase o f wealth in some part of the state ,
neglect O f t rifl e s in the O bservance o f laws d is s imi ,
la rit y in elements such as racial The fundamental .
cause however o f social revolution i s love o f gain

, ,
and honor .
A ri stotle was not a militarist f o r h e beli eved that ,
war in its el f i s not a social good N O people sho u ld .
be trained to conquer and obtain dominion over '
”
neighboring states Military states are safe only
.
when they are at war A fter they declare peace the

.
weight o f thei r military burdens brings about their

”
downfall .
The principle o f social telesi s which has been ,
recently developed by L ester F Ward was foreseen .

,
G R E C IA N S O CI A L TH O U G HT 109
by A ri stotle A society o f individuals like the in

.
‘
,
25
dividual himsel f has a work to do
, I t should .
adapt its elf to its task .
A ri stotle was a public health advocate The loca .
tion for an ideal city should be carefully chosen I t .
should be selected fi rst o f all with reference to the

, ,
health o f the citiz ens Thi s point is of greater im

.
portance than that of locating a city wisely f o r the

purpose of public administration o r war The im
portance of a pure water supply is given almost a
modern emphasi s .
The question o f eugenics received the attention

of A ri stotle I n order that children may be as
.
physically sound as possible l egislators should give

,
special attention to the institution O f marriage .
Youth ful marriages are condemned because the

children that are born to such unions will be want
ing in respect f o r their parents L ate marriages .
27
will be unsati sfactory because there wil l be too great .
di f ference between the ages of th e parents and their

children The marriage o f a man and a woman
.
whose ages are widely disproportionate will lead

to misunderstandings and quarrels A ccording to .
the rigorous unsympathetic dictum o f A ristotle no

, ,
”
deformed child shall be permitted to live Even .
the advocates O f modern birth control may turn f o r

encouragement to A ristotle .
I n the marriage relation there is inequality The .
man is by nature b etter fitted t o command than the

woman . The chief characteristic o f a good wi fe
1 10 H I S T ORY O F SOC IAL T H OUG HT
i s obedience to he r husband a doctrine which is —
patriarchal U nfaith fulnes s o f either sex in mar

.
ria ge i s disgraceful .
A ristotle like Plato considers education the lead

, ,
ing social force There is a fundamenta l educa

.
t io nal problem : S hall youth be t rained primarily

1
( ) to d o useful work ( )
2 t o,be virtuous or ( )
3 to ,
31
gain higher knowledge ? N 0 final answer is given .
’
A ris t o t le s conception o f education however is , ,
paternalistic .
U tilitarian education possesses a danger line .
T 0 be seeking always a f t er th e u s eful prevents o ne

’ 2
from developing a free and exalted soul U tili .
tarian edu cation should cease w h en it cramps th e

body o r spiri t and makes either less fit f o r the p rac
tice of virtue .
Gymnastic education should never be profession

’
aliz e d or allowed to hinder th e individual s higher
education . Th e excessive training which leads to

O lympic victories is anti social because th e consti
-
,
t u t io n o f th e given individual is exhausted Music .
is valuable inasmuch as it has the power of form

ing character ”
The persons
. h o are engagedw
in seriously minded occupations need amusements
-
which will give relaxation .
’
I n summary o f A ristotle s social thought it may
be said that the S tagirite introduced the compara
tive meth od o f studying human institutions He .
demonstrated the relative value o f institutions ,
showing that those whic h are best for one age o f

1 12 H I S T ORY O F SOCIAL T H OUG HT
hence will be di scussed in the following chapter .
Polybius ( 2 03 12 1 B -
. known as the last Hel
le nic social philosopher developed a theory of social
,
evolution based o n the belief that people associate

,
because o f the selfi sh benefits that accrue and on ,
the fact t hat group approval and disapproval pl ay a

leading part in the development of human attitudes .
Gre cia n s o cia l thou ght is noteworthy because o f

’
its intellectual foundations I t ignored many a ff e c

.
tive elements and f o r that reason i t became One

,
sided and unbalanced I t was rational rather than

.
a f f ective o r supernatural I t was designed to

.
meet the needs of th is li fe I t moved away from .
authority and towards opportunism .
Economically Hellenic social thought assumed

,
o r j usti fied human slavery I t postulated a d e mo c

.
racy but a democracy builded o n the backs o f thou

,
sands o f slaves I n practice at the height o f th e

.
A thenian democracy there were only about

free A thenians as against slaves Women .
were no t enfranchised The governments put

.
slaves into the armies and ultimately attempted to

,
throw o u t a commercial net over the other M e dit e r

ra ne a n states . A s a result they lost the spirit o f
democracy . The whole system and concept o f
democracy was undermined by the debilitating in
fl u e nce s o f an industrial autocracy The social
.
t hought of the G reek was limited in its actual a p

plication largel y t o the privileged few who ari s ,
t o cra t ica llv ignored the needs of the helpl ess many .
GR E CIAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 113
G recian social thought at the height o f the

A th enian democracy did achieve however f o r its , ,
day and epoch a unique degree o f expression

,
among the free citizens Fo r example in the

.
,
matter o f athletics and recreation the A thenians ,
worked together in furnishing themselves organ

iz e d group activities Their athletic contests were
.
of a free community nature untrammelled by co m

,
me rcializ e d motives I n furnishing recreation for

.
themselves they co operated they acted as com

,
—
munity units Moreover in these community a c

.
,
t iv it ie s they generated in themselves the spiri t of a

genuine democratic consciousness .
The fundamentals o f G recian social t h ought were

preserved by the R omans without bei ng augmented
,
by them Together with th e Hebrew and early

.
Christian social thought G recian social thought

,
laid the foundations f o r th e rise o f modern social

science and even o f sociology
,
.
C HAPT ER V I I
RO M A N S O C I A L T H O U G HT
R oman social thought is an outg r ow t h of Hel

le nic philosophic movements It i s rep r esen t ed in
.
par t by the codi fication O f impor t an t pha s es of

societary control th e product of th e le galis t ic
—
genius of the R omans S toicism mo r eo v er grea tly

.
, ,
a ff ected and conditioned th e meager s oc i al th in ki ng

o f th e R oman scholars .
L ucretius ( 99 5 5 B C ) was the ch ief R oman

-
. .
exponent o f Epicureanism I n h is story of social

.
evolution he began with th e various p h a s es o f th e

biological struggle for exi s t en c e and p r oceeded t o
,
depict in a remar k ably signi fican t fas h ion th e

1
origins o f social practices and cus t om s A l th o u gh.
his data are of questionable value h is desc r ip t ions ,
of social origins often run strangely pa r allel t o

modern findings .
Th e ideal commonwealth o f C ice r o ( 106 43 -
B C ) is founded o n t h e belief that R ome h as th e

. .
2
possibility o f becoming an ideal s t a t e T h e best .
ideas in this connection were selected by C icero

from the A ristotelian Epicurean and S toic phil
, ,
osophies C icero was apparen t ly an e xponent o f

.
honest s t a t esmanship and finally gave his li fe f o r

1 16 H I S T ORY OF S OCIA L TH OUG HT
belief th at all persons originally possess the same
nature arid that all are children of the same uni
versal S pirit S ocial di ff erences h ence are e x ter
.
, ,
nal and superficial B eneath th e surface of human .
nature th ere is a cosmopolitanism which constitutes

a passive brotherhood o f man Bro t h erly love .
s h o uld rule according to t he S toics but it should

,
.
rule temperately and not in such a way as to disturb

,
’
th e individual s sel f control Bro therly love should .
be not a passionate but an intellectual element .
I n his treatise o n Benefi ts S eneca mak es b e ne vo ,
l ence t h e most social of all virtues ; and ingratitude

the most venal o f all crimes Marcus A urelius .
( 12 1
-
1 8 0 A D ) gave t h
. e social inj
. unction : L ove
mankind L iving should consis t in passing from
.
‘
5
o ne social act to another This i s a social world ;
6
men exist f o r the sake o f o ne another .
The S toic Emperor declared that God i s social

’
and that individuals are part o f God s universe .
Each individual i s a component par t o f the social

system and hence every act of the individual is an
,
7
integral phase of social li fe I nasmuch as the I n .
t e llige nce O f th e universe is social human soci ety ,
functions as a phas e o f the cosmic co ordination -

.
We are all co laborers and co operators Eve n th e

- -
.
per s ons who find fault and who hinder what ha p

p ens are performing useful co operative functions
,
—
.
8
Th at which i s harmful to the swarm is likewise

h armful to the individual Man is a citizen o f the .
9
world . The services o f a good citizen are never
ROM A N SOCIA L TH OUG HT 1 17
los t The good citizen does good chi efly by th e

.
10
example he s e ts .
But th e cosmopoli t anism of the S toics never

extended beyond a pa s sive interest in the world of
a ff airs . I t meant that the individual should be
agreeable with o t he r persons th at h e should be
,
tolerant o f th e weaknesses o f others and that he ,
should be aware cons t antly tha t o t hers are wa t ch

11
ing him and likely t o copy the exampl e h e sets .
S toicism requires the suppression o f anger and the

exercising o f clemency toward all human beings .
While S toicism does not ex t end so far in its p ro

’
f e s s io n as C hristianity s doctrine o f brother h ood
of man it represents a broader viewpoint of li fe
,
than any code o f conduct which previously h ad

developed in the no n C hri stian world -
.
The purpose O f punishment according t o S eneca

w
, ,
is t o fold : eith er to reform the evil doer ; o r to

— -
prevent the operation O f hi s evil influence and t o

12
s t op him from setting harmful examples The .
social medicine must be determined quan t i t atively ,
and qualitatively by the nature o f the o ff ender and

,
the O ff ense A bove all things else he who a dminis

.
,
t ers punishment mus t not a ct in anger Justice .
cannot be angry L ynch procedure is entirely con

.
t ra ry t o th e teachings of S toicism .
F irs t o f all thieves and robbers s h ould be in

,
struct ed in the error o f their ways O btain thei r .
point o f view and admini ster punis h ment accord

ingly Pi ty th e m T h e individu al w h o un ders t and s
. .
1 18 H I S T ORY O F SOCI A L TH OU G HT
why criminals commit O f f enses i s prevented from
”
becoming angry with them A urelius like Jesus
.
, ,
15
gave the inj unction : L ove even those who do

”
wrong A urelius like Paul urged an attitude o f
.
, ,
charity toward wrong doers -

.
The S toics condemned luxurious living and

fashion racing True riches consists no t in aug
.
me nt ing one s fortune but in abating th e desires

’
,
18
f o r securing material wealth T h e words o f Em
.
p e r o r A urelius re garding os t en ta tious li v ing d o no t

s eem out o f place w h en applied t o the modern dis
play o f wealth .S eneca asser t ed th a t h e would
despise wealth as much w h en h e h a s i t a s w h en h e
does no t posse ss i t .
S toicism urged th e Ar i s t o t elian s oc i al m ean re

garding proper ty Much proper ty i s a b u r den and
.
a cause o f worry and fear I t e x ci t e s en vy in .
others T h e best socie ty i s th at w h ic h i s ch a r a c

.
t e riz e d by neither pover ty no r plen t y T h e poor .
should no t condemn riches and the wealth y err in

,
extolling th e benefits o f poverty eac h i s speaking —
o f a si t uation whic h i s obj ec t ive t o h im and outside
his sphere S ince i t i s Obj ective t o h im h e i s no t

.
,
qualified to speak concerning it The individual i s .
a grea t man w h o is no t corrupted b y h is wealth ; bu t

he is a greater man who is honestly poor in th e
midst o f plen ty ” R ich es constitute a power t o do
.
evil hence mediocrity of for t une wi t h a gentlenes s

,
”
o f mind represents th e bes t s t a t us .
St oicism enuncia t e d excellen t social ideals w h ich ,

12 0 H I S T ORY O F SOCIAL T H OUG HT
an increase in the sense o f social responsibility it
'
nevertheless was instrumental in constructing a

stable framework for the evolution of the social
process .
The R omans preserved a portion o f Hellenic cul

ture The teachings of Plato and A ristotle were
.
saved to modern civilization C redit i s due the

.
R omans f o r receiving keeping working over and

, , ,
handing o n a p art o f the best Hellenic civilization .
R oman thought accentuated military principles o f

authority even to the point o f autocracy I t tended
, .
to crush the unprivileged populace I t tri ed to keep

.
the masses conten t ed by generous state aid It .
deni ed t o personality its comple t e individual and

social expressions I n building an individualistic
.
framework which would provide an orderly milie u

f o r the rise o f the insti t ution o f private property ,
it ignored the needs o f the uneducated and poverty

enslaved masses for a full measure o f liberty .
R ome developed the concept o f organized power .
The organizing ability o f the R omans was mar

v e lo u s an organizing power that lives today in and
,
through the C atholic C hurch .
The grea t est gi ft of Rome was its S toic concepts .
A lthough th ese originated in Hellas they a t tained ,
thei r maturity in R ome They opened the way f o r

.
the reception o f the C hristian social concepts of

love se r vi c e b r o the rh o o d o f man
, , .
C HAPT ER V I I I
EA R L Y C H RI ST I A N SO C I AL T H O U G H T
C hristian social thought is the direct outgrowth

o f H ebrew social concepts A mos and Hosea and
.
I saiah pa v ed the way for the social teachings o f

Jesus The social commandments o f the O ld Tes
.
tament were the progenitors o f the modi fied social

injunctions o f the N ew Testament Job the social .
,
citizen was not an unworthy precursor O f Jesus

, ,
the lover o f humanity O ut o f the love and tender

.
care for children which thrived in H ebrew homes

there arose the concept o f the brotherhood o f man
and the F atherhood o f Go d the two cardinal prin —
cip le s o f C hristianity .
Jesus gave expression to no system o f social

thought but uttered social principles and concepts
,
which when put together constituted the basis o f

, ,
a new social order He dealt with personalities

.
rather than with institutions H e looked to the ln .
dividual rather than t o the mass H e emphasized .
functions rather than structures He proclaimed .
the need f o r socio religious personalities I f h e

-
.
could get these he was sure o f the ultimate societal

,
results H e foresaw a pe r fect soci ety th e Kin g

.
—
do m of Go d .
12 2 H I S T OR Y O F S OCI A L T H OU G HT
U nli k e Plato and A ris t o t le J es u s was a con t inual ,
studen t o f everyday li fe L ike S ocra t es Jesus was .

,
fond of people He was a stu dent o f individual

.
and social a ff airs H e m i xed wi t h all types O f

.
human beings L ike S ocrates he wrote prac t ically

.
,
nothing U nlike S ocrates Jesus had a dynamic ele

.
,
ment in his nature which forbade h im t o remain

conten t t o argu e wit h peopl e ( af t er the S ocrat ic
manner ) but which drove h im t o h elp and to h eal
, .
H e went abou t doing good T h e Gospel records .
are reple t e with instance a ft er i ns tance o f h is wor k

in h ealing th e sick of t h ei r infirmit ie s He wa s no t .
,
h owever a physician but a teach er and a savior

,
from sin and evil .
Be h ind all t h e t each in g s of Je su s th ere i s th e ,
concep t o f a p erfec t h uman orde r T h is Kin gdo m .
1
be gins in t h e h ear t s O f indivi duals I t i s a spirit .
o r an a t ti t ude of mind w h ic h lead s th e individual
t oward co opera t ive li v in g

-
T h e Kingdom may .
come o n earth as well as in h ea ven C onsider th e .
picture o f a h a r monious communi t y li fe which

Jesus gave w h en lamenting over Je r usalem : Ho “
w
o ften would I h ave gat h ered th y c h ildren toget h er ,
as a h en do th gat h er h er brood t oge th er under h er

” 2
wings and ye would no t !
,
Jesus e x tended t h e concep t of bro th e rh ood .
W h oever shall do th e will o f Go d is a bro t h er t o

3
me .T h e world under Go d is one family T h e
, ,
.
Kingdom there fore is t o i ncl u de all h uman b eings

, , ,
wh o wo r s h ip God i n s p i r i t and in t r u th and w h o a t

12 4 H I S T ORY O F SOCIAL TH OUG HT
laden ; who cared less for the upp er F our Hundred
than for the lower F our Hundred Million .
The principle of love compels the members o f the

Kingdom t o S how mercy God i s full of mercy .
,
therefore let his followers show mercy L ove f o r

, .
gives The C hristian citizen is instructed to b e

.
come reconciled with hi s brother citizen before

6
worshipping at t h e altar o f God I f the individual .
would be forgiven of his sins he must acquire the ,
habit o f forgiving other p ersons H e must be care .
ful no t to j udge harshly lest oth er persons j udge ,
him harshly He should forgive others seventy

.
times seven times that is without stint or measure

, ,
.
S t L uke the physician recites the story o f a

.
, ,
loving fath er The prodigal s o n impetuously de

.
mande d his share O f the inheritance and going into ,
a far country wasted his substance in riotous liv

,
ing But upon showing true remorse f o r these

.
exceedingly grave O f f enses his fath er received him ,
back with a loving forgiving heart a feast the , , ,
best robes and music and dancing O ne o f the

,
.
malefactors who was cruci fied with C hrist s h owed ,
a penitent heart at th e last moment and received

forgiveness from the loving dying C hri st S ince ,
no o ne is without sin no o ne has a righ t to be u n ,
forgiving Even the woman taken in adultery came

.
within the law O f forgiving love .
The societary principle O f love i s th e maj or chord

’
of C hristianity I t is C hristianity s unscienti fic but
.
greatest gi f t t o s o c iology It h as b e c o m e the funda

.
E A R L Y C H RIS T IA N SOCIAL TH OUG HT 12 5
mental concept o f sociology T o the O ld Testa .
ment type o f love which urged the individual to

love h is neighbor and to love the alien and stranger ,
Jesus repeatedly insisted upon a love th at is still

greater namely a love which will include enemies
, , .
L ove your enemies Jesus himsel f exempli fied thi s

.
7
form of love H e made no idle interpretation o f an

.
impossible love but demonstrated and lived a love

,
which forgave his enemies even those who mock ,
ingly shamelessly nailed him to a cross

, S o great .
is the drawing power O f this almost super h uman

love which Jesus expressed in deeds that he himself
predicted that i f h e were li fted up he would draw
all people unto him .
L ove fills people with compassion The Gospels .
are reple t e with references to th e fact that wherever

Jesus saw sickness poverty sin h e was moved with
, , ,
compassion . T h e illustrations range from the

blind men by the wayside to the bread hungry mul -
t it u d e s from the unclean lepe r in G alilee to mur

,
de ro u s Jerusalem .
L ove i s cosmopolitan A ll peoples are entitled to

w
.
8
know th e meaning o f C hristian love Both J e .
and Gentile shall feel its warming glow The .
S amaritan lives it L oving neighborliness includes

.
more than priestly and L evitical acts ; it involves

S amaritan kindness The love in t h e heart of J esus
.
reached fi rst to a few close friends then to sinners ,
and outcasts then to th e S amaritans and the G en

,
tiles and finally t o the whole world I t led ulti

,
.
mately t o th a t mo s t u nselfis h of all human enter
pri ses th e missiona ry movement
—
.
L ove leads t o h umili ty and s el f sacrifice A lms -

.
givin g is done in pri v ate not f o r social plaudits

, .
The individual prays no t to be seen of men and

,
9
t hereby t o be accounted good H e who seeks to
.
save his life shall los e it ; whoever loses his li fe for

the sak e o f the Kingdom shall save it He who .
stores up f o r himself th e wealth of th e world shall

lose himsel f S alutations in the marke t places and
.
chief sea t s in th e s ynago gues in themselves are u n

worthy The poor in spirit are blessed
. .
L ove shuns positions o f worldly power les t they ,

’ 10
be secured a t th e loss o f one s soul The bes t .
positions in li fe are no t t o be sei zed ; they are o b

t aine d through the exercise o f love ; t hey a r e b e
stowed in recognition o f merit and worth H e who .
exalts h imsel f will be aba s ed ; th e humble will be

exalted .
L ove crea t es tr ue greatness T h e members o f.
the society o f perfect love are characteriz ed by the

since r ity purity humility O f little children
, ,
He
who serves most i s grea t est T h e Kingdom Of God
.
1 8 an ari s t ocracy no t o f Might but o f S ervice

,
The .
S o n o f G od came t o serve no t to be served

,
F or .
the sake O f those outside the Kingdom J esus sanc ,
t ifie d himsel f sacri ficing even hi s li fe in that cause

,
.
L ove makes the Golden R ule the best sociologi

cal proposition in Hebrew and Jewish literature .
“
Whatsoever ye would that men s h ould d o t o you ,
12 8 H I S T ORY OF SOC IAL TH OUG HT
God and earned the rewards o f everlasting li fe .
A nd those who fail to measure up to th e social

service test whe ther professing C hristians or not
, ,
will be turned away .
The importance and nature of religio social serv -
ice i s indicated by Jesus when he symbolizes the

giving of a cup of cold water in his name as a test
13
for receiving eternal li fe H e who has two coats
.
should give o ne to him who has none The share

'
.
ing o f food with those who have no food i s com

”
mand e d G ive liberally ; give all thou hast
. I t is .
blessed to give under all circumstances Material .
riches are insigni ficant in value when compared

with spiritual wealth To give the things o f this
.
world is to receive the greater things of the spirit .
H e i s richest who gives most bo t h of material and ,
spiritual goods A s an expression o f his love for

.
God Jesus lived a li fe o f social and human service

,
.
Whenever Jesus mentioned the ten command

ments all three synoptic writers agree o n this
—
point h e omitted th e four commandments Of in

—
dividual import and repeated only the social rules ,
o r principles
Thou shalt do no murder ,
Thou shalt no t commit adultery ,
Thou shalt no t steal ,
Thou shalt not bear false witness ,
Honor thy fath er and mother ,
Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thysel f .

E ARLY C H RI S T IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 12 9
A fte r th e fashion O f th e maj o r social prophets ,
Jesus cri ed o u t vehemently against social inj ustice

w
.
’
He denounced the persons h o devour widows
houses o r who lay unnecessary economic burdens
,
upon thei r fellowmen .
A nti social religion abo v e all th ings else angered

-
, ,
Jesus H e wanted no followers who were p rac

.
ticing social o r political inj ustice C u r sed are th ose

w
.
persons who appear righteous h o make long

, .
prayers o r w h o go about in long robes bu t who

, ,
’
inwardly are h ypocrites are full of dead men s
,
" 5
bones o f uncleanness o f ex t ortion and e x cess
, , .
The shedding o f innocent blood i s condemned The .
paying o f money in order t o expiate sin will avail

not h i n g S u c h money is ta i nted ; it is blood money
.
16
.
A nti social and commercialized religion so an

—
g e re d Jesus t h a t contrary
,
to h is customary atti
tudes t oward sinners h e committed violence o n o ne
,
occasion against o f fenders He overthrew the

.
t ables o f the money changers in th e temple and , ,
making a scourge o f small cords h e drove out the ,
money changers I n s o doing he declared th at the

.
,
"
worship o f Go d s h ould no t be commercialized He .
would not have th e hous e o f worship turned in t o a

cultured den o f thieves .
S o furious were the scribes and th e chi ef priests

because o f the attack o f Jesus upon anti social -
religious practices th at th ey planned how th ey

migh t kill him ” I t appears th a t as a direct r esult
.
o f t h e antagonism o f Jesus t o th e anti social p ra c -

1 30 H IS T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
tices of the religious or temple authorities and of
, ,
th e o th er r eligious leaders the c ons p i r acy a gainst

J e sus finally b r o u ght about hi s deat h Je s u s went .
about stirring up the common peopl e in a demo

cratic movement against the autocratic h yp o crit i ,
ca l anti social religious leaders among the J ews

,
-
.
H e met his death while championing the needs O f

w
the masses h o were being exploited in the name
o f religion .
Jesus was the highest type O f social democrat .
The perfected social order which he foresaw i s a

democracy ruled by the principles of love and
,
service in the name o f Go d F urthermore no one .

,
shall be compelled to come into the Kingdom The .
good tidings shall be present e d t o all individuals ,
but t h e liberty o f the individual shall not be v io

lated The principle o f voluntary assent not co m
.
,
pulsion o r conscription rules in recruiting for the

,
Ki ngdom Moreover within the Kingdom co m

.
, ,
pulsion i s unknown L ove s u ffi ce t h

. .
Jesus hated sin T o him sin was anything which

.
,
overcomes love and which causes the individual o r

society to disintegrate S in i s that which defeats
.
o r hinders the coming o f the Kingdom O f L ove .
S in breaks up o r holds back the social process S in . .
like love is organic

,
S in grows A n evil tree
. .
brings forth evil fruit ; grapes and figs are no t

ga thered from thorns o r thistle bearing plants -
.
Jesus forgave sinners ; even social sinners By .
means O f his imagination h e put himsel f in the ,

13 2 H I S T ORY O F S OCIA L TH OU G HT
t h erefo r e Go d ha t h j oined togeth er , let no t man put
asunder The family as an institution is accorded
.
a sacredly fundamental place in th e social order .
Jesus recognized woman as equal wi th man spir

it u ally .H is attitude toward his mo t her and the
oth er women o f his day was o ne of respec t chiv ,
alry and gentleness

,
H e laid the foundations of a
.
social process in whi ch women fun c tion on t erm s

o f equality wit h men .
Honor to paren t s and h ono r t o wi fe m u s t be s up

planted by honor t o ch ildren Jesus worship ed .
little children I n them he saw th e i nnocence and

.
purity of God When h e wis h ed t o describe t h e

.
a t tributes o f the Kingdom h e selected a little ch ild ,
and held him up as typi fying th e simple natural ,
spirit o f perfec t living A l t hough with out ch ildren .
himsel f Jesus loved little children choosing t hem

, ,
f o r special honors and declaring tha t o f such is

,
’
the Kingdom of God I t i s not G od s will that o ne
.
o f th ese little ones should peris h ; it i s th e stupidity
o f man and the lack o f social conscience that causes
a high mortality rate O f little c h ildren H e who .
harms the t rustful child shall be cursed I t were .
better f o r such a miscrean t th a t a millstone were

ti ed about his neck and t hat he were t h rown into
”
the sea .
I n regard t o t h e influence o f private prope r ty

Jesus was fearful His zeal for and whole hearted
.
-
loyalty to spiri t ual values made h im suspicious of

vested interes t s H e repeatedly warned in vigorous
.
E A R LY C H RI S T IA N SOCIA L TH OU G HT 133
language agains t t h e lure o f gold and the baneful

influences o f material wealth upon the attitudes and
acts of the individual He himself showed no in
.
t e r e s t in owning p r o p erty H e lived without a

w
.
home o f his o n and with ou t private means I f .
he had possessed these his li fe work probably

,
-
would have failed H e urged his disciples t o re

.
main free from the desire for money ; he even com

mande d them t o rely f o r t he means o f material
subsi s t ence upon th e p eople with who m they la
bo r ed Jesus beli eved th at private proper ty hin
.
dered the realization o f t h e principle o f brother h ood

o f man . H e made a sharp di stinction between th e
interests o f God and mammon H e believed th at .
th ese t wo sets o f in t erests are diametrically o p

posed t o each o th er T O the extent th a t th e indi
.
vidual relies u p on prop erty h e separates himself

,
from G od and the t h ings of t h e S pirit The dis .
ciple s were ins tr ucted t o s corn not only the earn

,
"
ing of wealth bu t i f th ey possessed ear thly goods

, ,
th ey were t o sell these and give the proceeds t o the

”
poo r. The disciple o f the spiri t ual li fe must
divorce h imsel f from th e love o f mone t ary gain .
Toward t h e poor Jesus was sympath etic The

,
.
Gospel shall b e preach ed chiefly t o th e poor no t ,
because t h e poor pe r s e need it more th an th e rich

, ,
and no t because t h e poor s h ould be specially f a

v o re d ,
but becaus e they recognize thei r needs .
They are in a recep t iv e a t titude whereas th e af f i

t ude o f th e ric h h as b een calloused by th ei r eal th w .
13 4 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
The response t o the Gospel is not likely to be whole
w
hearted by p ersons h o possess an extensive in
t e re s t in riches .
Jesus taught a spiritual sociali sm He thought .
in terms o f spiritual love for all persons no t o f ,
material well being for th e proletariat But he

-
.
seemed to pre fer the company o f the poor Blessed .
are the poor was his attitude ; f o r they are in a

,
frame o f mind which makes them fi t subj ects f o r

the perfect Kingdom The possession o f p ro p e r t v
.
gives the individual a feeling o f self exaltation : -
p overty gives ri se t o humility a cardi nal virtue

—
o f
the Kingdom .
Jesus did not attack poverty with preventive

”
measures Poverty will continue t o exist
. Per .
haps it is well that it should continue for a nation ,
o f economically satisfied people might not be reli
g i o u s ly minded I t
. i s harder for a camel to g o
’
through a needle s eye than f o r a rich man to get
into the swing O f an untrammeled social process .
Wo e unto the rich because they are sel f centered

,
-
,
materially inclined and pleasure loving The man

,
-
.
who pulled down his barns in order to build larger

“
barns saying to himsel f
,
Take thine ease eat
, , ,
”
drink and be merry is scathingly condemned by
, ,
”
Jesus . He i s ostracized from th e ideal society .
I n the story o f L azarus and the rich man t h e ,
’
former i s carried to A braham s bosom but the lat ,
ter in torments begs f o r a cup o f water and the

, ,
company o f L a z arus He wanted L azarus sent t o

‘
.
136 H I S T ORY O F SOCI A L TH OU GH T
The attitude o f J esus toward th e proble m o f
p eace versus war has aroused considerable contro
v e rs y There are certain o f h is sayings which s eem
.
to contradict each oth er But an analysis of all his

.
teachings demonstrates that his emphasis was o n

peace The e x ceptions t o the rule will be s t ated
.
”
fi rs t. O n o ne occasion h e said : I c ame not to
send peace but a sword T h e con t ex t s h ows tha t
, .
J esus was spea k ing in an individual and not a

national way H e had in mind th e conflic t s which
.
ari se be t ween th e individuals who are converted to

the ideals O f the Kingdom and those w h o are not
w
.
Jesus explained t h at th ose h o love h im mus t do

s o even at th e expense o f forsa king father and
”
moth e r L oyalty to th e Kingdom may mean th a t
.
th e s o n will oppo s e the practices o f h i s fath er in

business th e daughte r will obj ect t o the time wasted
,
in th e u n Ch ristian practices o f her mo ther th e

-
,
“
paren t s will pro t est the s owing o f wild oats by
so n o r daught er .
I n the temple on one occasion J esus displayed

, ,
anger and used v iolence H e was dealing how .

,
ever with a group o f criminals cultured criminals

, , ,
who apparently would respond t o no treatment e x

cept vi o lence They would not cease their nefarious
.
practices except through compulsion .
O n th e oth er h and the illustrations are many

,
where Jes u s used love in order t o c h ange t h e Ways

o f people He never used force in his o n behalf
. w ,
even t o save hi s li fe He rebuk ed S imon Peter for

.
E ARLY C H RI S T IAN SOCIA L TH OU GH T 137
drawing hi s sword and cutting o ff th e right ear of

the servant of the high priest who in company with
others were seeking Jesus in order to bind him and
”
kill him A t another time Jesus speci fically e n
.
j oined : R esi st not evil ; and instructed hi s fol

lowers when smitten upon the righ t chee k to turn
t h e lef t also Those who take the sword shall per
.
ish by th e sword ; the nation tha t build s itsel f up

by th e sword shall be destroyed by it .
The birth o f Jesus was accompanied by glad t id

ings and song proclaiming peace o n earth and good
,
31
will toward men Blessed are th e peacemakers
. .
I n the perfect s ocie ty good will by all t o all will be

,
shown p erfect love will reign and permanen t p eace

, ,
will prevail .
Jesus may o r may no t have exp r essed h imself on

several important issues o f h is day T h e inco m .
p le t e records do not indicate h is attitude upon many

vital social problems I t appear s that Jesus usua lly
.
spoke in remedial rath er than preventive social

terms However beneath this remedial termin
.
,
ology there are fundamental social principles ,
which i f put into common prac t ice would solve all

, ,
social problems J esu s proposed to build an ideal

.
so cie t y b y re making and regenerating individuals

-
'
He dared t o p r omulgate th e radical program of re

making h uman nature itsel f He commanded th at .
all selfish impulses and instincts be completely sub

o rdina t ed t o the al t ruistic and socializing desires .
Jesus insis t ed th ro u gh out h is li fe wor k u pon th e -

principl e t hat mate r ial fac t ors must be subj e c ted t o
s pi r i t ual values I n o r der t o make th is principl e
.
clear he often took particular pains t o treat ma

t e rial good s with the utmost ins ignificance He .
perceived that individuals are made slave s by the

worship o f wealth either o n the part O f themselves
, ,
of the privileged classes o r O f society itsel f H e

, .
inaugu r ated a program of spiritualization which

w ould free the world from the slavery whic h may
come from economic forces .
A lthough a reli gious teacher abo v e all things else ,
Jesus I ns I S t e d upon the necessity o f the existence

O f something more than saving faith alone He .
required a social attitude o f mind a h eart o f social ,
love and a spirit o f service G ive freely t o others

, . .
S erve others By giving himsel f f o r oth ers the

.
,
individual will function in the Kingdom o f perfect

love and win oth er individuals to that Kingdom
, .
Jesus re q ui red th at love be substi t uted f o r hate .
U nk i nd deeds must be supplan t ed by k ind deeds .
A cco r din g t o this princi p l e employers and em,
l
p yo e e s must learn t o love one anot h er ; and busi ~
ness mus t be p ut upon th e bas i s o f love and service .
Go vernment m ust be a ser i es o f mutual services .
R el i gi on m u s t h arbor no selfi s h ness I n all h uma n

.
rela ti ons h ips J esus re i te r a t ed th e principle : L ove

,
,
love love T h i s i s th e spir i tu ali z ing and sociali z ing

, .
p r i nc i ple b y which Jesus proposed to mak e over the

social p r oc ess .
Paul th e apostle to th e G entiles by vi rtue o f

, ,
140 H I S T OR Y O F S OCI A L T H OUG HT
A bove all th ey s h ould no t recomp ense any man
,
with evil for evil o r fail to feed their enemies i f

,
‘
the la t ter hunger L ove i s the law o f God Perfect

. .
love i s more power ful than principalities and pow

”
ers and even death L ove conque r s all e v il L ove
. .
is more powerful th an might A practical cos .

,
mo p o lit an brother h ood o f man i s o ne of th e funda

’
mental concepts Of Paul s teach ings .
Paul taught th e organic unity o f man k ind I n .
th e perfec t C hristian order each indi v i dual h as a

s peci fic function to perform w h ic h i s a p ar t of th e
whole process Paul compares this si t uation t o th e
.
h uman body in whic h th ere are many o rgans each ,
performing its individual but co r related fun c t ion .
N o one liveth t o h imsel f no o ne die th t o h imsel f

, .
Every individual even in dying influence s th e s o

, ,
cial equilibrium and aff ec t s g r oup p rogress A ll .
indiv i duals i n th e pe r fec t Kingdom are co lab o re r s -
and co opera t o r s Wh a t eve r weak en s o ne i nd i

-
.
2 -
vidual weak ens socie t y ; w h a t e v e r s tr en gt h en s t h e

individual s t ren gt h ens soc i e ty p r o v i d i n g th a t ,
s tr engt h i s us ed s o cie t arily .
A no th e r fundamen t al ele m e n t in th e soc i al

thought o f Paul was h i s concep t o f sin S in i s s e .
cially and indiv i dually des t ruc t ive T h e wages o f .
sin a generic t erm is dea th Paul made a lon g

- —
.
lis t of social sins namely : cov e t ousne ss maliciou s

, ,
ness d r unk enn e s s wan t onne ss dis h o n e s ty fraud

, , , , ,
s t ealin g fo r nica t i on m u r d e r I n nea r ly all h is let

, , .
t er s Paul wa rn e d h is f o ll o w e r s aga i n s t th e evils

‘ "
,
E ARLY C H RIS T I A N SOCIA L T H OUG HT 14 1
which bese t mankind H e urged p eople to beware

.
’
o f the appearance o f doing evil Paul s rule of .
conduc t was the A ri sto t elian mean : B e t emperate

in all t hin g s .
O n the o t he r hand Paul cited long lists o f V ir

,
tues L o v e is continually urged Temperance

. .
,
mee kness gentleness honesty purity and j ustice

, , , ,
’
are repea t edly stressed Paul s description o f a
.
good man and bi shop i s the delineation o f th e ch ar

acter o f a social citiz en who i s t emperate a good
, ,
h usband who is no t mercenary nor covetous and

, ,
who ruleth well his h ousehold with good reputation ,
and chara c te r .
’
I n all Paul s though t right eous living was u p
,
p e r m o s t C .heerful giving was commended The .
s t rong should bear the infirmit ie s o f th e weak not ,
only f o r th e s ak e o f the weak bu t in order t hat th e,
strong may not become self centered -

.
Paul taught a gospel o f peace He deprecated .
stri fe between individuals H e trusted in the opera.
tion o f the law o f love L ove will bring order o u t

.
o f confusion and peace o u t o f discord

,
The social .
Kingdom o f Go d motivated by love moves o r

, ,
d e rly harmoniously and const ructively

, ,
.
Paul firmly supported th e family as an essential

institution o f society H e admonished children t o
.
obey th eir paren t s t o honor their fathers a nd

,
mothers H e commanded wives to O bey their hus

.
bands and husbands t o love thei r wives even as

,
Christ loved th e church and as men love them

selves. He commanded men to remain true in the
marriage relation and to ke e p the s in gle standa r d
,
o f moral s inviola t e .
The dangers of wealth were frequently pointed

o u t by Paul We brought no riches into this li fe ;
.
we can no t take any riches o u t R iches continually .
subj ect us to temptations snares and lusts The , , .
love o f money i s the root O f all Th e greatest

weal t h which any person can acquire i s the wealth
o f good deeds done to other p ersons .
The thought o f Paul concerning law is exceed

ingly modern L aw is no t f o r the righteous ; law
.
i s for the lawless and disobedient The honest and .
righteous and j ust are above the law in the sense

that a well mated husband and wi fe are above the
—
law o f divorce I f there were none other than

.
happily mated husbands and wives there would be

—
no need o f divorce laws I n a similar way i f per

.
,
f e ct love prevailed among all people law could be ,
entirely discarded Th e teachings o f Paul run the

.
gamut of brotherly love Paul thought in terms Of

.
concepts such as these : being well grounded in love ; -
abounding in love ; let brotherly love continue ;

the love O f C hrist constraineth Paul carried a .
message o f love t o all men and e s tablished the

w
,
’
church as a home f o r all h o would accept Chirs t s
message of love .
The apostle James spoke in no uncertain terms o f

the democracy o f Go d th e need o f helping the weak
, ,
the dangers o f riches the evils o f stri fe and the

, ,
144 H IS T ORY OF SOCIAL T H OUG HT
mus t be re educated The right sort o f men will
-
.
produce the right sort o f social structure and t h e

prop er typ e o f social process and society C hri s .
t ia nit y indicated socialized principles o f conduct
which the disciples o f C hristianity must accept .
2
( ) The F atherhood o f G od i s made a cardinal
principle o f t h e Kingdom Wh en all persons recog .
nize the F atherhood o f God they will have a strong ,
ti e binding th em toge t h er and imp elling them t o

regenerated livin g .
( )
3 The u niversal brother h ood o f m an i s a
natural corollary o f the principle of t h e F atherhood
o f Go d .When everyone recognizes th e underlying
brotherhood o f all individuals th e prej udices of
w
,
race which no so bitterly di v ide mank ind will b e

gin to dissolve .
( )
4 Marriage i s a divine right and h usbands ,
and wives shall wor k t oge t h er in behal f o f their

children The family i s the chief social insti t ution
.
which the N ew Testament writers supported .
5
( ) L ittle children set examples of simple fait h
and trus t They call f o r sacri fice and trans form
.
paren t s into altruistic beings .
6
( ) Early C hristian though t was missionary .
I t was no t sel f centered I t said : G o I t drove o u t

—
. .
its adherents unto all forms o f unselfi sh living I t .
required that its followers help the sick preach the ,
gosp el travel int o foreign lands I t was an activity

,
.
religion I t defined in living terms the dynamic and

.
driving principle O f love .

C H APT ER I X
SO CI AL T H OUGH T I N T HE M I DDL E A G E S
The social th ought o f th e Middl e A ges was in

part a reflection o f the unse t tled social conditions ,
and in part an outgrowth o f the thought and li fe

of th e five centuries which intervened be t ween th e
beginning o f the Christian Era and the F all o f
Rome During these cen t uries th e C hurch F ath ers
.
moved away from th e pristine C hri stian teachings .
While they accepted th e underlying social nature o f

mankind and b elieved that government and social
organization were necessary in order t o curb evil
t endenci es their teachings t reated government as a
,
di v ine institution and transformed rulers into

super powerful beings with divine rights The
-
.
autocratic rathe r than th e democratic element in

governmen t r eceived suppor t .
The strong R oman bias f o r o r ganiza t ion and

administration was builded in t o the church the
result was the p owerful C hurc h o f R ome ith its w
h ierarchal structure A fter th e F all o f R ome th e
.
—
Roman proclivity for centralization o f governmen t

lived o n and produced within the C hurch a center
of power tha t has been th e marvel o f church
his t ory .
146 H I S T ORY O F S OCI A L TH O U G HT
T h e C hu r ch F a the r s di r e c ted the a t tention o f the
p eo p le t o th e n ext wo r ld and t o p r epa r at i on t he r e
fo r S acra m e n ta l and s a c r i fic i al m e th od s o f sal v a
.
tion were elabora t ed T h e importance o f i m prov

.
ing social conditions wa s i gnored I n fact th e in .

,
j ustices in the current social order were considered

as disciplinary measures f o r the soul in its prepara
tion f o r the next world The improvement o f liv
.
ing conditions was con s idered to be was t ed e f fort ,
i f not indicative o f h eretical tendencies o f mind .
By th e third century loyalty t o creed had become

,
a dominant note in C hristianity The poor con

‘
stituted a decreasing influence in church li fe ; wealth

was e x erting u nCh ris t ian influences The aristo .
cratic elements in church organization began to

trans form the poor into a special class within the
church Poverty was no t viewed preventively By
. .
the time of the F all o f R ome the poor had become

O bj ects upon which to bestow alms as a means o f
expiating sin .
Th e greates t o f the L atin F athers was S aint

A ugustine ( 3 5 4 A mong other works he
w
,
wrote a large set o f twenty t o volumes under t h e—
title o f T h e City o f Go d I n thi s gigantic under

.
taking social th ought was submerged beneath theo

lo gi cal discussions A part o f the argument i s de
.
voted t o an explanation o f t h e F all of R ome The .
leading causal elements are described as economic

factors such as the rise o f luxury ; and religious
,
unbelie f such as the worship of pagan gods A u

,
.
~
148 H I S T ORY O F SOCIAL TH OU G HT
nobles th e clergy and the p easant s The nobl e s
, , .
were th e r ulers and exercised m ilitary prerogatives .
The clergy were either the privileged subj ects o f

the nobles o r else t hrough the institution which
,
they represented they acquired land power Th e .
peasants often despised the nobles alth ough th ey ,
worked for and supported t h em .
A s an outgrowth o f feudal industry various

forms o f guilds o r industrial organizations flour
is h e d from th e tenth t o th e fi fteenth centuries .
S ometimes th e masters and wor k men j ointly b e

longed t o guilds a s in the case O f t h e merchant
,
guilds S ometime s the guilds became local mo no p

.
o lie s
. A lways they possessed th e aim of improving
th e conditions o f th e membership .
Th e r eli gious wars or C rusades of th e eleventh

, ,
t o the thirteenth centuries inaugur a ted many

changes They gave the restless nobility maj or
.
themes of at t ention and even removed many nobles

through death in battl e from the European arena .
They crea t ed intellectual unrest They enlarged

.
th e horizons o f many individuals and gave rise to

skepticism T h ey led to the R eformation
. .
S ocial th ought in the Middle A ges received a

considerable stimulus from Teutonic sources The .
barbarous Teutons contribute d ideas o f freedom .
They increased t h e emphasis upon the individ u al .
“
They were rough bold exponents o f personal lib
,
”
e rt y,
and disregarded mere churchly procedure ,
social traditions and some o f the finer ideals of li fe

,
M EDI ZEVAL SOCI A L TH OU G HT 149
and ch aracter O n the other hand chivalry and

.
,
k nighthood were perhaps Of Teutonic origin .
The church utilized chivalry I t became th e .
duty o f th e k night to defend the church and that

which belonged to the church C hivalry b ecame a.
form o f social discipline which ruled in th e latter

part o f the Middle A ges I t softened manners and
.
became t he sponsor f o r virtue It remained how .

,
ever a modi fied military struc t ure with military

,
t raditions .
The rise O f sch olasticism t ook place in opposition

t o monasticism I n the ninth century the l ead
.
ing thinkers h ad no t advanced beyond the co nce p

tion o f a natural social state characterized by ,
chaotic conditions and organized by political ma

,
chinery By the t wel fth century only t h e faintest

.
glimmerings o f a doc t rine o f popula r sovereignty

h ad be gun t o appea r T h e t h ough t o f th e day was
.
largely theological .
The church through i t s systems o f monasteries

h ad maintained centers where religious and intel
lectual t raditions had been preserved These cen .
t ers were undoubtedly important fac t ors in co ns e rv

ing much th at was valuable in an age w h en ruth
less disregard f o r civilized values prevailed .
Because o f the abuses which sprang up in co n

ne ct io n wi th th e monasteri es certain positive rea c
,
t ions a gainst the monasteries arose S t F ranci s o f . .
A ssisi ( 1 18 1 12 2 6 ) turned from th e monastery t o

-
actual li fe H e inau gu rated a method fo r th e re

.
15 0 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL T H OUG HT
generation of society He and his followers lived
.
and s p ent th e m selves a m ong th e actual poo r s u b ,
j e c t in g t h emselve s t o the economi c cond i tions of

the poor They helped the poor not by giving alms
.
,
as an expiation for sin and to secure sel f salvation -

,
bu t by the firs t hand giving O f their lives S t

-
. .
F rancis ignored t h e regular ecclesiastical conception

o f charity and g ave it all the reality o f a new a nd
genuine social force By renouncing the possession

.
of property and living as the poor live he O btained ,
what he could secure in no o th er way the poor —
’
man s point o f vi ew I n this way also he secured
.
, ,
’
an entrance into th e poor man s mind and heart
that could not be had so well by any other method .
By renouncin g wealth and accepting literal poverty

he reached the core of the problem of poverty S t . .
F ranci s was motivated by a desire to live a li fe o f

love He spent no t wealth but h is li fe for the poor
. .
S cholasticism developed as a reaction against

church ly asceticism A ccording to scholasticism
.
th e individual should look to reason rather than t o

church dogma for religious and spiritual guidance .
S cholasticism repudiated church traditions as a

guide f o r individual action ; it t u r ned t o A risto
telian logic for its tec h nique .Thomas A quinas
( 1 22 6 the best k nown of the sc h olastic
philos o phe r s pus h ed forward the Ar i s totelian
,
premises as follows : Man i s a social being : h e

unites with oth e r individual s in a social organiz a
w
tion in ord er t o gain hi s o n purposes The indi .
15 2 H I S T ORY O F S O CI A L TH OU G HT
o f th e successive stages in social li fe This dis .
t ingu ish e d historian urged that history should con

sider not simply rulers dynasties and wars but also
, , ,
racial factors climatic forces the laws of associa

, ,
ti on and the stages of associative li fe H e wished

, .
t o make history scienti fic even a social science He

, .
formulated an evolutionary doctrine o f social prog

ress He evolved a spiral theory o f social e vo lu
.
tion beginning with the crudest primitive li fe and

,
ending with t h e mos t civiliz ed urban li fe .
I n th e latter par t of the fourteen t h century Eng ,
land s great popular poet William L angland wrote

’
, ,
an allegorical poem entitled P ie rs P lo u ghman ,

.
I n t h i s work th e oppressed laboring and peasan t

classes cry aloud their longings for improved co n
d it io ns They are personi fi ed in Piers t h e Plough
.
man w h o as a digni fied laborer plays f o r th e

, ,
fi rst time the leading mi le in serious thought He

w
.
is t h e l eader o f a fi eld o f all types of people h o

are laboring t ogether and longing f o r a better social
order A long with the agricultural laborer s we
.
see weavers and tailors friars and minstrels me r

, ,
chants and k nights L abor o f every sort i s digni

.
fie d A ll living laborers who wor k with their h ands

.
and minds t ruly earning living in love and accord

, ,
ing t o th e laws o f social order and progress will ,
become the pure and perfec t ed leaders o f t ruth .
L angland depicted well th e living and work ing

conditions o f the English laboring classes Pro .
du ct ive t oil he argued will receive i t s crown o f

, ,
MED I E V A L SOCIA L TH OU G HT 15 3
glory Bu t h e did not indicate practical solutions

. .
L angland was sure h owever th at t h e service of

, ,
labor to socie ty is sacred H e pronounced patient

.
poverty to be th e prince o f all vi rtues He personi .
fie d Jesus in th e form o f a wor k ing man L ang .
’
land s fourteenth century social message was tha t
th e individual should renounce wealth j oin th e ,
’
honest laboring poor and follow Ch r i st s example
,
1
o f living a li fe o f labor and love .
S ocial though t in t h e Middle A ge s i s fra g

mentary While several cen t uries are included in
.
the period new social ideas a r e ve ry few The cen

, .
t u rie s Of unrest and t ransition th e pauci t y o f grea t

,
leaders th e intellectual s t a gnation and th e prev

, ,
ale nt illi t eracy o f t he masses produced si t ua t ion s in
which little social thinking o f impo r tance was stim

u lat e d . N ew t h ought o f any type was almos t ne g
ligible excep t as an isolated individual stood forth ,
such as A ugustine Ch arlemagne I bn Khaldun

, , ,
A quinas A por t ion o f th e social thinking o f th e

.
preceding age h owever was p r eserved constitu t ing

, , ,
a foundation f o r th e r enaissance of social th ough t

th a t was c omin g .
C H APT ER X
M O RE AN D U T O P I A N S O C I A L T H O U G HT
S hortly after th e c lose of Middle A ges with its

modicum o f social thinking the idealism o f Plato
,
appeared in a new form namely in descriptive , ,
utopias O f these the chief and subtlest was the

.
,
’
work o f England s sane shrewd tolerant student
, ,
’
o f society S ir T h omas More ( 1 4 78
, More s
Ut o p ia deserves a degree o f at t ention which is no t
customarily accorded it .
More mediated Plato to modern social philos

o p h y ; he moved in the field o f Pla t onic ideas and
’
ideals H e was also indebted t o Plutarch s account
.
O f S partan li fe A t the dawn o f the R enaissance

.
he presen t ed th e con c ept of a pe r fect common

wea lth .
I f o ne would understand the social th ought o f

More a contemporary O f C olumbus he must put
, ,
himself under the spell o f fi fteenth and sixteenth

century conditions in England He must r emind .
him s el f o f Henry V I I and Henry V I I I t wo auto ,
cra t ic rulers whom i t was difficult f o r any individ

nally mind e d pe r s on to pleas e
-
T h e living c ondi
.
t ions o f th e peasants were almos t intole r able Un .
employmen t was co mmon Puni shments were se .

15 6 H I S T O R Y O F SOCI A L TH OUG H T
prevailed are painted in gloomy colors T h e reader .
is glad to turn from thi s unpleasant social picture

to th e description in part two o f Ut o p ia where t h e ,
peop l e are living under well ordered conditions

-
.
The ideal commonwealth i s located on the mys

tical island of A mau ro t e where R aphael Hyth lo
,
day lived f o r five years O n this i sland the e co

.
nomic and social li fe i s communistic somewhat ,
’
after the manner o f Plato s R e p u blic I t i s a funda
.
mental communism which More pos t ulates C om .
p l e t e communism o f goods exi sts o n A ma u ro t e .

1
A ll possess equal portions Of weal th T h e U topian

.
communistic state impli es a r adical ch ange i n h u

man nature More justi fies communism on the
.
g rounds tha t i t roots out that serious social evil ,
covetousness . L ikewise th e incentive for stealin g

2
,
and plundering is r emoved I f th ere i s a scarcity

.
o f economic commodities in any par t o f U topia the ,
surplus in any oth er part i s immediately drawn

upon to meet th e need T h us th e whole land con
.
’
ducts itsel f as i f it were o ne family or h ousehold .
Th e guiding principle i n regard t o economic goo ds

i s that o f human needs .
I n U topia everyone finds h is grea t es t pleasure

in giving t o others The s t rongest league o f p e o
.
ples o r of nations is not that which i s united ch iefly

by covenants o r treaties bu t o ne which i s k nit to
,
w
4
geth er b y love and a benevolent atti t ude The .
s t rongest leagu e in th e world is that h ich i s based

o n t h e fellowship o f k indred na t ur e s a genuine
—
U T O P IA N SOCI A L TH OU G HT 15 7
Christian broth erhood of nations .
I n U topia agriculture i s the most highly re

,
s p e ct e d occupation A griculture is a science in

.
which all U topian men and women are expert I n .
th e harvest days th e urban people both m en and ,
women ( farmerettes ) go o u t into the country and

5
help ga t her in the crops U rban and rural co
.
’
operation at harvest time solves the farmer s em
ployment problems to the pleasure good feeling , ,
and advantage o f all concerned The food ques .
ti on is considered o f param o unt national import

ance The agricul t uris t i s e q uipped with the best
.
6
tools and follows intensive methods .
I n addition to agricultural science eve ry citizen ,
o f U topia learns at least o ne trade o r craft

7
Even .
every woman learns a S killed trade The a dvan .
tages of learning a trade by every citizen are Ob vi

o us
—
they include a great increase in the potential
industrial resources of a people The question .
may be raised here i f it would not be a worth while

,
-
asset f o r every citizen in o u r modern days to learn

a trade S uch an accomplishmen t would gi ve a
.
sense o f economic independence t o every individ

ual ; it would a ff ord to everyone th e point of view
Of the skilled workman ; it would add a gigantic
potential force t o production .
I n U topia there i s o ne leader o r s yph o grant to

, , ,
every thirty families A lthough there are other

.
officers includi ng a prince f o r each city and a ki ng

,
f o r th e island th e syph o grant s are in reality the

,
15 8 H IS T ORY OF SOC IA L TH OUG HT
leading o fficials I t i s n o t e orth y that no public
. w
matte r s are t o b e de c ided un til t h ey h av e b e e n co n
s id e red and debated f o r at l e a s t th r e e d ays By .
thi s sc i enti fi c p ro c edure the ne c e ss i ty o f r e s cinding

hasty le gi slati v e action is redu c ed t o a min imum .
A n important duty o f the syph o grant s i s to

regulate employment N o t only is e v eryone in
.
U topia to have a trade but all are t o work There

, .
are no idle poor or idle rich A ll rich men com .

,
“ ”
mo u ly called gentlemen all women priests
, , ,
monks and friars ( excep t a few ) engage in pro

,
d u ct ive labor . Even the syp h o grant s o r officials , ,
work spontaneously A ll useless occupations are

.
prohibited I n countri es wh e re the dollar rules

.
,
there are many vain occupations which serve onl y

8
to augment riotous s u p e rfl u it ie s Thus since all .
,
persons work and since only needed occupations

are permitted in U topia the working day i s short
,
ened to six hours .
I n the case o f a season of unemployment the ,
simple device is adopted o f shortening temporarily

the labor day By cutting down the hours o f labo r
.
t o four a day during an unemployment period
work is provided f o r all When an individual it .

,
may be added visits hi s friends he works the same

, ,
as i f he were at home He sets himself t o the task

.
in which his friends are engaged N o one in .
U topia is encumbered with visitors who sit about

doing nothing and at the same time hi nder their
hosts from productive activities .
hou s e h as a ga r den plot F ur th ermore t h e people
.
, ,
take much pride in their gardens ; t hey compete with

o ne another endeavoring to excel in the frui t age
,
”
and in the beauty o f th e gardens .
C ity planning rules in U topia O vercrowding .
is not permitted ; whenever a city ex ceeds t h e norm ,
a new city i s es t ablished N ew urban communities

.
are established by public action .
S ocial centers are common o n t h e i sland o f

A mau ro t e I n th e winter when th e people cannot
.
work in th eir gardens after th e supper h our they ,
gather in their community halls where they engage ,
in music wholesome conversation and games

, , .
Dice play and similar foolish and pernicious games

-
are unknown 12 “
Wine taverns alehouses s t e e s
.
,
”
, w ,
lurking corne r s and places o f wick ed c ounsels are

,
”
prohibited .
Good health i s a vir t ue in A mau ro t e great pleas

ure is derived from possessing a well ordered sta t e -
O f public health H ealth i s considered a sovereign

.
pleasure in itself Preventi v e measures are sub

.
stituted f o r remedial medicines .
F ashions are regu lated rigidly F ashion imita .
tion is preven t ed T h e garments for men are all

.
15
of o ne mode ; and f o r women o f anoth er mode ,
.
The marri ed are distinguished from t h e unmarried

by the style o f wearing apparel Thus there are .
,
simply four sets o f styles in A mau ro t e C oats O f .
uni form colors th e natural color o f wool are

w
— —
orn I t i s argued that coats o f many colors are

.
U T O P IAN SOCIAL TH O UG HT 16 1
no warmer and hence no more practical than coats

o f the o ne nat u r al c ol o r ; they are m o r e e x pensive
and hence more wasteful .
I n U topia gold and silver are held in reproach

, .
They are no t considered t o be as useful as iron .
C onsequently the U topians load down their slaves

,
”
with gold and silver ornaments and pearls In .
this connection the description o f the vi sit of a

group o f ambassadors to A mau ro t e i s amusing .
The ambassadors from an adj oining country were

dressed in gorgeous apparel like the very gods .
They came t o A mau ro t e wearing chains o f gold

and di splaying peacock feathers The citizens o f .
A ma u ro t e coming O ut to meet the guests rushed

, ,
past the ambassadors and saluted the plainly

dressed slaves o f the ambassadors They mistook .
the ambassadors f o r fools and knaves Even the .
little children of A mau ro t e when they saw the j ew ,
w
e lry o f the ambassadors looked at their mothers
,
“
and sai d S ee h o great a lubber doth wear
,
pearls and precious stones as i f he were still a little

,
”
child . A fter being in A mau ro t e a short time
17
,
the ambassadors perceived how foolish it was to

set emphasi s o n the doubtful glis t e nings of trifling
stones They recognized that it is foolish t o co n
.
sider onesel f nobler than other selves because o ne

ca n wear clothes that are spun from finer wool than
the clothes o f other persons A fter all w h ether the .

,
wool i s coarse o r fine it may have come from the

,
self same sheep

-
.
16 2 H I S T ORY O F SOCI A L T H OUG HT
A n individual doe s no t become a god by wearing
precious stones Th e more th e individual burdens
.
himsel f with hea vy s t ones and gorgeous appa r el ,
the more insignificant h e is .
A lthough in Ut opia no man is w ealth y ye t in a ,
sense all men are wealthy A ll li v e j oyfully with

, .
,
ou t worrying and without fearing that th ey o r

,
thei r children will fall into poverty A mau ro t e i s .
a gi gan t ic household wherein the more able t ak e

,
a personal interest in th e less able and in th e u n

fortunate N o one li v es in i dl eness and n o one
.
lives by vir t ue of any form o f unneces s ary economic

enterprise R ich men are not permitted by eith er
.
private fraud o r common law t o snatc h away f r o m ‘
the poor man some por t ion great o r small of hi s , ,
daily earnings There are no idle rich conniving

.
,
how they may k eep th eir unearned wealth o r h ow

they may grind down the poor in o r der t o get more
wealth S ince th e love o f money i s unk nown in
.
A mau ro t e oth er passions are also absen t

, S ince .
the people do no t love money th ey h a v e lo s t th e ,
desire t o perpetrate t h e money crimes such as ,
fraud th eft murder treason L ikewise pride

, , , .
,
which measures its sa tis faction not in terms of its ,
own merits pe r s e but by comparison with the pov

, ,
e rt y o f human beings is destroyed The U topians

,
.
have conquered materialism T h ey are no t subj ect .
to the death grapples which are caus ed by th e love

o f money L uxuries h ave been suppressed and th e
.
lei sure class has b een elimina t ed S o cial extr e mes .

16 4 H I S T ORY OF SOC IAL TH OUG HT
pians never weary A s a matte r of course a com
.
,
mon school education i s provided for every indi

vidual C lasses f o r adults and adult education are
.
made t h e outstanding features of the public school

system in A mau ro t e O ne must learn t o live and
.
must go on learning throughout li fe H ence the .

,
provi sions of public education should be adequate

for the adult as well as f o r the adolescent .
R eligious education and practice are considered

’
essential More s tolerant attitude in an age o f
.
brutal intolerance i s shown by the fact that the U to

pians are permitted whatever reli gi on they pre fer .
S uperstitious beliefs are taboo More makes a .
subtle thrust when he observes that the priests O f

A ma u ro t e are p o s s e s e d o f great holiness and hence
”
are few in number I t i s no esoteric or monastic
.
religion which More endorses F uture happiness .
may be secured best by busy labors and social e f forts

”
in this li fe Public service including the care o f
.
,
the sick i s religiously emphasized

, .
War is beastly C ontrary to the attitudes o f the

.
people in all other countries the people of A mau ,
rote count nothing so inglorious as the glory that i s

”
O btained in fighting and killing N o imagina t ion
.
i s necessary in order t o understand the courage

which More displayed in making a V igorous attack
in the sixteenth century u p o n a r ~
w .
U nder limited conditions however war i s j u s t ifi

, ,
able More gives three wor th y reasons for d e cla r

.
’
ing war : ( 1 ) the defense o f one s own country ;
U T O P IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 16 5
’
2
( ) the defense of t h e country o f one s friendly
neighbors ; and ( 3 ) delivering oppressed peoples
”
anywhere from the yoke and bondage of tyranny .
F rom t h e twentieth century point of V iew these ,
j ustifications o f war are sound .
“
These reasons are all defense factors which ,
—
is remarkable in V i ew o f the fact that they were

“ ”
enunciated in an age when o ff ensive wars were
common . The only reason for assuming the
o ff ens ive in matters o f war i s the social o ne o f tak
ing land away from people who delibe r ately wi th
hold land from cultivation and fail t o produce
food f o r the nourishment o f mankind By th is
plan More severely indicts th e holders o f large
,
landed estates which are held chiefly for the selfi sh

grati fication O f the owners .
Hired o r mercenary soldiers are employed in

war The people o f A mau ro t e employ hideous
.
,
savage fighters from the wild woods and the high

mountains t o d o their fighting f o r them The .
larger the number of these impetuous barbarians

w h o are killed in battle the better O ff i s the world
,
.
More opposed conscription O rdinarily no o ne

.
,
is forced to fight because under s u ch circumst a nces

,
h e will not figh t well I n the case however o f de

.
, ,
fending A mau ro t e the cowa r ds are distributed

,
among th e bold hearted I n warfare the people of

-
w
.
,
A mau ro t e do no t allo thei r warriors to lay waste

o r dest r oy the land o f th eir enemies N either for
.
aging no r the burning o f food supplies i s permit

166 H I S T O RY O F S OCIA L TH OUG HT
.
’
w
ted N o o ne h o is unarmed i s to be h urt .
More s penological ideas are modern H e points .
o u t the folly o f making theft a capital O ff ense the
same as murder T h e tempta t ion will be to steal

.
,
o r rob and to kill also where as under a more rea

, ,
sonable law t h e temptation in many cases would be

to steal only A law which makes theft a capital
.
o f fense i s harsher than even the h arsh Mosaic law

O f an eye f o r an eye a li fe for a li fe because the
, ,
former j us t ifies t h e governmen t in t a k ing the li fe

of an individual w h o is guilty of stealing money .
I n U topia the thief i s compelled t o restore the s t olen

goods to the person from whom h e stole and no t t o ,
’
the kin g as in many lands in More s t ime The
, .
thi ef i s put at common labor not thrown in t o a cit V

,
o r county j ail and left in idleness C ompu lsory

.
”
labor i s the common method O f punis h men t .
The fundamental penological principle whic h

More developed was that crime should be prev en t ed
”
by tak ing away the occasion o f o ff ense He con .
d e mne d the prevailing method in England of allow

ing wick edness to increase and then o f punishing
,
the sinners after t h ey had been p ermi t ted to grow

up in an environment of sin He obj ected t o tak
.
ing men from the trades f o r war service and t hen

later i rresponsibly disch arging th em leaving many ,
o f th em industrially stranded unemployed and sub

, ,
’
j e ct to t h e t emp t ation o f s t ealing More s dict
. u m
was : S how people how t o live ; do not let th em steal
and then tak e th ei r lives away L i fe in U to p ia i s
.
Tommaso C ampanella ( 1 5 68 a monk a ,
philosopher and an I talian contemporary o f F ran

,
c is Bacon urged that human nature should be stud

,
ie d rather than books B ecause o f s o called here t

.
-
ical ideas he was imprisoned f o r twenty seven

,
-
years S hortly after his release he fled to Pari s

.
,
where he died I n pri son h e wrote Th e City o f t h e

.
S u n a crude but signi ficant psychological analysi s

,
o f society I t is a social order based on th e b alanced

.
relations o f the three principles o f Power I nt e lli ,
gence and L ove These forces are equally ex

, .
e x pressed i n the social process and produce a per

feet socie t y
’
Oce a na a Midsummer N ight s D ream o f poli
,
”
tics i s the title O f a romance which was written by
,
James Harrington ( 1 6 1 1 His social order

rests on economic factors chiefly landed estates ,
.
However the author advocates the elec t i on o f

,
rulers by ballot every t hree years and the choos i ng

o f th e rulers from the intellectually élite .
I n thi s chapter it is impossible to note all the

”
utopias that have been written The utopian and .
communi stic systems of socialists such as F ourier , ,
S aint S imon and O wen will be referred t o in Ch ap

,
ter ! I V There are oth er imp o rtant utopian co n

.
t rib u t io ns such as those by William Morris and

w w
,
Edward Bellamy I n N e s fro m N o h e re Wil .

,
liam Morri s ( 18 34 an English arti st and

socialist describes his native England as a per
,
f e ct e d society under a régime o f socialism Because .

UT O P IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 16 9
’
o f its A mer i can setting Bellamy s L o o k ing B a ck
w
,
ard will be presented in some detail in the follow
ing para gr ap h s .
I n recent decades the utopian postulates o f Ed

ward B ellamy ( 1 8 5 0 in L o o k ing B ack ard w
and E q u a lity have had a wide reading The author .
was the fi rst A merican to command attention in the

field of utopian thought B ellamy presents a pla n
.
O f industrial organization o n a national scale with

individuals sharing equally in the products of labor ,
“
o r in public income in the same way that men
,
share equally in the free gi fts of nature Bellamy .
protests against an economic order whose chi ef evil

is summed up in the following question : How can
men be free who must ask the right t o labor and
to live from their fellows and seek their bread from
,
the hand O f others ?
S ociety is likened t o a gigantic coach t o which

the masses o f h umanity are harnessed toiling along ,
a very hilly and sandy road The best seats are o n

.
t o p o f the coac h The occupants o f the elegant seats

.
are constantly in fear o f falling from their cushions

o f ease splendor and power
. ,
and hence their in
,
-
t e re s t in the toilers
w
.
I n L o o k ing B a ck ard the entire social process

is made an e x pression o f service S ervice is a mat .
ter o f course no t o f comp u ls i on N o business i s so

,
.
’
fundamentally the public s busin e ss as the industry
and trade o n which th e livelihood o f the public de
”
pends . Therefore t o intrust industry and co m
,
170 H I S T ORY OF S OCIA L T H OUG HT
merce t o private persons to be managed for private
“
profit is a folly similar to that o f surrendering the
functions o f political government to kings and
”
nobles f o r their personal glori fication .
Buying and selling are pronounced anti social —

.
They are an education in self seeking at th e expense-
”
of others . C itizens who are so trained are unable
”
to rise above a very low grade o f civiliza t i on .
They are sensible chiefly to such mo t ives as fear

o f want and love o f luxury F or buying and sell
.
ing credit books are substituted w h ich a r e good a t

,
any public warehouse I n place o f h igher wages

.
,
’
the chief motives to activity are h onor men s grati ,
tude the inspiration o f duty pa t rio t i s m th e satis

, , ,
’
faction o f doing one s work well in oth er word s
w
—
the same mo t ives tha t no influence f o r example

‘
, ,
the members o f t h e teaching profession .
The arduousness o f the t rades are equalized so ,
tha t all s h all be equally attractive by mak ing t h e ,
h ours of labor in di ff eren t trades t o di ff er inve r s ely

according t o arduousness Eve r yone wor k s as a
.
common laborer f o r th ree years and t h en ch ooses

an occupation agricul t ure mech an i cs th e p ro f e s
—
, ,
sions art The working li fe is t wen ty fou r years

, .
-
long from the ages of t wen ty one t o for ty fiv e

,
- -
,
after which all may devo t e th e m s e lves t o s el f im -
provemen t and enj oymen t, bu t subj ec t t o emer g ency

calls along indus t rial and o ther social service lines .
B ellamy ch allenge s an individualism w h ich inca

p acit a t e s people f o r co opera
—
t i on . He builds h is
world wi de ra t her than local in scope
-
.While t h e
au t h or provides a changed economic sys t em social
,
is t ic in nature he urges that changed social atti

,
tudes are also needed .
I n the utopian social thought that has been pre

sented in this chapter and in similar works which
are not mentioned here there I S generally displayed
( )
1 a common weakness o f impracticability under
current circumstances ( 2 ) an over emphasis upon
,
-
simply changing the economic order and ( 3 ) static

,
rath er than dynamic principles T h e strength o f

.
utopian social thought is found ( 1 ) in i t s drastic

cri t icism o f current social evils ( 2 ) in its relative
,
harmlessness at the given time ( 3 ) in the force o f

,
its indirect suggestion ( 4 ) in the widespread h ear

,
ing which it secures and ( 5 ) in its social ideali sm

,
.
C HAPT ER XI .
I N DI V I DU A L I S T I C S O C I A L T H O U G H T
A t the dawn o f the R enaissance tradition and ,
dogmatism were ruling mankind Here and there .

,
however individuals were p erceiving the nature of

,
the bondage O ccasionally a cry f o r individual free

.
d o m was uttered Petrarch dared to say that the

.
’
world was made f o r man s enj oyment Th e ear ly .
Teutons crudely developed the idea o f personal lib

e rt y
. I n F rance a movement arose which culmi
“
nat e d in the doctrines o f natural rights and Back
”
to N ature . The stress upon individualism in
England became so deeply ingrained that it exists
today as a powerful form o f traditionali sm The .
U nited S tates was founded in part upon a doctrine, ,
o f natural rights .
A bsolutely unlike S ir Thomas More in many

ways N iccolo Machiavelli ( 146 9
, an I talian
contempo rary broke with t radition and received
,
the sobriquet th e Galileo o f social sci ence U nf o r

,
.
t u na t e ly many people think O f the I talian writer

,
in terms O f the adj ective which bears hi s name ,
Machiavellism or political intrigue While h e d e

,
.
serves thi s reputation h e also should be c onsidered

,
in another light He cu t loose from the customary

.
ways o f thinking of his time and asserted th a t it is
no t necessary t o take all t hings o n fiat o r alleged
divine decree A lth ough this may be dangerous
.
do c trine it serves a useful and const r ucti v e purpose

,
.
when people are ruled by political and ecclesiastical

autocrats Machiavelli was no idealist in t h e ac
.
ce p t e d sens e of the term but a man who mixed wi th

,
people traveled extensively and studied actual c on

, ,
d it io ns .He declared that people should be con

s id e re d as t h ey are and no t according to fal s e
,
teachings about th em .
A century before t h e time o f S i r F ran ci s Bacon ,
t h e inau gurato r of th e so called inductive or s cie n

-
t ific method o f s t udy Machiavelli was O bserving

,
h uman conditions and upon the basis o f these o b

s e rv at io ns was drawing conclusions H e believed .
’
that i t does no t pay t o be guided in one s conduct
by abstract eth i c s or impracticabl e ideals and said —
so in an age when i mprisonment exile or dea t h

, , ,
awaited anyone who opposed the autocratic au t h o ri

ties F rom abs t rac t ethics Machiavelli swung to
.
,
the extreme o f concrete expedi ency He lived and .
th o ught in the exigencies of t h e moment He i s .
an example o f one who reac t s so strongly against

the stress and strain of th e hour th at he cannot get
th e larger vi sion th at is necessary f o r balanced
thinking o n fundamental i ssues .
Machiavelli wrote o n the subj ect o f leadership

and government H e advocated either an auto
.
cratic o r democratic form of government accord —

H I S T ORY OF SOC I AL TH OUG HT
social t h o u ght has been indicated in the foregoin g
c hapter p laced all s oc ial and so c iolo gic al thinkers
,
under deep obligations by his emphasi s upon induc

tive reasoning He helped t o free the individual
.
from control by dogma and superstition He p ro .
v id e d the individual with a technique f o r securi ng
a new sense O f individual freedom I n freeing him .
sel f t h e individual di scards his i rrational pre j u d g -
ments whether socially inherited o r I ndividually

,
developed H e protects himsel f from anthropo

.
morphic j ud gm ents i e from j udgments which

, . .
,
he makes because he looks upon li fe and the uni

verse through human eyes These pre j udgments .
-
are common t o all ma nk ind th e y are the idols of

“
m
”
the tribe . O n the other hand the individual avoi d s,
purely personal pre ferences which h e is likely t o

w
,
hold becau s e o f hi s o n peculiar experiences a nd ,
which thus place him outside the pale O f common

“ ”
experience these are th e idols O f the cave
—
.
“ ”
Then th ere are the idols o f the forum which ,
cause the individual to give undue dependence to

“ ”
words and language The idols o f the theater
.
’
are traditional systems o f thought Bacon s dictum .
has been stated as follows : G et as little o f your

sel f and o f other selves as possible in the way o f
the thing which yo u wi sh t o see .
Having eliminated human predispositions the in ,
dividual i s ready to gather facts arrange them in ,
groups draw conclusions from them and act a c

, ,
cording t o the resultant laws Knowledge give s .

w
IN D I V I D UALI S T IC SOC IAL TH OUG HT 17 7
power .
4
S ocial k nowledge gives p o e r to i m prove
h u man condi ti ons and make s p ossible wise s ocial
control T h us Ba con o p e ned t h e r o ad t o in di v idual
.
,
fre e d o m .
T o o much individual freedom however destroys , ,
government and the social order I f each indi v idual .
is a law unto himself anarchy reign s and progress

,
is prevented C onsequently t he question arises

.
,
How can individually free persons unite in a society

without givin g up their freedom ? The answer to
this question t ook the form o f a controversy o n t h e
subj ect o f the social contract i e the contract o r , . .
,
agreement o f individual s as units t o form and , ,
maintain societies Thi s controversy arose in the

.
seventeenth cen tury and was waged vigorously in

the eighteent h century .
Thomas Hobbes ( 1 5 8 8 t h e distinguis h ed

social philosopher of England introduced h is analy ,
si s o f society wi t h the idea that man was originally

self centered egoistic and pleasure loving H e was
—
, ,
-
.
an independent center Hi s interest in other people

w
.
was based o n their ability t o cater to his o n good .
He and th ey desired the same things in li fe Hi s .
hand was th us raised in competition against every

, ,
othe r man This state o f continual conflict became

.
!5
mutually destructive and unbearable I n co u se .
q u e n c e each
,
individual agreed t o give over some
o f his precious inalienable rights to a central au
,
t h o rit y o r soverei gn whose decrees should consti

,
tute law and serve as the guide for conduct The .

war o f each against all wi th th e concomitant state
,
of fear was thus supplanted by a mutual contract,

,
conferrin g sovereignty by popular agreemen t upon

the ruler I n this way Hobbes met the dilemma o f
.
supporting an absolute form o f government in

which he believed and o f denying th e di v ine right
o f kings which he abhorred Hobbes performed a
.
useful s ervice in intellectually destroying t h e idea

o f t he divine right of kings but urged af t er all an
,
undemocratic political absoluti sm Hobbes con .
ferred humanly derived but irrevocable auth ority

upon th e k ing He however traced so v ereignty
.
, ,
back to the people rath er than t o a divine right .
“
I n gettin g away from t h e condi tions o f Wa r re
”
O f every one agains t every o ne in th e natural state
”
where every man has a R igh t to every t hing ,
Hobbes swung t o an undemocra tic extreme His .
Puritanic training gave an undue s everi ty to his

social thought The Puritans however believed in
.
, ,
the complete eradication of the sa v age h uman t en

d e ncie s and also in t h e ultima t e elimina t ion of
kings Hobbes did no t analyz e deeply t h e instinct
.
ive bases of h uman na t ure He built h is Le viat han

.
o u t o f natural h uman qualities and tied its units
together by means o f a strong cen tr al will t his ,

—
was his perfec t socie ty .
Baruch S pinoza ( 16 32 th e Por tugu ese

Jewish philosopher of Holland improved th e social ,
contract idea He believed that man was originally

.
o f an an t i social and a too th and fang nature s

p
- - -
o ,
expression o f individuality and necessary to i ndi
v idu alit y .
Right and w r ong are no t determined by th e ruler

or the state ; th ey existed before socie ty developed .
Here the Puritanism of L ock e enters He stressed .
moral values He made the natural rights of indi

.
vid u als supreme individuals may even overturn the
government and still keep within their rights .
L ocke s j ustification o f revolution is his most

’
startling doctrine I magine the heart th rob of the -
w
.
common people h o heard L ocke s con t ention that

’
th e end o f government i s the good of mankind

w
,
that people should not submit to tyranny th at h o ,
ever uses his force without right and law puts him
self in a state of war with those against whom he
uses it and that in such a state the people have a
,
”
right to resist and defend themselves F ur ther .
,
the people have a ri ght to act as the supreme social

force and to put legi slation into new forms and
into the hands o f new executives By these bol d .
declarations L ocke created a new public opinion ,
and aroused new moral power in th e minds and

hearts o f t he common people .
By the middle of the eighteenth century the co n

cept o f individual freedom became crystallized in
the doctrines o f the natural rights o f the individual ,
the contractual societary relationships between in

dependent individuals and the lais s e z faire prin
,
cip le in governmental science The physiocrats

.
,
who took up the ideas o f natural liberty and eco

IN D I V I D UA L I S T I C SOC IAL TH OUG HT 18 1
nomic freedom exercised a tremendous influence in

,
F rance during the three d ecades following 17 5 0 .
Their leaders were Q uesnay de Gournay Co n , ,
d o rce t and Turgot

, Th ey believed that there was
.
a natural law ruling human lives j ust as th ere i s a ,
natural law ruling the physical world They chafed .
under social restraints U nder the natural law

.
,
every individual has natural rights chief of which ,
i s the right to th e free exercise o f all his faculties

so long as h e does not infringe o n the similar right
o f other individuals U nli k e John L ocke and other
.
English th ink ers who accepted th e idea O f indi

vidual liberty th e physiocrats ar gued that this
,
natural liberty could not be abridged by a social

contrac t .
A ccording to the physiocrats th e c h ief function

of governmental control i s to preserve th e na t ural
liberty o f individuals I ndus t ry and commerce
.
must not be governmentally re gula t ed f o r by such ,
regulation the rights of some men ch iefly employ ,
ers will be infringed upon

,
Employees o n the
.
,
oth er hand who are being treated unj ustly will

,
freely quit a h arsh employer and ob t ain employ

ment with considerate masters T h u s an unjust .
,
employer will be unable t o secu r e work ers and be

forced to di scontinue his unj ust practices with out —
government regulation L i k ewise a di sh ones t mer

.
,
chant will lose hi s c u stomers and be fo r c ed to

become honest o r t o clo s e h is s h op and a gain with —
out government regula t ion Th e p h ysiocrats b e

.
'
18 2 H I S T ORY OF SOCIA L TH OUG H T
came k nown by th eir famous phrase lais s ez faire , ,
laiss e z p as s e r
.
Jean Jacques R ousseau ( 17 12 an able but

ba ffling character i s the best known champion of
,
the social contract idea A l though he advocated

.
the family as a social institution and p r aised fath er

h ood h e reports t ha t he carried h is o n children
,
w
to a foundling asylum He depreca t ed the d is in
.
t e grat ing elemen t s in c iviliza t ion and u r ged a re

’
turn t o na ture s simple ways I n his chief works .
,
the Co nt ra t s o cia l and E mile h e attacked civiliza

,
tion v igoro u sly H e asserted tha t civilization h ad

.
almo s t des t royed th e na t ural righ t s o f man Hi s .
dic t um was : Trus t na t ure .
A ccording to R ousseau th e early li fe o f man k ind

was nearly ideal in i t s si m pli c ity and pleasan t ness .
War and conflic t were rela t ively un known I n his .
later w r iting s R ousseau modi fied his belief and

,
asse rt ed tha t primitive confusion made necessary

some k ind o f s o cial o r ganiza t ion O n th e o ther
.
hand it becam e t h e b elie f o f R ousseau t h a t civiliza

,
tion genera t es s ocial evils and result s s oone r o r

later in social dete r iora t ion C orruption in society
.
has become no torious S ocial inequali ty is rampant

.
“
and unbearable . Man i s b o r n free and i s eve r y
,
where in chains People h ave b ecome s o engrossed

.
in the art ificialit ie s o f social li fe and s o bewildered

by its complexities that h appiness has been los t
w
.
L eave th e individual free to carry o u t h is o n .
pla ns un t rammelled by complex social rules re

, ,
th e fi rst governor O f the Massach usetts colony ,
made a clear cut distinction between natural liber

-
ties and civil and moral liberties N atural liber ty

,
.
is liberty t o do what o ne lists t o do evil as well as ,
good C ivil o r moral liberty i s liberty under the

.
, ,
covenant between Go d and man under the political ,
covenants between men and men and under t h e ,
moral law I t i s a liberty t o do only t hat which is

.
”
good just and honest
w
.
, ,
I t was R ousseau h o contended th at li fe liberty , ,
’
and the pursuit o f happiness are man s inalienable
r i ghts I t was thi s doctrine which pro foundly in
.
fl u e nce d Thomas Je f f erson as evidenced in the ,
Declaration o f I ndependence S overeignty rests not .
in a ruler or monarch but in th e community o f

’
people this was perh aps R ousseau s main contri
—
b u t io n to social thought .
B efore R ousseau however wrote the Co ntra t , ,
s o cia l the social contrac t theory had been over

,
-
thrown T h e writings O f Montesqui eu ( 1 68 9 1 7 5 5 )

.
-
O ff er an elaborate analysis o f social and political

processes These analyses are similar in some
.
,
’
ways to A ri stotle s analyses o f 1 5 8 constitutions
,
.
Montesquieu discussed the doct rin e o f natural

rights bu t did no t believe that the natural s t ate of
,
mankind was o ne o f co nflict in which social o r ,
g an iz a t io n was forced as a means o f meeting the

needs o f individual protection H e asser t ed th at .
the r e was a natural innate tendency in man t oward

,
association I n the support o f th i s belie f Mon

.
,
IN D I V I D UALI S T I C SOCIA L TH OUG HT 18 5
t e s q u ie u
d r ew facts from th e lives of th e individual
membe r s o f th e primitive tribes which were extant
in h is day T h e i nfluence o f M o ntesquieu was
.
clearly inimical to the social contract doctrine .
I n the Es p rit d es lo is Montesquieu dissected the

,
laws o f many na t ions and tried to show the rela

tions between these laws and social and political
conditions T h e general implication is that laws
.
are a natural outgrowth O f li fe conditions rather

than o f formal contractual agreements Hence .
,
socie ty is a na t ural evolution rather than a contract .
Perhaps the chie f antagonist in the eighteenth

cen t ury o f the social contract theory was David
Hume 1 7 1 1 1 77 -
the father o f social psychology .
A ccording t o Hume the origin o f society was no t

,
in a contract arrived at by intellectual processes ;

‘
it was ms t inct iv e Man is a social animal A t the

. .
basis o f this sociability lies th e sex instinct w h ich ,
resul t ed in t h e establishment o f the family The .
sex ins t inct i s s t rongly suppor t ed by the sentiment

o f sympathy w h ich also is innate and which may
, ,
develop into intelligent co operation Man i s no t

-
.
entirely sel f centered ; h e takes pleasure in other

—
people s pleasures and su ff ers when others are in

’
pain o r the victims o f disease o r are dying

, ,
.
S ympa th y like th e se x instinct i s a genuinely

, ,
funda m en t al el e men t in h uman na t ure and in

so c i e ty Howev e r th e combination o f sympa thy
.
,
and t h e s e x ins t inct i s not s t rong enou gh t o sup

port th e family in either its simple o r complex
18 6 H IS T ORY O F SOCI A L T H OU G HT
stages from the attacks upon it t h a t are made by
inherent human selfishness H ence social and p o
.
,
lit ical organizations are necessary t o h old th e selfish

impulses and interests o f mankind in check I ntel .
lectual control o f soci ety thus becomes necessary

and consciously recognized Environmen t alone
.
does not cause people in a given comm u ni ty t o act

alike It is imitation primarily which opera t es to
.
, ,
”
bring abou t group conformity .
Man in a large measure i s governed by in t erest .
I t is impossible f o r men to consult th ei r in t eres t s

“
in so e ff ective a manner as by a universal and in
flexible Observance o f the rules of j ustice by whic h ,
alone they can preserve soci e ty and k ee p th em ,
selves from falling into t h at wre t ch ed and savage

condition which i s commonly represen t ed as the
,
” 15
state of nature .
A ccording to the contract theory people ex pect ,
protection and security I f they mee t wi t h tyranny

.
and oppression they are freed from t h ei r pro m ises

,
and return t o th at state o f liberty which p r oceeded

the institution O f government But Hume main .
t aine d th at i f people en t ered in t o no con t ract and
made no promi ses government would s t ill be meces

,
sary in all civilized soci eti es T h e Obligation of sub

.
mission to governmen t i s no t derived fro m any

promise o f the subj ects ”
.
A dam F erguson ( 1 72 3 18 16 ) wro t e an Es s ay o n

-
t h e His t o ry o f Civil S o cie t and T h e His t o r o f t h e

y y
P r o gre s s and Te rminatio n o f t he R o man R e p u blic .
times defeated th e in t ended pur p o s es A dense pop .
u lat io n was favored as a means o f securing cheap
labor and hence O f fur th ering manu facture which

, ,
in turn would develop foreign trade and bring in

the coveted bullion the heralded strength of a
—
nation .
I n the eighteenth century mercantilism in F rance,

.
and England met defeat in the con t est wi t h th e

lais s ez fair e t h eory with which th e names of the
,
physiocrats and o f A dam S mith are inseparably

connected I t often fathered too stringent regula
.
tions I nstead of supporting national ends mer

.
,
cant ilis t ic measures frequently furt h ered p r ivate
in t erests Mercantilism however played a strong

.
, ,
par t in building up the concepts o f national unity

and loyalty .
I n the German states and A us t ria cameralism ,
represented the ideas f o r which mercantilism stood

in England F rance and elsewhere in Western and
, ,
S outhern Europe A mong the leading cameralists

.
were S eckendorf Horing Justi and S onnen fels

, , ,
.
C ameralism ob t ained a far deeper hold upon the

G erman states than mercantilism did f o r example , ,
in England The lais s e z fa ire philosop h y was never

.
able to make a deep inroad upon came r alism I n .
fact th e lais s ez faire p h ilosophy did no t r eceive

,
serious consideration in the G e r man s t a t es b e

fore 18 00 and did no t stri k e deep N ational s el f
, .
s u ffi cie ncy pa t ernalistic control minute re gu la t ion

, ,
o f inte r nal a ff airs rearing o f large families and

, ,
IN D I VI DUALI S T I C SOC IAL TH OU G HT 18 9
subordination of th e wel fare of t h e s ta t e th ese —
a r e the c oncepts which r u l e d i n G e r many .
A dam S mit h ( 172 3 p rimarily an econ

o mi s t and O ften re ferred to as t h e fath er of political
economy exerted a pro found influence upon social

,
thought H e coupled a modi fi ed natural rights

.
theory with a doctrine of sympathy ; he spoke for

the na t ural rights Of the individual O f t he poorer ,
classes in socie ty and o f the smaller nations He

, .
vigorously attacked mercantilism with its system o f

minu t e re gulation o f individuals He obj ected t o .
promo t ing unduly the interests O f o ne class o f men

in a coun tr y f o r by so doing th e interests o f all
, ,
other classes in that country and o f all persons in

17
all other countries are harmed H e pointed out
.
t h e fallacy of building a nation o f shopkeepers f o r ,
in s o doing the government o f such a nation will

be unduly influenced and controlled by the interests
o f shop k eepers The interests o f other classes will
.
be more or less i gnored A dam S mith protested

.
’
again st G reat Britain s methods o f regulating the
A meri c an coloni es T o prohibit the A merican
.
colonies from making all t h ey could of every part

o f their own produce o r from employing thei r stock
and industry in the way that they j udged most a d

“
va nt age o u s to themselves was a mani fest violation
,
of the most sacred rights o f

Mercantili sm made use o f monopoly of o ne kind
o r another and hence is obj ectionable according t o
, ,
S mith M er c antili sm is regulation and regulation

.
,
190 H I S T ORY OF S OCIA L TH OU G HT
is often carried o n f o r the benefit o f the rich and
”
powerful thus neglecting and oppressing the poor
,
.
S mith failed to note however that the lais s e z fa ire

, ,
policy likewise favored th e rich and powerful and

neglected the poor Mercantilism according t o
.
,
S mith considers production and not c onsumption

,
as the end of industry and commerce and thus ,
favors o ne class at the exp ense o f other classes .
“
Wherever t here i s great property said S mith , ,
”
there is great inequality Fo r every very rich .
man there must b e at least 5 00 poor men and the ,
a ffluence o f the few supposes th e indigence of the

”
many . But no society can be flourishing and
happy wherein th e greater part o f the members are
”
poor and miserable Th e laboring men should
w
.
“
have such a share o f the produce o f th eir o n
labor as to be themselves tolerably well fed clothed , ,
”
and lodged Poverty does not prevent the pro
.
creation o f children but is o n the o th er h and ex

,
t re me ly unfavorable t o the rearing o f children

22
.
S mith pointed o u t four causes O f social in e qual

23
i ty : 1
( ) S uperiority in personal quali fications ,
such as strength beauty agility o f body ; o r wis

, ,
dom vir t ue prudence j ustice fortitude modera

, , , , ,
tion o f mind ( 2 ) S uperiority Of age and e xp e ri

.
ence ( 3 ) S uperiority o f fortune _ R iches give

w
. .
social authority ; riches possess p d e r to buy .
( ) S uperiority o f birth based o n family prestige

4 ,
.
S mith extolled the merits of division O f labor

I n I ndus t ry wit h t h e resultant increase in the quan
century the chief spokesman o f hu m anity for h u
’
mani ty s sake He pleaded for j ustice f o r and con
.
ciliation with the A merican colonie s ; h e s po k e f o r

the benighted Hindus who were being plundered by
English stockholders ; and he championed the rights
o f slaves . He failed o n th e other hand t o app re
, ,
ciate the struggles of the F rench people which cu l

minat e d in the F rench R evolution .
I mmanuel Kant ( 1 72 4 18 1 7 ) declare d man in a

-
natural state i s both social and unsocial and r e

” “
ferred to the unsocial sociableness o f man Man .
cannot get on wi th fellows and he cannot do with

o u t them . Man has an inclination t o associate
with others and also a great propensity to i solate
himself from others He wishes to direct things
.
according t o hi s own ideas and thus courts resist

ance and conflict I t i s thi s conflict however which
.
, ,
leads to individual advancement .
Kant laid great stress upon a good will The

individual may have intelligence and sagacity ,
power and wealth but he may still be a pernicious

,
and hurtful member o f society He i s no t even .
worthy to be happy unless he possesses a good will .
’
A man s will i s good no t because o f th e end h e
seeks nor b ecause o f the results o f his activities
but because he inherently will s the good I t i s this .
“ ”
good will o f Kant which is in conflict with the
utilitar i an i sm O f Bentham and Mill and also with ,
modern behaviori stic psychology and O bj ective s o

cio lo gy
. T o Kant morality is subj ective
, S ocial .
w
I N D I V I D UA L I S T I C SOCIAL TH OUG HT 19 3
’
la s may regulate and control man s conduct but
they cannot control his motives .
Johann F ich t e ( 1 76 2 18 14 ) j oined with Kant in

-
the interpretation of a good will He held that.
property i s ess ential to the development o f freedom .
However he pushed the social contract idea to an

,
extreme and developed a doctrine of an idealistic

state socialism including the superiority o f G er
,
many among the nations of the world .
H egel ( 17 70 18 3 1 ) supported cameralism by de

-
v e lo p ing the S tate idea , with the implication that

G ermany would become the supreme S ta t e in the
world Hegel even asserted that man has hi s exist
.
“
ence and his ethical status only in being a member
o f the Morality is not a matter o f s t riv
mg I ndependently to realiz e one s inner self but of
’
,
’
living in accord with the traditions o f one s S tate .
Perhaps the individual rights theory never mani

f e s t e d a greater aberration than in the mind O f
F r i edr i c h N iet z s c h e ( 1 8 44 Power is s u
preme . The individual or the nation wi th the
greatest power h as the greatest right to live .
A gainst this idea o r the expressions of this idea ,
the wea k er I ndividuals tend t o combine and to extol

their weaknesses as virtues even building a religion
,
o ut o f these glori fi ed weaknesses f o r example

, ,
’
C hristiani ty . N ietzsche s doctrine o f the super
man and th e superstate will be discussed in Chap
ter XXI .
Closely rela t ed t o the discussions concerning

19 4 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OU G HT
natural rights and th e social contrac t i s th e d o c
trine of utilitarianism a modified form Of individ
,
u a lis m with certain obj ective standards Jeremy .
Bentham ( 1 748 18 32 ) made utilitarianism well

-
known and particularly the standard : The great

,
est good Of the greatest number I n accordance .
with a formal idea o f social change B entham urged ,
that social improvements be made by legislation .
He demanded obj ective standards as opposed to

’
Kant s emphasis o n th e inner motive Where Kant .
“ ”
accented the how o f conduct Bentham insis t ed ,
o n the what o f conduct He pointed o u t the

.
need f o r improved forms o f go v ern m en t appar ,
ently ignoring o r at least greatly underes t imatin g

the fact that real progress comes chiefly t hrough
modi fying organic processes However B entham
.
,
may be rated a virile social r eformer f o r he ,
strongly advocated such measures as the secret bal

lo t woman su f f rage trained s t at e s mancra f t
, , He .
made social wel fare a main goal .
The doctrine o f utilitarianism was carri ed f o r

ward by James Mill ( 17 7 3 1 8 36 ) and was brought
-
t o its highest fruition by the son John S tuart Mill ,
( 1 8 0
—
6 1 87 The elder Mill contended that utility
is morality L ike B en tham the elder Mill urged
.
many social reform s .
John S tuart Mill adopted a modi fi ed form o f the

natural rights theory He asserted th at the in
.
dividual should have all the rights that he can e x e r

cise without infringing upon t he equal rights o f
tions to social thought was indirect and u nint e n
t io nal namely the way in which his writings chal
, ,
lenged the attention O f an A merican paleontologist ,
L ester F Ward and led him t o point out the

.
,
psychical nature and hence telic possibilities O f

civilization I n consequence of this challenge S p e n
.
cer fell and Ward rose t o the rank O f dean o f

,
A merican sociologi sts A n entire chapter will be .
devoted t o the sociolo gy o f L ester F Ward . .
William G S umner ( 18 40 19 10) was the last

.
-
noted champion o f a governmental lais s e z fa ire

doctrine He held that the S tate owes nothing to
.
anybody except peace order and the guarantee of , ,
righ t s I t i s not true that the poor ought to care

.
for each other and that the churches ought t o co l,
lect capital and spend it f o r the poor ; it is not true

that i f you get wealth yo u should support others ;
and that i f yo u d o no t get wealth others ought t o
support you I n a society based o n contract there
.
is no place for sentiment in public o r common

a ff airs Every individual will develop the sel f
.
reliance of a free person i f he i s no t taught that ,
others will care f o r him in case he fails to care

f o r himsel f S umner spoke vigorously as well as
.
harshly in support o f liberty contract and private , ,
property A lthough he took an extreme and u n

.
tenable position his ideas will bear careful unbiased ,
study for they contain a large amount of common

,
sense His ethnological work will be indica t ed at

.
some length in another chapter .

IN D I V I D UAL I S T I C SOCIAL TH OUG HT 19 7
A noteworthy statement which has come from a

current A merican school of legal thi nk ers concern
ing individualistic social thought is found in the ,
writings o f Professor R oscoe Pound o f Harvard

“ ”
L aw S chool I n A Theory o f S ocial I nterests he
.
has summed up the new point o f view I n the last .
century all interests were thought o f in terms of

individual interests all were reduced to their purely
,
individual elements and consider e d as rights .
I n this century Dean Pound indicates that law

, ,
for example aims primarily to conserve some gen

,
er al social interest I t conserves the social interest

.
in the general security that is in public health and , ,
in peace I t conserves the social interest in ins t it u

.
tions domestic religious political I t conserves

,
—
, , .
the social interest in natural resources preventing ,
the waste o f oil and gas and protecting water

rights I n conserves the social interest in general
.
progress in economic political cultural p r ogress

, , , ,
although its main contribution in other fields such ,
as promoting the esthetic interests are yet to be ,
made I t conserves the social interests in individual

.
li fe and in seeing that people live humanly and that

the will o f the individual i s no t trodden upon .
L egal processes have thus become types of social

engineerin g .
The doctrine o f natural rights reached i t s largest

degree o f acceptance in England F rance and the , ,
United S tates I t was no t only reflected in the

.
thought o f Thomas Je ff erson but in the funda

mental principles upon which th e U nited S tates
was established I t su ff ered an aberration in the
.
form o f the social contract th eory which in its ex

treme forms was later repudiated I ts greatest
.
weakness was the exaggerated form which it as

sumed especially in England and the U nited S tates
, .
I n the latter country it became greatly magni fied

through contact with the spirit o f discovery inv e n ,
tion and pioneering which prevailed f o r over a

,
century C onsequently it dominated the thought

.
,
li fe o f the U nited S tates throughout the nineteenth

century I t p ermitted captains o f industry t o ex
.
p lo it the helpless masses and encouraged

, politicians
t o pursue selfish practices until governments b e
came honeycombed with gra ft I t nearly capsiz ed
.
the good S hip o f S tate D emocracy

—
.
Theories o f natural rights have been supplanted

by considerations o f natural needs both individual
,
and social Human needs are now considered the

.
only imperatives bu t even they are relative and

,
changing .
2 00 H IS T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OU G HT
philosophers He decla r ed that human mi sery is
.
caused by coercive institutions G overn m ent he.

,
asserted i s an evil and should be abolished H e

,
.
urged also the abolition o f strict marriage r ela t ions ,
although he personally acquiesced in t he custom and

in his last days he commended marriage He .
thought that no social group should be larger t h an

a parish and that t here should be an equal d is t ribu
,
tion o f property Godwin thus carried th e doc .
trine o f natural rights to th e verge o f anarchy and

licentiousness Hi s ideas furnished a basi s for the
.
nineteenth century experiments in communism .
’
But what i s more important G odwin s ideas regard ,
ing the reconstruction o f society stimulated Thomas

Malthus , w
h o developed what is commonly known
as the Malthusian doctrine o f population .
I n 179 8 under an assumed name Thomas R obert

, ,
Malthus ( 1 76 6 18 34 ) o ff ered t o the world the

-
first carefully collected and elaborated body of

data dealing with what he called t h e social prob
,
lem namely : What is th e underlying cause of

,
h uman unhappiness ? This study may be counted ,
in a sense the beginning O f mod e rn sociologica l

,
study Early in li fe Malthus show ed an interest

.
’
in social questions G odwin s i deas had centered .
’ ’
Malthus attention o n population Malthus well .
known treatise entitled A n E s s ay o n t h e P rincip le

,
o f P o p u la t io n a s it A
fie c t s t h e F u t u r e I mp r o v e
me nt o f S o cie ty undertoo k two important tas k s

,
( ) To investigate the causes th a t have impede d

1
M A LTH US I A N CO N C E P T S 2 01
the progress o f mankind toward happiness and ,
( )
2 to examine probabiliti es o f a total o r parti a l
”
removal o f these caus es .
A mong both plants and animals there i s a co n

stant t endency t o reproduce numerically beyond the
subsistence level Wherever there is liberty this
.
,
powe r o f increas e blindly asserts itself A fter .
wards a lack o f nourishment and o f room rep r esses

,
4
the superabundant numbers I t appears th ere.
,
fore that the ultimate check to population is lack

,
of food due to the fact t h a t population increases

,
faste r than food supply N ature in ot h er words .

, ,
sets a harsher law over t h e increase of subsi stence

than she does over the birth rate Man fails t o .
take co gnizance o f this law and brings untold

misery upon himsel f The lower economic classes
.
are the chie f victims and the giants o f poverty and

,
paupe r ism rule over whole sections o f human po p u

lation Malthus considers the question o f p o p u la
.
tion t he fundamental social problem .
S ince population outruns food supply dire human ,
consequences naturally follow F ood supply as a .

,
check upon population operates harshly ; it is but

,
represen t ative O f an entire seri es of rigorous

natural o r positive ch ecks upon population I n
, ,
.
this list t here are unwholesome occupa t ions ;

forms o f severe labor ; extreme poverty ; damp and
wretch ed housing con ditions ; diseases epidemics , ,
pl agues poor nursing ; in t estine commotion ma r tial

, ,
law c ivil wa r ; wa r s o f all forms ; excesses o f all

,
kinds These positive checks upon population are
.
the results o f two main causes namely V ice and , ,
misery A s a result o f the operation o f th ese fac

.
tors population i s being continually cu t down and

,
kept near the mere subsi stence plane .
Malthus pointed o u t another check upon p o p u la

tion the preventive
,
The fear O f falling into
.
poverty causes many young people to postpone

marriage until they ca n safely marry economi —
cally This check s o far as voluntary i s peculiar

.
t o man and to the extent that it i s not followed

,
by irregular sex grati fication i s prudential The , .
actual pressure o f population upon food supply or ,
the fear O f this impingement prevents peopl e from ,
marrying earlier than they do and from repro

d u cing their kind faster than they would do other
wise This pressure o r the fear o f it cuts down
.
, ,
the marriage rate in times of economic depression .
But let prosperity come and th e marriage rate leaps

upward especially among the poorer classes
, .
The positive and preventive check s upon p o p u la

“
tion hold a definite relation to each Oth er In .
every country where th e whole o f th e procreative

power cannot be called into action the preventive ,
and the positive checks must vary inversely as eac h

” 6
other That is t o say when positive checks such
.
, ,
as famine and war slay large numbers O f people

, ,
moral restraint is diminished and the population

numbers rapidly increase When the preventive .
check exp resses itself strongly t h e population is ,

c ie t ywhich result from the principle o f population ,
“
by the practice o f a virtue cl early dictated to him
by the light O f nature and ex p ressly enj oined in
revealed
Malthus demonstrated clearly the weakness o f
liberal poor laws Give more food t o the poor and
-
.
,
they will produce more children and su ff er more ,
misery Poor laws increas e the numbers o f chil

.
-
dren O f the poor and hence increase the amount of

,
misery Both private benevolence and poor laws

.
-
”
increase the number o f marriages and o f children .
Education is the solution which Malthus de

mand e d 11
Educate the poor t o postpone marriage
.
,
t o keep the birth rate down and t o practice eco ,
nomic thri ft To a great extent education will

.
secure the operation o f the prudential check upon

population The science o f moral and political
.
philosophy should no t be confined within such nar

ro w limits that it is unable to overcome in practical
ways the O bstacles t o human happiness which arise
”
from the law O f population .
There are factors in the population situation

which did no t exist at the time o f Malthus o r which ,
he did no t see Today there are additional preven

.
tive checks upon population f o r example t h e rise , ,
O f democracy in the family whereby the wi fe and

mother no longer is dominated by the husband and
father but has a voice o f her o n regarding domes
, w
tic matters such as the number o f children C losely
, .
related to this tendency is the feminist movement ,

M AL TH US IAN CONC E P T S 2 05
’
or woman s rights movement whereby women are ,
demanding that they no t be confined t o the sphere

o f bearing and rearing children I ncreasing intel.
lige nce and foresight has served as a powerful pre

v e nt iv e check upon population The current em
.
phasis upon luxury i s inimical to the birth rate A .
higher economic status almost uni formly cuts down

the birth rate Within the last score o f years the
w
.
new sci ence of eugenics has attracted idespread

attention Eugenics stresses quality o f po p ulation
. .
I t would e f f ect a decrease in the numbers O f chil

dren born among the lower classes among th e ,
poorer stocks and prevent procreation among the

,
mentally deficient I t would increas e the birth rate

.
among the cultured and th e high grade stocks .
Malthus appreciated th e dependence O f urban

population upon rural di stricts but he could no t ,
foresee the degree to which cities would grow in the

nineteenth and twentieth centuri es The relative .
decrease o f agricultural labor and the proportional

increase in no n agricultural labor has thrown a
—
burden upon the food supply which even Malthus

could no t forecast .
O n the other hand Malthus did no t realize the

,
extent t o which new countri es such as the U nited

S tates C anada A ustralia A rgentina would co n
, , ,
’
tribute t o the world s means o f subsistence H e .
could no t predict the way in which invention would

be applied in solving agricultural problems and
w
,
ho today one man with improved machinery and

2 06 H I S T OR Y OF SOCI A L T H OUG HT
intensive method s ca n produce a hundred ears o f
corn where o ne was produced a century ago .
“ ”
N evertheless the new country argument against
,
’
Malthus principle o f population is ultimately falla
c io u s f o r new countries soon become o ld the sup
, ,
ply O f new countries becomes exhausted and there ,
is even a limit t o soil productiveness The very .
pressure o f population against means o f subsistence

is however a cause O f inventiveness so th at u n
, , ,
anticipated increases in food supply may occur at

any time .
S ociali sm has criticized Malthus severely S o .
cia lis m holds that at a given time the food supply
is su f fici ent to meet human needs but that it is

poorly o r unj ustly di stributed With j ust d is t rib u
.
tion o f the returns from industry food supply ,
would no t i mpinge strongly o n population But .
socialism might greatly endanger the prudential

check o n population and hence result in an in
,
creased birth rate ; which in turn would more than

balance any release from human mi sery that a
j ust distribution o f the returns from industry w ould
e ff ect
.
A nother point which Malthus did no t O bserve i s

that the increase in technical skill which comes with
vocational education i s overcome by the tendency o f
’ ’
the world s population to overtake the world s food
productiveness With increase in population the
.
,
price o f land rises the rent f o r land increases the

, ,
cost o f living mounts upward and the purchasing

,
2 08 H IS T O RY O F S OCI A L T H O U GH T
ch o lo gica motives and o f social attitudes under a
l
system where a marked degree o f competition is
encouraged .
I n conclusion it may be stated that the principle

,
o f population as given by Malthus is fundamental
to an understanding of the problems o f social

14
progress There i s a positive relation between
.
population and means o f subsistence Positi v e and .
preventive checks upon population are continually

at work Moral restraint and sel f control based
.
,
o n scienti fically devi sed h uman laws create a bett er

,
mo r al fib r e than birth control Th e quality o f per

.
s o nalit y is far more importan t than mere numbers
o f population The struggle f o r quality in person

.
ality must be supplemented by j ustice i n industrial

and social processes be fore the population p r oblem
can be sol v ed .
C H APT ER XI I I
C O M TE AN D P O S I T I VE S O C I A L T H O UGH T
A n organized foundation f o r the field O f social

thought was no t laid until near the close o f the
firs t hal f O f the nineteenth century A t that time .
A u guste C omte ( 1 79 8 18 5 7 ) gave at least an o r

-
g a n iz e d groundwork i,f n o t a synthetic in t ro d u c
tion t o sociology H e was the fi rst to stake out the

.
territory o f social thought to show the relation o f

,
s ocial thought t o other fields o f knowledge and to ,
separate social statics from social dynamics H e .
was the first important social philosopher and his ,
P o s it ive P h ilo s o p hy the fi rst t re a t is e ro u gh ly t o '
outline the fi eld o f sociolo gy .
A u guste C omte invented the term sociology by , ,
which he mea nt the science o f human association .
While he did not contribute much to the science

itself he laid important foundation stones He re
,
.
acted against all forms o f loose thinking about man ,
rej ected metaphysical and theological speculations ,
and insisted upon the O bservation and classi fication

o f social phenomena . H e repudiated attempts t o
discover causes O f social uni formities and coined ,
the name positivism f o r the philosophical system

, ,
upon which he founded sociology The bases of .

positivism may be found in the ideas of Bacon ,
Galileo and Descartes A s each o f these three men

,
.
broke with tradition and sought Observed facts

in their respective fi elds so C omte was likewise
,
prompted t o do in the field o f social thought .
A uguste C omte was born at Montpelier F rance , ,
the son o f humble and law abiding C atholic parents

—
A t the age o f nine h e displayed unusual mental

ability a strong character and a tendency to defy
, ,
autho rity He is described as brilliant and recal

.
cit ra nt H e possessed a wonderful memory and a

w
.
remarkable avidity for reading I n school h e o n .
many prizes and took a position of leadership

,
“
among hi s fellow students who called him the ,
philosopher A t the age o f sixteen he was de

.
voting his energies and abilities t o the study o f

mathematics .
A s a youth C omte demanded the resignation of

o ne o f his instructors criticized N apoleon and dis
, ,
regarded both ecclesiastical and parental authority .
He especially enj oyed t o point out the stupidity o f

his superiors and to oppose tyranny .
A t the age o f nineteen C omte made the acquaint

ance O f S aint S imon the well known socialist The
,
-
.
friendship lasted f o r only a few years but long ,
enough t o exert a deep influence upon the youth ful

mathematician S aint S imon ( 1 760 18 2 5 ) had in
.
-
d icat e d the need f o r a scienti fic classification o f the

sciences with political science at the head of the list ,
and had developed a new fraternali sm under t he

utilization o f natural forces I t trans forms the .
material resources o f the earth and produces ma t e ,
rial inventions .
C omte failed to postulate a fourth mode o f think

ing namely socialized thinking o r a system o f
, , ,
thought which would emphasize no t simply the use

o f natural forces but the use O f natural forces for
,
social ends f o r the purpose of building co ns t ru c

,
tive j ust and harmonious societies and o f develop

w
, , ,
ing personalities h o will evaluate li fe in terms O f

the welfare o f other personaliti es C omte how .
,
ever should be credited with openin g the way f o r

,
the rise o f socializ ed thinking .
’
A third phase o f C omte s system was his classi
fica t io n o f the sciences with so ciology as the latest ,
and greatest o f the group The G reek thinkers .

,
it will be recalled undertook to classi fy all k nowl ,
edge under three headings : phys ics ethics and , ,
politics Bacon made the divisions co rrelative to

.
the s o called mental faculties of memory imagina

-
,
tion and reason namely : history poe t ry and

, , , ,
science .
C omte chose as his principle o f classi fying

knowledge the order o f increasing dependence He
, .
arranged the sci ences so that each category may

be grounded on the principal laws of the preceding
category and serve as a basis f o r the next ensuing
,
5
category The order hence i s o ne o f increasing
.
, ,
complexity and decreasing ge nerality The most .
simple phenomena mus t be the most general gen —

P OSI T I VE SOC I A L TH OUG HT 2 17
”
eral in the sense o f being everywhere present .
C omte began with mathematics the tool o f the ,
mind A ccurate thinking i s always done in terms

.
o f mathematics With mathematics as its chief

.
tool the mind of man can go anywhere in its think

,
in g Mathematics i s the most powerful ins t ru

.
ment which th e mind may use in the investigation

7
of natural laws .
Mathematics i s no t a constituent member o f the

group o f sciences I t is the basis O f them all I t
. .
holds the first place in the hierarchy o f the sciences ,
and is the best point o f departure in all education ,
”
whe th er general o r special I t i s the oldest and
.
”
most perfect o f all th e sci ences .
Math ematics i s the science which measures pre 7 -
cis e ly th e relations between O bj ects and ideas It

'
”
i s t h e science The G reeks had no other I ts d e fi
. .
nit io n i s the definition of all sc i ence I ts function .
i s that o f ascertaining relationships a process ,
which is basic t o scienti fic thinking in all fields .
Education tha t is based o n any other method i s

faulty inexact and unreliable I t is only through
, , .
mathematics that we can understand sci ence .
The highest form o f mathematics i s calculus .
There i s no scienti fic inquiry in which calculus i s

not used Even the physician in prescribing for the
.
cure o f a disease must provide for the mixing t o

,
gether o f di ff erent quantities o f di ff erent medicines ,
so that w h en taken at determined intervals of time

, ,
they will p osse s s the right q ualiti es f o r bringin g

the human body back t o its normal state C alculus .
i s the branch o f science which has the highest in

t e lle ct u al dignity I n it the proportion o f reason
.
ing t o observation is greater than elsewhere .
With mathematics as the tool the classi fication

,
O f knowledge may proceed A ll natural phenomena

w
.
fall into t o grand divi sions : inorganic and o r

gamic The inorganic are more general and should
.
be considered fi r st I norganic phenomena are o f

w
.
t o classes : astronomical and terrestrial A stro .
no mica l phenomena are the most general O f all .
The stars and planets appear under the least varied

”
aspects . A stronomy i s th e science by which the
movements O f the heavenly bodies including the
w
,
earth are measured Ho ca n we thoroughly u n

, .
d e rs t and any terrestrial phenomena without co n

s id e ring the nature o f the earth and it s relation t o
the other units o f the solar system

w
Terrestrial physics includes t o fields : physics
proper and chemistry Material bodies may be re
.
garded in either their physical o r chemical aspects .
Physics is more general than chemistry ; it deals

with masses rather than elements C hemical phe .
no me na depend upon the laws o f physics without ,
being influenced by them in turn C hemical action .
is conditioned by the laws O f weight heat elec , ,
t ricit y . Th e study O f inorganic phenomena thus

falls under three sci enti fic heads : as t ronomy phys ,
ics and chemi stry

w
, .
O rganic phenomena include t o types : individ ua l

C omte mani fested an unusual regard for the
truth This attitude required him t o modi fy and
.
quali fy statements of fundamental principles at

great length A s a result his works are o ften
.
tedious reading H e preferred however to write

.
, ,
meticulously and thus t o safeguard truth rather ,
than speak in epigrams and sacri fice truth

w
.
’
C omte s t o leading works are : th e P o s it ive
P h ilo s o p hy and the P o s it iv e P o lit y The fi rst ap .
p e a re d in six volumes during the years from 1 8 3 0

to 18 4 2 The second work in four volumes was
.
,
published in the years from 18 5 1 to 18 5 4 I t 1 8 not .
the equal o f the P o s it iv e P h ilo s o p hy which was ,
translated into English in 18 5 3 by Harri et Mar

f in cau .
John S tuart Mill has referred t o C omte as among

the first of European thinkers ; and by his ins t it u ,
tion o f a new social science in some respects the ,
firs t .
2
G eorge H enry L ewes called C omte the
greatest o f modern thinkers John Morley the .
,
English statesman and author says O f C omte ,
“
N either F ranklin no r any man that has ever lived
, ,
could surpass him in the heroic tenacity with which ,
in the face o f a thousand obstacle s he pursued his

w
,
”
o n ideal o f a vocation Harriet Martineau sum
.
mariz e s his methods as follows : “

There can be
no question but that his whole career was one O f
the most intense concentration Of mind gigantic ,
industry rigid economy and singular punctuality

, ,
” 3
and exa c tness in all hi s habits .
P OSI T I VE SOCIAL TH OUG HT 2 13
,
I n laying the foundations f o r a new social sci
ence C omte began with an analysi s of typ
thinking ( 1 ) Primitive and untrained persons
.
w
everywhere think in supernatural terms They sup .
pose th at all physical phenomena are caused by t h e

immediate action O f capricious supernatural beings .
T h e primitive man beli eves in all kinds o f fetiches

in which spirits o r sup ernatural beings live F e .
t is his m admitted o f no priesthood because its gods ,
4
are individual each residing in fixed obj ects
, .
A s the mind o f primitive man became bet t e r o r

g a n iz e d feti shism became cumbersome
,
T O O many .
fetishes produced mental confusion A coalescence .
o f gods resulted and polytheism arose The poly .
thei stic gods represented di f f erent phases o f li fe .
This state in human thought i s well illustrated by

the Homeric gods .
But a large number O f capricious divinities are

mentally unsatis factory Th ey create mental co n
.
t ra dict io ns C onsequently the gods are arranged

.
,
in a hierarchy F inally the idea o f o ne Go d o r o f

.
, ,
monotheism developed The belief arose that

, .
every phenomenon is produced by the immediate

’
action o f the o ne Go d A s man s vision widened
.
and his observations increased in scope and depth ,
the concept of a monotheistic universe became

clari fied Monotheism i s th e climax of the theo
.
logical stage O f thinking .
But rationalism argues that Go d does no t stand

directly behind every phenomenon Pure reason .
insists that Go d is a F irst C ause o r an A bstract
B eing Pure reason speaks in terms o f inali enable
.
rights ; metaphysical explanations however are u m , ,
sati sfactory to the mind .
Hence C omte developed hi s concept o f positiv

,
ism w hich is a purely intellectual way o f looking

,
at the world C omte held that the mind should co n

.
centrate o n the Observation and classifi cation o f

phenomena H e believed that both theological and
.
metaphysical speculations as he used the terms , ,
were as likely to be fiction as truth and that there ,
i s no way o f determining which i s th e case Thus .
it will be more profitabl e i f the individual should

direct his thoughts t o the lines O f thinking which
are most truly proli fic namely to observation and
, ,
classi fication o f data .
C omte even took the position that it is futile t o

try t o determine causes We can O bserve un i formi
.
ties O r laws but it i s mere speculation t o assign

, ,
causes t o these uni formities Positivi sm deified .
observation and classi fication o f data I ts weak .
nesses should no t hinder the student however , ,
from seeing the importance O f its emphasis upon

the scientific procedure o f O bserving and classi fying
data in an age when dogmatism and speculation
were ri fe .
The t lfi ej t aggs_o f thoug ht which C om t e de

scribed are no t three levels o f thought as C omte ,
contended but as Herbert S pencer indicated t hey

, , ,
may represent th e same plane O f think i ng Each .

physical astronomical knowledge and uses mathe
,
mati e s as its tool C omte virtually defines six s ci

.
e nce s : mathematics astronomy physics chemistry

, , , ,
biology and sociology H e treats o f transcendental

,
.
biology which i s t h e basi s o f modern psychology

, .
C omte urged that no sci ence could be e ff ectually

studied without competent knowledge concerning
the sciences on which it depends I t is necessary .
no t only t o have a general knowledge o f all the

sciences but that they should be studied in order
’
this is C om t e s dic t um t o th e s t udent o f sociology .
C omte insisted that o ne general science could no t

develop beyond a given point until the preceding
science has passed a given stage .
Each o f the six general sciences has passed

through the three stages o f thought Mathematics .
,
which has advanced furthest into the positive stage ,
i s still connected with superstition such as that ,
which hovers round the number 1 3 The other .
general sciences are less further along S ociology .

,
the latest science to develop C omte hoped by his

,
works t o push over into the positive stage .
C omte divided sociology o r social physics into

, ,
social statics and social dynami cs S ocial statics .
i s the study o f the laws o f action and reaction o f

the di ff erent parts o f the social order aside f o r ,
the time being from the general social movements

15
which are modi fying them . S ocial dynamics co n
siders the laws o f progress S ocial statics inquires
.
into the laws o f co existence O f social phenomena ;

-
P OSI T I V E SOC IA L TH O UG HT 22 1
social dynamics examines the laws of social succes

sion S ociology is th e study o f social organization
.
and o f social pr ogress .
S ociety is in a state O f anarchy I ndividuals .
with the best of purposes are continually weak en

ing the e ff orts o f each other Powerful persons
.
are crushing th e weak The defeated are conniving

.
against the strong Why all this social anarchy

.
?
T O C omte the answer i s clear B ehind moral and

.
s ocial anarchy there i s intellectual anarchy Peo .
ple do no t have a knowledge o f the fundamental

laws of social order and social progress .
Moreover people fail to appreciate the necessity

,
O f knowledge o f social laws They are insensible

.
t o the value o f sound social theory Th ey want .
“ ”
nothing but the practical unmi ndful of the fact
,
“ ”
that t he practical is as likely to be based o n in
correc t social th eory as upon sound social co nce p
tions .
The necessity O f fundamental concepts concern

ing soci ety underlies social organization I n the .
“
absence o f these general ideas th ere i s no other
,
daily resource for the maintenance o f even a rough

and precarious social order than an appeal more ,
or less immediate t o personal

,
I n the
absence o f a moral authority the material order
,
requires the use O f either terror o r corruption ; the

latter i s less inconvenient and more in accordance
”
with the nature o f modern society Moreover
.
,
politicians and other public men work against the

elaboration o f the social theory which is necessary
f o r the salvation o f society . They sneer at the
developmen t of social science Many o f those who
.
occupy the chief political stations regard with a n

t ip a t h y the true reorganization o f society S ocial .
principles are not even sought O n the other hand

.
,
social charlatanism attracts by the ma gn i ficence o f

its promi ses and dazzles by its transient successes .
C omte deplored attempts to re make society -
through institutionalism regardless of social th e

,
o ry . H e stressed the fundamental importance o f

social principles as the only means of guaranteeing
a correct institutional procedure A s a practical.
principle o f social adj ustment C omte endorsed the

,
C atholic ideal : I n necessary things uni ty ; in doubt ,
ful things liberty ; in all things charity

, , .
C omte protested vigorously agains t ma t eriali sm .
He pointed o u t that for th ree centuries the best

minds had been devoted to material sci ence and had
”
neglected societary problems . Material ins t it u
tions should be modi fied and made to harmonize
with the underlying laws o f social evolution A .
moral reorganization o f society must precede and

”
direct the material and political reorganization .
S ocial improvement i s a result of mental develop

ment This development favors the preponderance
.
o f the noblest human tendencies Prevision and

.
science when applied t o society will bring out t h e

best phases O f human nature and thus re s u lt i n
,
social improvement A lthough the lower instincts

.
sociality although inferior in understanding and
,
reason .
The direction of social evolution is toward fur

ther development o f the noblest dispositions and the
most generous feelings and away from the expres
,
sion of the animal appetites and the material de

sires ” The tr e nd is from the sati sfaction of th e
.
selfish impulses to the habitual exercise o f the social

impulses Happiness depends o n the presence of
.
’
new stimuli in one s form o f activity A li fe O f .
labor that i s full of constructive stimuli i s after all

the fittest to develop personality .
C omte was th e friend of popular education He .
based his contention on the invariable homogeneity

O f the human mind .The minds o f people o f all
races are potentially similar A ll members o f the
.
race are capable o f development to a common plane .
I n his P o s it ive P o lity C omte made importan t

,
changes in his thinking This work was the prod

.
u ct o f his later years and shows the e ff ects O f

,
deprivation and struggle I t i s inferior in quality

.
t o his earlier treatise o n P o s it iv e P h ilo s o p hy It is

w
.
a question therefore h o far his later ideas should

, ,
be permitted t o supersede his thinking w h en h e was

in his prime I n hi s later thought li fe he receded
.
-
from his emphasis upon the intellectual na t ure and

stressed the importance o f the a f f ections He made .
a f f ection the central point o f li fe and developed the

concept of lov e We tire o f thinking and even o f
”
acting he asserted but we never tire of loving
, , .
P OSI T I VE SOC IAL TH OUG HT 22 5
The C omtean ideal became a disinterested love o f

mankind C omte developed a religion O f humanity
. .
His contact with C hristianity gave him the belief

that it is chiefly ecclesiastical H e did no t see in.
Christianity a social keynote Hence h e attempted

.
,
t o create a purely social religion He made man .
kind an end in itsel f ; he failed t o see that human

.
society is probably an outcropping O f universal

purpose
w
.
I f we j udge C omte by his o n time and age we ,
shall see the importance o f his contributions t o

social thought which were as follows : 1 There
, .
is need f o r accurate thinking about society Mathe .
mati e s i s the best tool for O btaining social accuracy .
2. C omte developed positivism with its emphasi s

upon O bservation and classi fication o f social data .
3. Knowledge has scienti fic divi sions according ,
to the principles of increasing dependence and de

creasing generality Thi s scale begins with mathe
.
mati e s and astronomy includes physics chemistry

, , ,
biology in order and ends with the social sciences

, , ,
particularly sociology 4 S ociology deals with

. .
the static and dynamic phases O f human association .
5. C omte developed a humanitarian philosophy .
6. C omte insisted o n an intellectual understanding

of social processes as the only true basi s f o r over
coming social anarchy and f o r solving the problems
o f society .
C H APT ER XI V
M AR ! AN D S O C I A L I S T I C S O C I A L T H O U GH T
S ocialism proper had its beginning in the second

and third decades o f the nineteenth century I t de .
v e lo p e d primarily in continental Europe and in

’ ’
England A lthough Plato s communism and More s
.
utopiani sm were forerunners of socialism the social ,
unrest in Europe in the early years o f the nine

t e e nt h century was the direct causal factor So .
c ia lis m also represented a reaction against the pre
vailing lais s e z fa ire thought regarding the evils O f

society and the su f f ering o f the poorer classes .
S ocialism began with the concepts and e x p e ri

ments o f S aint S imon and F ourier in F rance o f ,
R obert O wen in England and O f Ro db e rt u s L as

, ,
salle Marx and Engels in G ermany I n F rance

, , .
the movement was carried forward by Proudhon

and Blanc ; and in England by the C hristian S ocial
is t s chiefly Maurice and Kingsley
, I n G ermany
.
,
Marx maintained the position o f leadership f o r

many decades and finally became the best known
,
exponent of socialist thought in the world

w
.
I n his N e C hris t ia nit y S aint S imon who was

, ,
referred to in the preceding chapter made a unique ,

”
contribution t o social thought His thinking was

.
o nthe assumption that he who does pleasant labor
receives pay in men t al ways Every individual .
should have an opportunity to become a capitalist ;

and every woman should be enabled to become in
dependent economically Thes e utopian plans o f
.
Fourier called f o r a sudden and complete t rans

formation O f human nature They underestimated
.
the force o f human sel fishness .
S ocialistic thought was carried into politics by

L ouis Blanc ( 18 1 1 H e declared that no
genuine reformation o f society could take place
until political machinery was organized democrat
ically The democra t ic state would endow national
.
workshops These workshops would be operated

.
by industrial associations composed O f workingmen

w w
,
h o would elect their o n o f ficers regula t e their

w
,
o n industries and provide for the distribution o f

,
the returns from industry O nce s tarted by the

.
state these industrial associations will expand and

increase in number until the whole nation and th en ,
the world will be organized in this way

, .
Blanc participated in the F rench R evolution o f

18 48 and became a member o f the provi sional gov
e rnme nt His national workshop idea failed in
.
practice Hi s enemies were partly responsible f o r

.
this defeat because the essentials o f productive

,
work and guarantees of charac t er which Blanc

urged were disregarded The fact h owever that
.
, ,
these two essentials were considered necessary f o r

the successful development of national workshop s
M AR X IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 229
indicates that th e system under average conditions

, ,
might not be a success .
N early all the early sociali sts were evolutionists

rather than revolutionists They did not advocate .
class struggle theories They developed bourgeois

.
rather than proletariat ideas A n outstanding ex .
ce p t io n to these statements is found in the radical
attitude of Babeuf ( 176 0 who was essen

t ially a forerunner o f Marxian sociali sm and also
of the anarchistic philosophy o f Proudhon and
Bakunin Babeuf vigorously proclaimed the sov
.
e re ignt y o f the proletariat and advocated the aboli

,
tion o f inheritance laws and o f private property .
He urged that the property o f corporations be co n

fis ca t e d and that a communistic state be estab
,
lis h e d .
The well known principles of j ustice liberty and

-
, ,
equality were utilized by Proudhon ( 18 09 a

philosophic anarchist He would have the same
.
wages paid t o an unskilled workman as t o a s uc

ces s f u l business o r professional man He predicted .
that equalization of oppor t unity would bring about

an equalization o f ability .
Proudhon attacked property rights He declared .
that property is th eft I n itsel f property is li feless

.
,
but it nevertheless demands rent interest o r prof , ,
its o r all three I t protects itself behind law and

, .
,
in order t o guaran t ee its alleged rights it calls out ,
the militia evicts families and t akes bread from

, ,
th e
mouths o f little children I t robs labor O f its .
1
j ust returns .
By unsatisfactory reasoning Proudhon urged the

free development o f individuals in society whereby ,
each individual would learn t o govern himsel f s o

well in society that government would no longer
’
be needed This theory i s P ro u dh o n s concept o f
.
anarchy I n this doctrine P roudhon neglects t o

.
provide an adequate dynamic o r t o foresee the ulti

mate complexity O f human relations .
I n England R obert O wen ( 1 7 7 1 18 5 8 ) became

,
-
a founder o f socialism A s a factory manager

.
,
O wen developed social ideas L iving in an age o f

.
long hours woman and child labor o f the worst

,
forms and deplorable housing conditions O wen

, ,
deserves the credit o f inaugurating a twentieth cen

tury program O f wel fare work I t was O wen s .
’
theory that the workingman i s s o subj ect to his

environment that even his character i s determined
f o r him .O wen attempted in theory and practice
to prevent th e impingement of the economic e nv i
ro nme nt upon the workers He beli eved in sel f
.
governing organizations o f labor H e inaugurated .
the co operative movement as a means O f securing

-
industrial j ustice and o f giving the workingman a

chance at the free development O f hi s personality .
’
O wen obj ected t o Malthus doctrine O f p o p u la
tion o n the ground that it failed to consider the
marvelous increas e in the means o f subsistence
which might come from the application o f inventive
genius t o the sources of the food supply He als o .
th e experiment o f the R ochdale weavers who in
’
18 44 had organized a consumers co operative soci -
’
ety The concept o f consumers co operation re
.
-
ce iv e d its original impetus from the thought and
practice o f R obert O wen achi eved a measurable ,
degree o f concreteness under the e f f orts o f the

Rochdale weavers and through Maurice and Kings
w
,
ley o n the assistance O f C hri stianity .
I n G ermany Ro db e rt u s L assalle Mar x and

, , ,
Engels molded the thinking o f socialists about th e

nature of human society Ro db e rt u s ( 18 05
.
the s o n o f a university professor was a quiet deep , ,
thinker about social processes A ccording to his .
analysis o f social development three s t ages may be ,
pointed o u t The first was marked by slavery o r

.
,
by private property in human beings The second .
state i s an indirect form of the fi rst namely one , ,
o f private property in land and capital T h rough .
this type O f ownership the economically for t unate

o r shrewd are able t o exercise widespread power
over the unfortunate and the uneducate d I n the ,
third sta t e toward which soci ety is trending th e

, ,
concept of service will rule and private proper ty ,
as a dominant concept will be compelled to take a

thoroughly subordinate place in human activities .
The ultimate goal according to Ro db e rt u s is a

, ,
world communist society with land and capital as

,
national property and with labor rewarded accord

,
ing t o its productiveness .

2
Ro db e rt u s denied the validity o f the wages fund

M AR X IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 2 33
theory and argued that wages are no t paid by capi

tal ; it is th at part O f the productive earnings of
labor which labor receives His fundamental thesis
.
is that labor is the source and measure o f all value .
He advocated an evolutionary procedure whereby

the state should pass legi slation that would guar
antee j ust returns t o labor This form o f state
.
socialism i s t o be gradually developed until a s e ien ,
t ific socialism is reached with its emphasis upon a

government O f labor for labor and by labor
, , .
The founder of S ocial D emocracy in G ermany ,
F erdinand L assalle ( 18 2 5 wrote two sig

nificant treatises th e B as t ia t S ch u lz e and the
,
-
Wo rk ing M e n s P ro gramme L assalle believed

’
.
that natural conditions are productive o f misery

and vice and that it is the chief business o f the
,
s tate to extricate men from this thraldom The .
state should provide means f o r li fting the laboring

man to a level of industrial freedom .
L assalle obj ected to the theory known as the iron

law of wag e s H e protested against the smallness
.
of the share o f his earnings w h ich the laborer

really receives He advocated the establishment o f
.
productive associations wh erein labor might per

form the double function of workman and capital
ist I n order th at t h ese productive a ssociations
.
might be s t ar t ed the state should advance funds

,
.
A fter th e productive associations have secured mo

men t um th ey will continue by virtue of their o n w
strength U ltima t ely indus try will be conducted
.
,
234 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL T H OUG HT
exclusively through productive associations ; both
industrial and social democracy will finally rule in
political li fe L assalle became the founder of the
.
S ocial Democratic party in Germany L assalle .
boldly denounced the reactionary classes that were

in political power in his time and led the workers
in a movement to overthrow the existing social
”
order
The name o f Karl Marx ( 18 18 18 8 3 ) is supreme -
o n the list o f sociali sts Marx was born in G er

.
many o f Jewish parents and educated at the uni

,
v e rs it ie s o f Bonn and Berlin H e became a j our

.
nalis t but the paper which he edited was considered

,
t o o liberal and was suppressed Marx went to .
Paris in 18 42 where he continued editorial work

, .
A t this time he was influenced by F rench socialism

and its leader Proudhon I n 18 4 5 he was expelled
, .
,
from Paris at the request of the Prussian govern

ment He went t o Brussels I n the meantime a
. .
deep friendship with F riedrich Engels ( 18 2 0 18 9 5 ) -
had been established .
'
I n 18 47 Marx and Enge ls is s u e d the C ommunist

,
”
Mani festo . This radical document was ci rculated
widely and became extensively accepted by social
revolutionists I ts doctrines were :
.
1. Abolition o f property in lands ; rents to be

used f o r public purposes .
2 . Abolition o f all rights o f inheritance .
3 . Progressive income tax .
4 . N ationalization o f the means o f transporta

2 36 H I S T ORY OF S OCIAL TH OUG HT
ent attention they give t o war diplomacy and na , ,
t io na l j ealousies .
I n 18 6 9 Marx aided by Karl L i ebknecht ( 18 2 6

, ,
Engels and others organiz ed in G ermany ,
the S ocial D emocratic L abor Party The move .
ment which L assall e had started became united with

the Marxian movement and in 1 8 7 5 the G erman ,
S ocial Democracy presented a united front to capi

t alis m Marx Engels L iebknecht and B ebel are
.
, , ,
its best known leaders Bismarck was forced t o

-
.
acknowledge its power and condescended to inau ,
g u r a t e a system o f social insurance in order t o a p

peas e its rank and file
'
I n 18 6 7 18 8 5 and 18 9 5 the three volumes of

, , ,
D a s Ka p it a l appeared in chronological order

5
,
By .
this work Ca p it a l Marx i s known throughout the

, ,
world The style i s laborious ; the analyses are

.
minute and in places di ffi cult to follow The method .
is historical Marx analyz es social evolution He

. .
traces the ri se o f capitali sm from its humble b e

ginnings t o its autocratic fruition I n this develop .
ment the instrumen t s of capital showed a t end

ency t o congregate in a decreasing number o f
hands By this token it will be seen that th e num
.
ber o f the propertyless ever increases L ikewi se .

,
their influence decreases I n t his way the prole .

,
taria t is developed a product O f capitalism , .
A definite class the capitalist acquires increasing

, ,
industrial political and social power T h e prole

w
, , .
tariat suffer increasing misery They o n nothing .

except their ability to labor They are forced to

.
throw this human quality o n the commercial market

and sell it to the highest bidder But capitalism .
increases the number of the proletariat This .
tendency together with the increase in population

, ,
creates a superabundance of labor L aborers are .
forced to comp ete in the lab o r\ma rk e t The labor

”
.
ers who will sell their labor for t he least wages will
be employed C apitalism thus forces wages to a
.
mere subsistence level with th e result that the mis

,
ery and su f f ering o f the proletariat are greatly aug

me nt e d I n thi s way the laborer i s crushed by th e
.
operation o f the iron law O f wages .
By the operation o f the iron law the capitalist ,
is enabled t o appropriate to himself an increasing

amount of the earnings o f labor Thi s appro .
p ria t e d amo u n t is c alled the surplus value Marx .
developed at length the concept o f surplus value .
Capitalism exploits the laborer by taking possession

of as large a proportion of the earnings o f labor
as it can obtain through its might and its shrewd
—
ness .
. The growth O f capitali sm also causes a class

, ,
consciousness to develop among the members of the

proletariat This class consciousness i s increasing
. .
I t produces labor organizations ; these organiza

tions are acquiring vast power The struggles b e
.
tween them and the capitalistic classes go o n The .
two groups have little in common By force o f .
numbers the proletariat are bound finally t o win ,

2 38 H I S T ORY OF S OCIAL TH OU G HT
and to overthrow t h e capitalistic classes which are
now in power They will seize the means of pro
.
duction and manage them f o r the good o f all .
Marx did not outline an utopia H e described the

.
historical evolution O f society as he saw it and he ,
participated in plans f o r the organization o f all

laborers f o r their common good I nasmuch as .
Marx advocated compulsory labor the laboring ,
class under Marxian socialism would include all

p eople Marx advocated an equal distribution of
.
wealth no t in the sense o f the popular misco nce p

,
tion o f that term but in the sense that the earnings

,
from the industry shall be distributed to the wor k

ers in proportion to their achievements .
I n R ussia Marxian socialism in 19 18 came into

,
power The Bolsheviki represent th e radical wing

.
o f the Marxian followers They established essen

.
t ially a dictatorship O f the proletariat substituting ,
it f o r the dictatorship o f capitalists which existed

under the reign of the czars Bolshevi sm su b st i
.
t u t e s occupation f o r geographic area as a basis o f

representative government This program i s de
.
ficie nt and sociologically untenable because occupa,
t io na l groups do no t encompass all phases of human

personality A government based on occupational
.
Qfi ro u p needs is representative of only a portion o f

th e elements o f human li fe When seventy five
.
—
per cen t o f the peopl e are illiterate as has been the

,
case in R ussia no form o f government whether

,
democratic o r no t can be other than a dictatorship .

2 40 H I S T ORY OF SOCIA L TH OUG HT
producing He became an agitator H e was co n
. .
fined in dungeons and exiled to S iberia He e s .
caped from S iberia and by way o f C ali fornia went

,
to England and then to S witzerland His chief .
work is Go d and t h e S t a t e V ital vigorous mag

.
, ,
netic fearless these are th e adj ectives which de

,
—
scribe the personality of Bakunin .
Bakunin scorned rank birth and for t une He

, , .
attacked external authority of all kinds He de .
“
nied the validity of concepts such as God and the
“ ”
state ; they are parts o f systems which enslave
the free will of man C lasses must be abolished
.
and the masses of individuals freed from all e n

slaving insti t u t ions such as marriage the church
, , ,
the sta t e.
I n a related way Prince Kropotkin ( 18 42 192 1 ) -
developed anarchistic principles Pe t er A Kro . .
p o t k in was o f aristocratic R u ssian birth and a per

son o f mild courteous manners His father was a
, .
serf owner ; the son could no t bea r to see the suffer

ings which th e serfs underwent H e threw away .
the privileges of rank and became a defender o f

the oppressed H e attempted t o correlate the theo
.
ries of anarchism with those Of mutual aid and ,
fough t socialism with the concept o f centralized

control o n the ground that it would destroy indi
v idual liberty
’
I n C hapter XXI I Kro p o tk in s
.
6
,
theory o f mutual aid will be analyzed .
A narchism and socialism make similar attacks

upon the evils o f capitalism Both are determined .
to overthrow capitalism Both believe in revolt

. .
They part ways whe n they advocate a constructive

program f o r the new order which shall follow the
Violent overthrow of capitalism U nlike socialism .
,
anarchism holds that all government is an evil and

that industry can go o n without organiz ation I t .
advocates a free communi sm .
O ne of the essentials in the C ommunist Mani

festo was the appropriation o f rents f o r public pur
poses S tarting from a viewpoint distinctly di ff er
.
ent from that O f Karl Marx Henry G eorge ( 18 39

,
18 9 7 became the founder o f single tax p ro p a

ganda I n early manhood H enry G eorge came t o
.
S an F ranci sco and establi shed a struggling news

paper A t once he found himsel f practically over
.
whelmed by the brutal comp etition of the metro

politan press and telegraphic news service George .
was crushed by monopoly I t was this defeat which

.
gave him a new idea a n idea that was t o co m

—
mand the attention o f the world .
A s George walked the streets o f N ew York C ity

he puzzled over the existence o f indescribable desti
t u t io n and su ff ering in the shadow o f the princely
7
rich with their ostentatious luxuries Why in a .
land blessed with generous natural resources should

there be such poverty ? A lthough di scovery has
followed discovery and invention h as followed in
v e nt io n neither has lessened the toil o f those
,
ho w
most need respite W ith material progress poverty
'
takes o n a larger aspect Material progress may

.
be likened to an immense wedge which is being .
forced not underneath society but through society

w
, , .
“
Those h o are above the point O f separation are
”
,
w
elevated but those h o are below are crushed
down . G eorge set himself the task o f finding o u t
8
why poverty is associated with progress .
This cause G eorge found I n the land situation .
A s land increases in value poverty increases The

, .
price of land i s an index o f the disparity in the e co

nomic conditions o f the people at the extremes o f
the social scale L and is more valuable in N ew
.
Y ork C ity than in S an F rancisco and there is more ,
squalor and misery in N ew Y ork C ity than in S an

F rancisco L and i s more valuable in L ondon than
.
in N ew Y ork C ity and likewise there is more

,
squalor and destitution in L ondon than in N ew

York C ity .
When increasing numbers o f people live in a lim

it e d area under a system o f private property in land ,
rents are raised and land values go up The cost .
o f living mounts wages are kept t o a minimum

, ,
o v e rco nge s t io n o f population ensues ; and again ,
rents and land values are increased .
U pon what does title t o land rest ? Where did

it originate ? I n force But has the first comer
.
at a banquet the right t o turn back all the chairs ,
and claim that none o f the other guests shall par

take O f the food that has been provided ? Does the
w
first passenger h o enters a railroad ca r t h e re b v
possess the right to keep o u t all other persons o r ,
’
The weakness o f Henry George s ar gument lies
in his s ingle panacea for secur i ng j ustice He over .
emphasi z ed the importance o f o ne line o f procedure .
He neglects other important facto r s such as a ,
selfish human nature H e rendered however a

.
, ,
splendid service in showing th e weaknesses in th e

system o f private property in land I n thi s co n .
ne ct io n he has been unequaled in hi s cont r ibution

to social thought .
I n this discussion o f the contributions of social

ism to social thought many types o r expressions o f
,
socialism have not been presented The educational .
propaganda o f the F abian socialists in England

should be mentioned as being very effective A l .
though small in number this group o f in t ellectual s ,
the best known being S idney and B eatrice Webb ,
have exerted a constructive and practical influence

upon social thought .
S ocialism has assumed various phases 1

( ) .
I t originated in utopiani sm and in a loose broad ,
type of communism ( 2 ) I t then took the form

.
of associationism urging th e organization o f

,
groups of associated individuals such as phalanges

,
.
A s utopiani sm was in part the expression o f a poetic

imagination so associationism represented a bour
,
g e o is philosophy ( 3 ) I n the next place sociali sm

.
assumed political aspirations and advocated a go v

,
e rnme nt al program whereby the exi sting govern
ments shall gradually extend their power until they

exercise control over rent producing land and ln
-
producing capital ( 4 ) S tate sociali sm h o

t e re s t -
.
, w
ever was supplanted in many minds by ideas O f
,
more radi c al procedure Marxian socialism holds.
that a class conflict i s inevitable and that the

workers must overthrow the capitalists t ogether ,
with the governments which they control ( 5 ) T o .
the other radical ex treme is philosophic anarchi sm ,
with its emphasis upon the abolition o f all existing

governments and the establishment o f individual
au t onomy .
S ocialism has made several contributions t o

social thought ( 1 ) I t has called th e attention o f
.
civilized mankind and particularly of the economic

,
ally wealthy classes to the needs o f the weaker

,
classes I t has introduced h umanitarian concepts

.
into the minds o f the socially unthinking educated

classes ( )
2 I.t has j olted many economic auto
crat s from their thrones o f power I t has thrown .
the spot ligh t O f publicity upon the selfish and

wick ed ostentation O f the h ereditary leisure
classes ( 3 ) I t h as held social theory to a more
.
practical course and to developing more immediate

social solutions than i t otherwi se would have
achieved ( 4 ) I t has developed a power equal t o
.
that held by individualism I t has helped to demon .
strate th e dualistic nature o f social evolution that ,
is that there are two poles to human li fe rather

,
than one .
C H APT ER X V
B U C K LE AN D GEO G R APH I C S O C I A L T H O U G H T
I t has long been O bserved that climate fertility ,
of soil rainfall and similar factors have had a pow

, ,
e rf u l influence upon human nature and upon the
development o f civilization The chi ef founders o f .
thi s line o f thought were Buckle and R atzel I n .
recent years S emple and Huntington have become

well known authoriti es Many other thinkers have
-
.
contributed t o the present knowledge concerning

the interactions between geographic f actors and
human development .
O ne o f th e fi rst writers t o elaborate a climatic

theory O f social evolution was Bodin ( 1 5 30
Ho t climates he O bserved further the ris e o f all
, ,
kinds o f superstitious belie fs C old climates p ro .
duce brute will power Temperate climates consti

-
.
tute an essential basis f o r the development of rea

so n
. I n the ideal commonwealth which Bodin de
1
scribed all three types O f climate are represented
, .
The northern zone furnishes the fighters and the

work ers Th e southern zone produces poets
.
,
priests and artists The temperate zone is the par

, .
ent o f legislative j udicial and scholarly leaders

w
, .
,
I n the S p irit o f L a s t o which re ference was

Of the ways in which geographic and natural factors
modi fy human li fe Buckle starts with a decided ly
.
dualistic universe a dualism which i s disjunctive

—
.
The dualism consists o f nature and mind each sub

w
,
j e c t more o r less t o its o n laws R ej ecting both .
the doctrine o f fre e will and o f predestination ,
Buckle concludes that the actions o f men are deter

mined solely by their antecedents and that they have
”
a character o f uni formity Man modi fies na t ure
.
,
and nature modi fies man but in th e pas t in many

,
parts O f the world the thoughts and desires o f men

are more influenced by physical p h enomena than
they influence such phenomena B ecause o f th is .
dominant activity o f the physical forces th ese ,
should be studied as a basis for understanding the

history o f man .
The physical factors which h ave powerfully in

fl u e nce d men are four : clima t e food soil and the
, , ,
general aspects o f na t ure By the fourth Buck le

.
,
refers to t hose appearances w h ic h are presen t ed

chiefly through the medium o f sigh t and which pro
duce th eir chief resul t s by exciting the imagina t ion
and suggesting superstitions The three firs t men
.
-
”
t io ne d factors do no t opera t e o n the mind directly .
The first e f f ec t o f climate food and soil upon

, ,
man that may be noted i s that they lead man to ac

cumulate wealth These accumulations permit th at
.
“
degree o f lei sure from making a living which e n
ables some members o f soci ety t o acquire knowl
edge U pon these acquisitions o f knowledge par
“
.
,
G E OGRA P H I C SOCIAL TH OUG HT 2 49
t icu la rly f
socialized knowledge civilization de
o ,
pends This progress in th e early stages o f civiliza

.
“
tion rests o n two circumstances : F irst on the ,
energy and regularity with which labor is con

ducted and s econd o n the returns made to that
, ,
” 4
labor by the bounty of nature Both thes e causes
are the results O f physical antecedents The returns .
which are made to labor are regulated by the fer

t ilit y o f the soil Moreover Buckle asserted the
.
, ,
energy and regularity with which labor is conducted

will be entirely dep endent o n the influence o f cli
5
mate . When heat is intense men will be indi s ,
posed and partly u nfit t e d for active industry C li .
mate also a ff ects the regularity o f the habits o f

laborers I n very cold climates th e weather inter
.
,
feres with re gular habits and produces desultori

ness I n southern countri es regular labor i s li k e
.
wise prevented this time by the hea t T h us in

w
—
.
,
the early stages of civilization the fundamen t al la

may be stated : the soil regulates the re t urns made
to a ny given amoun t O f labor ; the climate regulates
6
the ener gy and constancy o f labor itsel f
w
.
O f the t o primary causes O f primitive s o cie t a rv

growth the fertility o f the soil is more important
,
than the climatic influences I t is only where soil .
7
fertility exists that civilization can arise at all .
Bu t in Europe climat e has been more e ff ective th an

,
soil fertility I n Europe a climate has exi sted which

.
has stimulated h uman activities .
S ince the mental powers o f man are unlimite d

they a r e more important once they get started than
, ,
the powers o f nature which are limited and station

,
ary Man has endless capacity through hi s dynamic

. ,
mental tendencies t o develop the physical resource s

of the earth .
The birth rate depends on food supply I n h o t

”
.
countries where less food per capita i s required

,
than in cold countries and where an abundance o f

,
food exists the birth rate i s very high I n cold

,
.
countries highly carbonized food i s necessary but ,
this food is largely animal in origin and great risk

is involved in procuring it H ence th e people o f .
8
cold countries become adventuresome .
By the study of physical laws it is possible t o de

termine what the national food o f a country will
be I n I ndia for example the physical conditions
.
, ,
are decidedly favorable t o the growth o f rice w h ich ,
is th e most nutritive o f all cereals and which con , ,
sequently is a causal fac t or in a high birth rate

, .
But where there i s a cheap national food the in ,
crease in population becomes very great A s a re

w
.
sult there are multitudes of people h o are able

w
,
t o k eep j ust above the subsistence level A fe .
individuals who understand the operation o f th es e

physical laws are able t o manipulate the multitudes
in such a way as t o make themselves immensely
wealthy S ince wealth a fter intellect is the mo s t
.
, ,
permanent source o f power a great inequality of ,
wealth has been accompanied by a corresponding

”
ine q uality o f so c i al and p olitical p ower It p ro 3
.
-
and uncontrollable and O f great wonder tends t o
,
inflame the imagination and to cause it to dominate

the intellectual processes Where nature is continu .
ally exhibiting its power man feels his inferiority ,

.
H e assumes a helpless attitude H e ceases to in .
quire o r to think His imagination rather than his

.
,
reason reigns O n the other hand where nature

,
.
,
works smoothly and qui etly man begin s to assert ,
hi s individuality H e even essays t o dominate na

.
ture and other men Hi s cognition develops and

.
his volition expresses itself vigorously .
A ll early civilizations were located in the tropics

o r sub tropics-
I n these regions nature i s danger
.
o u s t o man Earthquakes tempests hurr i canes

.
, , ,
pestilences prevail C onsequently th e imagination

.
,
o f man takes exaggerated forms The j udgment i s .
overbalanced ; thought is paralyzed The mind i s . ,
continually thrown into a frantic state These re .
actions throw human li fe into feeling molds into ,
poetic rather than sci enti fic forms R eligious feel .
ings are promoted The leading religions o f the

.
world ori gi nated in the sub tropical and tropical —
regions o f the earth .
East I ndian litera t ure and thought illustrate the

e f f ect o f nature upon th e feelings and the imagina
tion The works of the East I ndians o n grammar
.
,
law history medicine even on mathematics geog

, , , ,
11
ra p h y , and metaphysics are nearly all poems .
Prose writing is despised The S anscrit lan guage .
boas t s o f more numerous and more complicate d

G E OGR AP H I C SOCIAL T H OUG HT 253
metres than can any European ton gue The East .
I ndian literature is even calculated t o set the r eason

”
of man at defiance .
The imagination for example in I ndia has p ro

, ,
du ce d an exaggerated respect f o r the past ; it i s

this situation which has led poets to describe a
Golden A ge in the remote past I n the literature
.
o f I ndia there i s recorded the statement that in
ancient times the average length o f li fe of common

men was years There are instances of poets
.
who lived to be half a million years Old .
I n G reece o n the other hand nature i s more

, ,
quiet and the mind o f man functioned in a reason

ing way I n the N orth Temperate zone science
.
“
developed . The climate was more healthy ; earth
quakes were less frequent ; hurricanes were less
disastrous ; wild beasts and noxious animals less
Buckle in other words insists that
, ,
everywhere the hand o f nature is upon the mind o f

man .
The work o f Buckle the chief exponent o f the

,
influence o f physical nature u pon mental man a c ,
ce nt u a t e s important phases of the growth of civili
z a t io n
. Buckle over emphasiz ed his anthropo ge o
- -
graphic O bservations However they constitute a

.
,
part O f the whole picture of human progress and ,
when seen in the light of modern mental growth

and control O f envi ronment they shrink into proper
proportions .
T h e field which Buckle opened has been devel

254 H I S T O RY O F S O CI A L TH OU GH T
oped extensively by F riedrich R atz el ( 18 44 19 04 ) -
This G erman scholar traveler and geograp h er i s

, ,
generally credited with putting anthropo geography -
o n a scientific basis Mi ss Ellen S emple attempted

.
to translate his work on A nt hr o p o Ge o grap hie into -
English but found the German constructions so

,
di f ficult to handle accurately that it was necessary

’
for h er to put Rat z e l s observations into her o n w
words S he also points out in Buckle a lack o f
.
system and an undue tendency t o follow o ne gen

e ra liz a t io n after anoth er Her own I nf lu e nce s o f
w
.
Ge o grap h ic E nv ir o nme nt has no become a stand

ard work o n the ways in which physical nature
a ff ects mankind .
Miss S emple following but improving upon R at

,
zel has shown in turn the influences o f geographical

,
location area and boundaries upon people S he

, , .
indicates the various ways in which oceans rivers , ,
and coast lines have molded human minds ; she dis

t ingu is h e s between mountain steppe and desert , ,
e f f ects upon mankind S he describes man as a

.
’
product of the earth s surface S he stresses unduly .
the physical influences ; she considers nature the

dominating force Even where civilized man has
.
developed inventive powers and spiritual prowess ,
”
nature is given the credit N evertheless Miss
.
,
S emple has marshalled facts in powerful array and

increased their force by literary skill N O student .
’
o r teacher can a f ford t o neglect Miss S emple s ex
tensive survey o f th e interactions between physica l

graphic factors to human progress indicates a
fundamen tal but a proport ionate decrease in those
influen c es
.
C H APT ER X V I
S PE N C E R AN D OR G A N I C S O C I A L T H O UGH T
In the second hal f of the last century social

thought passed under biological influence S ociety .
was discussed in terms of biological analogies that ,
is it was compared in its structure and functions

,
to organic li fe Herbert S pencer was the leader

.
among those writers who attempted t o analyze s o

cie t y in terms of biological figures o f speech He .
also stressed the structural nature o f society and

‘
in his P rincip les o f S o cio lo gy he went into great

detail in giving a historical description o f social
institutions .
The G reek writers the H ebrews before them

, ,
the founder o f C hristianity made refe r ences to the

likenesses between human society and plant and
animal li fe . Mankind has O ften been compared
t o a tree o r a plant with its mani fold evolving ,
branches and fruit .
’
S pencer s famous organic analogi es were pre
ceded by the studies o f biologists such as L amarck
,
and Darwin L amarck ( 1 744 1 8 2 9 ) argued that

.
-
by activity and use man could develop traits which

would be transmitted by inheritance A lthough.
this theory has been undermined by Weismann it ,

served as a basis for the furth er study o f the b io
logical laws o f human evolution .
The thought O f C harles Darwin ( 18 09 18 8 2 ) -
upon th e nature o f evolution was stimulated in part

’
by Malthus doctrine o f surplus population and the
consequent struggle f o r existence He also based .
his ideas on the L amarckian theory o f transmission

O f acquired characters He developed t h e concepts
.
of the prodigality of nature and the struggle f o r

existence w h ich led t o the resultant concept O f
,
natural selection and survival o f the fittest The .
process of natural selection accounts f o r the in

s t inct s
,
imitation imagination reason as well as
, ,
f o r self consciousness and the esthetic and religious

-
,
impulses I n this way man according to the Dar

w
,
.
inia n formula has ascended by stages from the

,
lower orders o f li fe .
The fittes t to survive concluded Darwin are

w
, ,
those individuals h o are best fitted t o meet the

conditions o f their environment I f the environ .
m ent be competitive savage brutal then the fittest

, , ,
will be the strongest physically and the most vicious .
I f the environment be co operative then the fittest

w
—
will be the individuals h o co operate best With -

.
the development o f intelligence and sagacity in

early human soci ety individuals otherwise cruel
,
learned to co operate A tribe O f co operating in

-
.
-
d iv idu als would be victorious in a conflict wit h a

tribe o f non co operating members
- -
Thus co .
operation and a co operating environment them

—
260 H I S T O RY O F SOCI A L TH OUG HT
some way of the grea t er co operative spirit The
-
.
application of thi s principle t o human progress im

plies that the co operative spirit may ultimately
—
become the chi ef survival force and that some day

,
“ ”
the fittest to survive will be those individuals or
groups of individuals who co operate most wisely
-
.
This theory will be developed further in the chap

”
ter upon Co operation Theories in S ociology
-
.
The chief contributors have been K r opotkin and

w
N o vico .
D arwin made ano ther important contribution to

social sci ence i n his t h eory of sexual selection .
This idea is a phase o f natural selection A mong .
the higher animals the females choose their mate s .
The males fo r example with the singing voice and

, ,
beauti ful plumage are the most li k ely to be chosen

,
.
These males thus become th e progenitors o f the

next generation o f the given species ; th e less at
tractive males mate i f at all with the inferior types
of females Thus signs of male attractiveness
.
1
come to possess survival value .
A mong human beings the principle of sexual

selection operates but in a reversed sexual form
,
.
During the earlier cen t uries o f human history the

custom developed whereby the males took the initia
tive in choosing mates A s a result the females
.
,
resorted to all sorts of devices to mak e themselves

“ ” “ ”
attractive and to get themselves selected .
The social theories of Herbert S pencer ( 18 2 0

19 03 ) have caused more controversy than those o f
ORGANIC SOCIAL TH OUG HT 26 1
any other writer in the sociological field The fact .
t hat in these controversi es the ideas o f S pencer

have usually been worsted will no t blind the fair
minded seeker after truth to the important ré le
which S pencer took in the fi eld o f social thought .
S pencer early developed the habit of causal think

in g that is he believed in causes and hence
, , ,
searched everywhere f o r causes Because of the

.
acrimonious discussions which took place between

his father and mother and because o f hi s o n inde
, w
pendent nature he repudiated the orthodo x re
,
ligio u s explanations o f the universe He was .
trained for the profession of civil engineering His .
studies in mathematics and mechanics accentuated

his precise and somewhat materialistic interpreta
tion o f the universe Hi s social theories are an out
.
growth ln part o f his emphasis upon the laws of

co existence and sequences in the physical world
-
.
’
I n order to understand S pencer s social laws it i s
necessary fi rst to consider his general law o f e v o lu
tion . He traced everything in th e world back
through causal chains to two fundamental factors ,
namely mat t er and motion two aspects o f force

,
—
.
A s a result o f the operation o f some F i rst C ause ,
an integration o f matter began to take place ac ,
companied by a concomitant dissipation o f motion .
A s a result matter passes from an inde finite in

, ,
coherent homogeneity t o a definite coherent hetero,
g e n e it y During this process the unexp ended mo

.
”
tion undergoes a similar change .
The best explanation of this law of evolution can
be found in its application t o societary phenomena .
S uppose that a modern city neighborhood under

takes to organize itself I t possesses physical re
.
“ ”
sources and mental abilities The neighbors are.
all more o r less untrained in community organiza

tion activities I n thi s sense they are homogeneous
. .
A t fi rst th ey are unable to work together ; in fac t

“
they do no t know what t o do ; thus they form an ,
”
indefinite incoherent homogeneity
, But wi th ex
.
p e rie nce in community organization activities th e ,
individuals of the neighborhood learn to work to

gether Each finds the type o f work which h e can
.
do bes t A ll work toward a definite goal Thus a

. .
,
defini t e coherent heterogeneity arises

, F ur t her
.
,
the unexpended energies o f the people are infl u

e nce d and transformed by the pattern ideas w h ich
experience in community organization measures

8
has taught .
’
T h is application of S pencer s law of evolu t ion t o
human progress has weak as well as s t rong points .
T h ere i s not always an or i g i nal homogeneity U pon .
close examination this homogeneity disappears b e

fore a variegated conglomeration o f he t erogeneous
experiences and potentialities o f all th e individuals
who are concerned I t i s no t necessary t o point o u t
.
additional errors S pencer deserves c redi t h ow

.
,
ever for developing the concep t o f social evolution

,
as a phase of natural evolution and f o r stressing the

idea of natural causation in socie t ary matt ers .
26 4 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG H T
civilized I t is an organization o f homogeneous
.
units in which the units o r the individuals are

, ,
slaves to the organization .
S pencer believed in a new industrial development

whereby individuals would become di f ferentiated
and developed and whereby individuals would
,
be shi fted from an autocratic maximum to a

democratic maximum To S pencer man i s vastly
.
,
superior to the state I n the coming industrial

.
order S pencer foresaw an era in which the main

business o f society will be to de fend the rights o f
individuals S pencer forecasted an epoch of indus
.
trial states which have abolished war I n such a .
day the only conflicts that will take place between

states will be natural These will be only the com
.
petitions that ari se naturally between states th at

are engaged in building up th e best individuals that ,
i s those persons who develop their individuality

,
most freely and harmoniously .
The rise o f industrial states with a minimum

emphasis upon government and a maximum em
phasis upon individuality will produce a worl d
order in which national barri ers will slowly melt
’
away and a planetary unity will develop S pencer s .
industrialism however has fundamental weak

, ,
nesses I t implies that social organization i s more

.
important than social process I t neglects to p ro

.
vide f o r inherent psychical changes It assumes .
that an industrial society pe r 5 6 will be peaceful

, ,
.
I t underestimates the importance o f socializing

ORGANIC SOC IAL TH OUG HT 26 5
motives .
I n th e changes from a military to an industr ial

organization o f society the six main se t s o f social ,
institutions undergo deep seated changes S pencer —

.
describes at length these six institutional stru e

tures namely the domestic ceremonial political
, , , , ,
ecclesiastical professional and industrial

, Two , .
,
the political and industrial have been mentioned o n ,

’
the preceding page S pencer s t reatment o f th e
.
other four i s accurate to a degree but at funda

mental points is unreliable j udged by current co n —
ce p t io ns and data .
Perhaps S pencer i s best known f o r hi s treatment

o f the organic analogy He set up the hypothesis
.
that s o c1e ty is hEEazbio log ical organ ism and then

fl
w “ M W “
pro ceed ed to def end his thesis against all obj ections
.
W l tH grea t l ogical force

-
W
But logic was his socio

i
f o r it overcame his scienti fic in

sight .
S pencer found four main ways in which society

5
resembles an organi sm 1
( ) I n both
. cases growth
is attended by augmentation o f mass ( 2 ) I n each .
instance growth i s accomplished by increasing co m

p le x i t y o f structure ( )
3 I n the
. organi sm and
in s ociety there i s an interdependence o f parts .
4
( ) The li fe of society like the li fe of
,
an organi sm ,
is far longer than the li fe o f any o f the units o r

par t s .
Bu t th ere are ways in which society and an o r

g a n i s m are unli k e These were analyzed by S p e n
.
6
cer and de t ermined to be merely superficial di ff er
e nce s. There are four of these main differences .
( )
1 U nlike organisms societi es have no
, specifi c e x
tensive form such as a physical body with limbs o r
,
a face ( 2 ) The elements o f society do not form

.
a continuous whole as in the case o f an animal .
The living units composing society are free and not ,
in contact being more or less dispersed ( 3 ) The

, .
parts of society are no t stationary and fixed in their

positions relative t o the whole ( 4 ) I n an organism .
consciousness is concentrated in a small par t o f th e

aggregate while in soci ety consciousnes s i s di f
,
fused The alleged s u p e r ficialit y in th is di f ference

.
between society and an organism was di f ficult for

S pencer to maintain .
I n discussing the organic analo gy furth er S p e n ,
cer compared the alimentary system o f an organism

t o th e productive industries o r the sustainin g sys ,
7
t em in the body politic F urthermore there i s a
.
,
s t rong parallelism between the circulatory sys t e m

of an organism and the distributing sys t em in
society with its transpor t ation lines ; bu t m ore par
t icu la rly its commercial classes and media of ex
,
change Then in both cases there h as developed

.
,
regulating systems I n an organism th ere is a do m

.
inant center and subordina t e cen t ers the senses

’
, ,
and a neural appara t us A similar str u c t ure ap .
p ears in society in the form o f an adjustive ap

p ara tus or governmen t for th e purpose o f adj u di
, ,
ca t ing th e di ff erences be t ween th e producers and th e

268 H I S T ORY OF SOC I A L TH O U G HT
o fnatural evolution ( 3 ) He pointed out the like
.
nesses between biological organisms and human

soci ety ( 4 ) He made the r ole of socia l structures
.
,
o r institutions to stand o u t distinctly

, 5
( ) H e .
stressed the importance o f individuality ( 6 ) H e .
undermined the idea that the S tate i s a master

machine t o which all the individual citiz ens must
submit automatically .
I n the U nited S tates S pencer possessed an able

,
and loyal fri end in John F iske ( 18 42

F iske built his social thought upon the evolution
a rily formulae of Darwin and S pencer I n his .
C o s mic P h ilo s o p hy or philosophy o f the universe

, ,
F i ske contended that the evolution o f man produced

fundamental changes in the nature of cosmic e v o
lu t io n With the development o f man t here appears
.
a new force in the universe the human spirit or , ,
soul The advent o f thi s psychical entity has pro

.
d u ce d a subordination o f the purely bodily physi ,
ca l material forces and established a con t rol by

,
spiri tual forces Moreover in human evolution

.
,
there has been a slowly increasing subordination o f

the selfish phases o f spiritual li fe to th e altruistic .
With the apparent cessat i on l n 1mp o rt ant bodily

changes there have come unheralded and u nant ici
pated psychical inventions which have released man ,
from th e passive adaptation t o environment which

animals mani fest and given t o him an increasingly
,
positive control over the processes o f adaptation .
Humanity as the highest product o f the e vo lu

ORGANIC SOCIAL TH OUG HT 2 69
t io na ry processes has the power to change the whole

course o f cosmic development F i ske distinctly
.
emphasized the psychical forces in evolution and

the part which they are playing in making mankind
purposeful and in organizing groups on social prin
cip le s
. Humanity i s no t a mere incident in e vo lu
9
tion ; it is the supreme factor The main purpose
.
o f man i s not the perpetuation o f th e species but ,
the development o f increasingly higher and more

social purposes .
F ollowing the ideas o f Maine Tylor M cL e nnan

, , ,
and L ubbock F iske concluded that social evolution

,
“
originated when families temporarily organiz ed
,
among all the higher gregarious mammals became ,
in the case o f the highest mammal permanently

” 10
organized . G regariousnes s developed into de f
init e family relati o nships and responsibilities So .
cial evolution produced an increased complexity and
specialty in intelligence which in turn required a

,
lengthening of the p eriod during which the ner

vous connections involved in ordinary adj ustments
are becoming organized S uch a trans formation
.
requires time and hence the need for a period of

,
infancy which i s no t common to the lower animals .
A ccompanying this period o f infancy there i s the ,
d evelopment o f strong a f f ection o f relatively shor t

duration among higher animals A mong mankind .
parental love takes o n the characteri stics no t only

o f intensity and u ns e lfish ne s s but o f duration and
forgiveness I n thi s phase o f evolution there is a

.
correlative development of three factors namely , ,
the prolongation o f infancy the rise o f parental

,
a ff ection and increasing intelligence The gradual

, .
prolongation of the period of infancy i s partly a

consequence o f increasing intellige nce and in turn ,
the prolonga t ion o f infancy a f fords the circum

stances for the establishment o f permanen t r ela
.
t io ns h ip s o f reciprocal b ehavior of sociality

, , .
F iske was one of the first social philosophers to

poin t o u t the si gni ficance of foresigh t as a phase
of evolutionary development Perhaps t h e chief
.
way in which civilized man is distin guished f r om

“
the barbarian i s in his ability to adap t his cond uc t
to future events whether contingent o r certain to
,
”
occur . C ivilized man has the power t o forego
present enj oyment in order to safeguard himself
”
against future disaster . Thi s quality i s the e s
sence o f prudence and is due in large part t o civil
’
iz e d man s superior power o f sel f restraint o ne o f
-
,
the ch ief elements in moral progress I t i s equally .
“
important as an indispensable prerequisi t e t o the
”
accumulation o f wealth in any community It is .
’
the basic factor in civilized man s elaborate s cie n
t ific provisions and in hi s numerous far reac h ing -
philosophic and religious systems .
Paul vo n L ilienfeld ( 18 2 9 1903 ) made the o r

—
g a ni c analogy a definite part of hi s theory o f so

cie t y. He compared the individual t o the cells in
an organism ; the governmen t al and industrial o r
g a niz a t io n s to the neural system ; and the cultural
,
2 72 HI S T OR Y OF S OCI A L THO U GH T
than either S pencer o r L ilienfeld I n the though t o f .
S ch a e ffl e society i s no t primarily a large organis m

,
but a gigantic mind S ch ae ffl e presented a func

.
t io nal analogy rather than a biological analo gy .
Whereas S pencer was especially interested in social

structures S ch ae ffle set his attention upon s o c ial
,
function s .
’
I n his functional analogies S ch a e fil e compared the
reason with the legislature in society ; the will with ,
the executive o ffi cers ; and the esthetic j udgmen t ,

’
with the j udiciary S ch ae ffle s psy c h olo gy i s inaccu
.
rate and o n the whole unscienti fic ; his analogies add

little t o an understanding of society N evertheless .
,
hi s thought o n these subj ects represents an advance

over the ideas o f S pencer
w
.
I n the B o a nd L e be n d e s S o cia le ii K o f f ers ,
S ch a e ffle undertook t o develop a complete s o cio lo g

ical system Hi s teachings follow the principle that
.
“
function leads structure and struc t ure limits func
”
tion . A ctivities produce developmen t s in bodily
structure and also cause the formation of new
,
social institutions Bodily structures and social in

.
s t it u t io ns alike limit activities and usefulness .
These propositions are a reversal o f the emphasis

which S pencer maintained They are fundament .
ally correct .
A lthough S ch affle referred frequently to the

social body he did not give the concept a spe
,
“
cific meaning He introduced the term social
.
”
process bu t did no t analyze its nature He repu
, .
OR G A N IC SOCI A L T H OUG H T 2 73
d iat e d the idea that t he individual i s the social unit ;

he considered the group t o be the all important -
unit in society N atural selection in social e v o lu

.
tion mani fests itsel f in conflicts between the ideals

of di f ferent groups R ené Worms it may be added
.
, ,
has assumed the existence o f a social consciousness

apart from the consciousness of individuals and ,
‘
argued that the chief di f f erence between biological

organi sms and social organizations is one of degree .
S ch ae ffle considered that government j usti fies it

self in protecting the weaker members o f society ,
and in mainta i n i ng the highest wel fare o f all H e .
pointed out the social responsibility which rests

upon the best educated and most fortunate mem
bers o f society S ch ae ffl e wisely emphasized the
.
development of purposeful activity on the part o f

both the individual and society .
The ideas o f John S tuart Mackenzi e di f f er from

those o f S pencer L ilienfeld and S ch ae f fle Mac
, , .
kenzie does no t use the figure o f an organ i c anal

o gy ; he speaks in terms o f homologies A ccording
.
to Mackenzie society i s no t like an organi sm ; it

,
is o rgamc .
The organic nature o f society i s threefold ( 1 ) .
There i s an intrinsic relation between the parts o f

society and the whole The individual reflects the
.
culture of the group in which he has been trained .
( )
2 The development o f a group i s by virtue o f
intrinsic processes A group builds o n ideas de
.
rived from both the past and from other groups ,

but it does no t genuinely grow unless it takes these
ideas and makes them ov e r into a part o f its o n w
nature ( 3 ) S ociety de v elops towards ends which
.
are discoverable in society itself By analysis of .
the ideals and motive forces o f a group it i s p o s ,
sible to determ i ne m what direction th e group is

moving .
Mackenzie argues for the inner principle o f

things and particularly o f soci ety He believes .
,
however that knowledge concerning this inner

,
principle and the essential unity of mankind can

not be reduced to a science but will constitute the
,
basis of a social philosophy S ocial philosophy does

.
no t supply facts but seeks t o interpret the s ignifi

,
cance of the special aspects of human li fe with

reference t o the social unity o f mankind .
The family and th e state are the two forms of

association in which th e most intimate bonds o f
union are nurtured L anguage i f it ca n be called
.
,
a social institution is perhaps the most fundamental

,
institution o f all because it produces that co mmu

,
nit y o f spirit whereby intimacy in social intercourse

ca n take place and whereby the realization o f a
16
common good can be achieved .
A ccording t o Mackenzi e there are three main

,
lines of social progress and hence three main types

,
of 1
( )
17
social control to be encouraged The .
control o f natural forces by human agencies ( 2 ) .
The control o f individuals by the communal spirit ,
( )
3 S elf control .
fellow citizens ; and it i s only the recognition of
-
”
t his that entitles us to look f o r any lasting security.
Mackenzie advances beyond the organic analo

gists when he describes the ways in which society
is organic A s a social philosopher he has con
.
tributed important pattern ideas He has escaped

-
.
from the foibles o f th e organic analogy and at the

same time indicated the values that li e beneath th at
concept .
This chapter deals with a signi ficant period in

the history of social thought The biology o f the
.
time was very faulty and th e sociological applica

tions o f biological knowledge were consequently of
little merit The early years o f the present century
.
were characterized by noteworthy improvements

in biological thinking The facts about the laws o f
.
heredity and variation increased in number ; a sci

ence o f heredity was established The fi rst decade
.
o f the present century also marks the ri se o f the
science o f eugenics I n a later chapter the contri

.
butions o f recent scientific biolo gy and particularly

,
o f eugenics t o social thought will be presented

,
.
C H APTE R X V I I
THE S O C I O LO G Y OF L ES T ER F W A RD
.
The name of L ester F Ward ( 18 4 1 19 13 ) sta nds

.
-
forth between the O ld and new eras o f social

thought Ward belongs to both the old and new
. .
He adopted C omtean positivism and built in part

’
upon S pencer s evolutionary principles but o p ,
posed S pencer s lais s ez fa ire ideas and hi s e vo lu

’
t io na ry determinism especially in regard t o educa

,
tion Per h aps his most notable work was t he way

.
in which h e shocked a S pencerian tinged world o f -
social thought into a new method o f thinkin g .
Ward became the ardent advocate o f social

telesis Man can modi fy defeat o r hasten the
.
, ,
processes o f nature Ward brough t the concept o f

.
dynamic sociolo gy to the attention o f the world .
A lthough he was interested in social statics his ,
primary concern was in the fact that man through

the use of his intelligence can trans form no t only
the natural world but the social world and that he
w
,
ca n harness not only the natural forces to social
ends but even the social forces to social purpo s es

,
.
Hence it i s that Ward holds rank today dSéELE‘eEh is ,

“ ,
and his false psychological b e

’
ie f s as o ne o f th e world s l eading sociologists
,
.
2 78 H I S T OR Y OF SOCIAL TH OUG HT
L ester F Ward was born in Joliet I llinois
.
, . He
received a limited schooling and early went t o ,
‘
work fi rst on a farm and then as a wheelw r ight

, .
H e mani fested an unusual liking f o r books and t o

a great extent was sel f educated H e entered the
—
.
employment o f the U nited S tates Government ,
where he remained f o r more than forty years afte r ,
h e was honorably discharged from service in the

C ivil War I n the Go vernment service he held the
.
positions o f geologist and paleontologi st D e .
spite hi s strenuous and e f ficient work for the Gov

e rnme nt he found time t o think through and write
,
out an elaborate sociological system o f th ought .
’
Ward s published works in sociology began with
his D ynamic S o cio lo gy ( 18 8 3 ) and ended with
the Glimp s e s o f t he C o s ni o s ( 19 13 ) in several vo l
umes which with the exception o f volume o ne
, , ,
have been published posthumously The in t er .
mediate books o f importance i n order were : P u re

S o cio lo gy A pp lie d S o cio lo gy and P s ychic Fa ct o rs
, ,
o f Civ iliz a t io n .
Ward was cha rac te rized by an impressive co m

“ ”
mand o f hi s subj ect and a terri fic men t al drive .
I n 19 06 he began the unique experiment o f teac h

,
ing sociology at the age o f 6 5 A s a professor of .
sociology he served Brown U niversity un t il h is

death f o r a period o f s even years He was sup
—
.
ported by the indefatigable assistance o f h is wi fe ,
“
as shown by the many files which she k ept o f Re
” “ ”
views and Press N otices A utograp h L et t e r s
, ,
powerful evolutionary process He pointed out .
that man is distinguished from animals by the de

v e lo p me nt o f his psychical nature i e o f hi s fore
, . .
,
sight and reason H e demonstrated that by this

.
development man i s able t o master and regulate t h e

operation o f the blind evolutionary forces H ence .
,
the doctrine of la is s ez faire i s no t only false but

pernicious I t defeats social progress The tru th
. .
is said Ward society i s able to improve itsel f and

, , ,
it should set itself scienti fically at once t o the

opportunity .
Passive o r negative progress i s represen t ed by

, ,
the social forces operating in their natural freedom ,
‘
subj ect only t o general evolutionary laws A ctive .
,
o r positive , progress is represented by the social

forces guided by conscious h uman purposes S o .
cial statics deals with the nature o f social order ;
social dynamics treats o f the laws of social prog

ress S ocial dynamics concerns itself with t o
. w
types o f studi es O ne line analyzes and describes
.
what is going o n in society under the influence o f

natural laws thi s is pure sociology I t i s pure
—
.
diagnosis ; it has nothing to do with what socie ty

ought t o be I t describes the phenomena and laws
.
o f society as they are

5
The other procedure dis
.
cus ses the application o f human purpose t o the nat

ural social forces this is applied sociology I t
—
.
studies the art o f applying the active or positive , ,
forces t o the natural evolution o f society This .
“
m e thod is dis t inctly a human p rocess and depends
SOCIOLOGY OF L E S TE R F WA R D . 28 1
wholly o n the action o f man himself A pplied .
sociology treats of social ends and purposes .
Pure sociology describes the spontaneous devel

o p me nt o f soci ety ; applied sociology deals with the
artificial means of accelerating the spontaneous

6
processes in society Pure sociology treats o f
.
achievement ; applied sociology of improvement , .
“
But applied sociology i s no t social reform ; it does
not itself apply sociological principles it seeks only ,
”
to show how they may be applied I t lays down
.
principles as guides t o social action The carrying .
o f these principles in t o social and political practice
i s social reform .
The distinction is now clear between natural and

7
arti ficial progress The former i s a blind growth ;
.
the latter a purposeful manufacture O ne i s a

, .
genetic process ; the other a teleological process,

.
O ne i s characterized by increasing di ff erentiation ;

the other by a process o f calculation A rti ficial
, .
progress i s considered superior to natural progress .
Ward was a moni st He believed in the absolute

.
unity o f nature from the revolutions of celestial

,
8
orbs t o the vicissitudes of social customs and laws .
“ ”
He held that li fe i s a proper ty o f matter and ,
nai vely declared that it i s simply t h e result o f the

movements going on among the molecules compos
” 9
ing a mass o f protoplasm Psychic phenomena are
.
“
the relations which subsi st among the material
molecules o f the brain and nervous system and b e
t we e n these and t h e ma t erial obj ects o f the o u t side
world S ince mind is r elational it is immat e ,
rial but it has ma t te r for its basis R elations how

, .
,
ever constitu t e t h e properti es o f matter and hence

, ,
mind as well as li fe is a property o f matter

, , The .
logical length to which Ward goes in supporting his

monistic doctrine is in itself a proof o f his error .
U nlike C om t e Ward believed that man origi

,
nally was anti social and completely selfish I n th e

-
.
earliest stage o f human existence man lived a li fe ,
’ ll
almos t solitary o r at least in small gro u p s
, He .
was surrounded by destructive forces both inor

gani e and organic A gainst th e wild and ferocious
.
beas t s he found himsel f almost physically h elpless .
S ome of hi s number overcame thei r physical de

“
f e ns e le s s ne s s by using their wits Through
sagacity and cunning they were able t o with s t and
the attacks o f the wild beasts t o survive and t o , ,
propaga t e th eir young A long with increased cun .
ning th ere wen t an increased brain size in propor

tion to size o f body and also an improved brain,
s t ructure qualitatively .
This brain development i s the essen t ial p re re q u i

”
site for perceiving the advantages o f associa t ion .
Man early recognized the merits o f association and ,
moved up from the solitary o r autarchic stage o f , ,
social li fe t o the second o r constrained aggregate ,
s t age This second s t age does not con t ain the ele
.
ments o f permanency because o f its forced nature .
T h e tendencies toward association are often coun

t e ract e d and a t times destroyed by fi erce contests
p a nt a rchic ,
age Ward perceives an ultimate tri
.
umph of humanitarian sentiments which will be ,
also a triumph o f practical interests that shall ,
sweep away the present barriers o f language na ,
t io nal pride and natural uncongeniality and unite

, ,
all nations in o ne vast social aggregate with a s 1ngle

” 13
political organization .
’
Ward s analysis o f social evolution rests o n h is
conception o f the social forces The primary social .
force is desire D esire i s the expression o f any o f

.
the native impulses which at the given moment has , ,
no t been grati fied This striving f o r grati fication

.
constitutes desire and the moving force in the socie

“
t a ry world D esire is the essential basis o f all
.
”
actions .
The desires are numerous and complex but upon ,
examination lend themselves t o classi fication

w
.
There are t o fundamental and primary sets o f

desires the nutritive and the reproductive The
,
.
end o f the first is t o preserve the individual ; and o f

the second t o preserve and maintain the race
,
.
“
The fi rst desire o f all creatures is f o r nourish
”
ment .This desire remains dominant throughout
li fe The human race Ward summarizes spent its
.
, ,
infancy thousands o f years in the single pursuit

— —
“
of subsistence When the natural food supply
.
failed man was forced t o be inventive and to labo r

,
o r di e T o o many individuals in o ne place meant

.
either the migration o f some individuals o r that

others must compel nature throu gh labor t o ih
SOCIOLOGY OF L E S T E R F W AR D . 285
crease her normal yield of subsistence .
The nutritive desire has led man to labor L abor .

,
”
however is not the natural condition of man
, .
Work according to Ward i s unnatural and irk

, ,
some The constant spur o f hunger transformed

.
man into a working man To be useful however .

, ,
work must be continuous and applied s t eadily to a

given obj ect until that obj ect is attained Thi s .
process is the essence o f invention the highest and ,
most useful form o f labor Without wings valu .

,
able weapons o f o f f ense and de fense claws f o r dig ,
ging man has had but o ne line o f advance open to

,
him namely invention whereby he could overcome

, , ,
his limitations and master nature .
Ward overlooked what V eblen has called the

instinct of workmanship Man has a desire t o do .
,
to achieve to be active only s o can h e escape the

,
—
terrors of ennui H e secures illimitable enj oyment

.
from seeing the crude materials o f nature change

under the manipulations of hi s hand and mind into
works o f art .
N evertheless the need o f nutrition was probably

,
the chief factor in the invention o f tools and in the

storing o f food against the hungry day These .
tools and stores constituted property Property at .
once represented power The law o f acquisition .
soon exerted a great force I ntense rivalries in .
“
acquiring property developed The grand rivalry .
was f o r the obj ect no t the method ; f o r the end re

,
” 16
g a rd le s s o f the means Through th e centuri
. es
and until the pre s ent hour the morality of obtain
,
ing wealth has rarely risen to the mo r ality of many

other p hases o f li fe .
D eception early came into prominence We de .

~
ce ive an animal in order to catch and domesticate

,
or kill h im We deceive a fellow human being and

.
take his hard earned property away from him S o .
cie t y blindly has praised deception even when used

, ,
by o ne individual against t h e wel fare of h is fellows .
“
S ociety has honored him who could dri v e a bar
”
gain .
Wa r d declared that the desire to acquire proper ty

regardless o f the method i s a s strong as ever .
17
The only c h anges th at have come are a mitiga tion

o f the harshness o f the method and the r1 s e of co m
p u lso ry laws and codes which force individual s t o

”
drive their bargains and to practice thei r d e cep
tions within prescribed limits The acquisitive im
.
pulses have created maj or social evils as evidenced,

“
by the exceeding indigence of the poor and th e ex
ce e d ing opulence o f the rich and by a relatively
,
large proportion o f no n producing rich people t o

—
”
the entire number o f wealthy O n the other h and
.
,
thos e who are poor because they are indolent are

only a small proportion o f those who are poor and
industrious .
The evils o f acquisitiveness cannot be overcome

by softening the human heart Ward woul d .
make it impossible f o r individuals to take away the

property of others by making it to th e in t erest o f
88 H I S T OR Y O F S OCI A L T H OU G HT
ways . The leading non industrial modes of acqui
-
s it io n are these : robbery theft war statecraft , , , ,
priestcraft and monopoly This list represents the

, .
chronological order and history o f no n industrial —
types of acquisition .
R obbery i s the coarsest manner o f acquisition .
Theft represents the lowest order o f cunning .
Wars o f conquest are robbery o n so large a scale

that they arouse group patriotism C unning and .
treachery in war have given way t o strategy S tate .
craft has often been characterized by the egoistic

attempts o f a few shrewd individuals who have de ,
vised means for supplying the wants of t he many ,
and appropriated rich rewards f o r themselves from

“
the befriended and grate ful community Priest
craft as represented by many o f the pri ests of
B rahma Buddha O si ris O rmuzd Mahomet and
, , , ,
even Jesus have developed successful modes o f a c

q u i s it io n They
. h ave o ften stood a t the gates of
death and f o r pay guaranteed to the stricken and
,
fearful friends of a departed loved o ne a safe j our

ney through the perils following death Monopoly .
takes cunning advantage o f a scarcity o f the means

o f substance o r ,
an arti ficial and false
scarcity . Monopoly organiz ed th e fields o f
,
tran s portation e x cha ,

finance labor manu f ac , ,
ture .
The no n industrials co operate better than the in

- —
du s t ria ls and against the wel fare o f the latter The .
industrials unfortunately do no t understand the

, ,
SOC IOLOGY OF L E S TE R F W AR D . 289
principles o f co operation very well and do not have

-
the intelligence to carry them into practical opera

tion They receive less education t han the non indus
.
-
trials ; the years o f their industrial apprenticeship

are taken from their school days A fter t heir ap .
prenticeship begins the fatigue o f thei r labor gives

,
them little time o r energy f o r intellectual improve

25
ment . I n pronouncing co operation the product of
-
superior intelligence Ward neglects the r ole played

by the gregarious parental and related social in
, ,
s t inct s Ward sees only part of the truth when h e

.
calls competition a natural law and co operation ,

-
arti ficial He wi sely observes however that those

.
, ,
who co operate thrive at the expense o f those who

-
26
compete I n the same way that individuals co
w
.
operate in order to secure their o n gain society ,
must organiz e t o secure the progress of all .
The second primary set o f fundamental forces

is the reproductive These operate f o r the future
.
and f o r the species I n animals they operate with

.
o u t arousing shame o r modesty A mong human .
be i ngs they are manipulated through the agenci es

o f the reason and the imagination and give rise t o
’ 2
the sentiments o f shame and modesty They are
s o clouded in secrecy that they arouse dangerous
forms of curiosity .
A mong animals the choice of mates is largely de

t e rmine d by the females I n fact among t h e lowest
.
,
types of animal s there are no males A mong cer .
tain high er forms o f animal li fe th e male appears

as a mere adj unct But among human beings male.
,
sexual selection developed Thi s change in sexual .
selection is one o f the di f ferences between the brute

and the human worlds This transition i s ex .
plained by the fact that the higher a being ri ses in

the scal e o f development the more sensitive its o r
gans become and by the correlated fact that the
,
male human being through hi s reason is able t o

arouse and sati sfy a thousand desires within the
“
female and thus cause her to look t o him f o r that
,
protection and those favors which he alone can co n

” 28
fer.
I n the human world the reproductive forces have

fi rst produced a crude sexual love animal in its ,
nature but far reaching in its basic implications

,
-
.
S exual love i s an unconscious but dominant factor

in courtship I n its refined form and modi fied b y
.
,
the addition o f genuine but often short lived a ff ec t -
ive elements it becomes romantic love R omantic

,
.
love according to Ward u nfit s lovers for the no r

, ,
mal pursuits o f li fe While under its spell they .
’
are unable t o enj oy any thing but each other s pr e s
“
ence The man i s u nfit t e d f o r business the woman
.
,
f o r social li fe and both f o r intellectual pursuits

,
.
Th e only spur that can make either party pursue

other things is the sense o f doing something that
,
” 29
the other desires .
I n the s ense that natural o r sexual love becomes , ,
the basis o f romantic love so romantic love in turn ,
represents the genesis o f a still higher form o f love ,

operation o f the reproductive forces Polygamy .
,
polyandry and a score o f other types of marriage

,
have ari sen although monogamy h a s demonstrated

,
itsel f to be the superior type o f marriage institution .
The reproductive forces have led to numerous

s e x u o social inequalities
—
Men and women have
.
come to occupy separate spheres o f activity and to ,
represent distinct social conditions A lthough the .
two sexes live together and appear to be com

panions they are in fact dwelling in separate worlds
,
and o n di ff erent planes There are several principal

.
inequalities ( 1 ) There is an inequality o f dress

.
,
which has loaded woman with ornaments and

caused h er an enormous amount o f disease and
su f f ering ( )
2 . There is an inequality of duti es ,
which has kept woman confined t o the house and ,
made a slave o r a pampered pet o f her ( 3 ) There .
i s an inequality o f education S ociety has shut

.
woman in the past from all opportunities f o r gain

ing knowledge by experience Moreover society .
,
has seen fit t o debar women from the knowledge

that i s acqui red by instruction ( 4 ) A n inequality .
of rights has meant that women have been dis

criminated against before th e law Without direct .
representation in legi slatures women have suff ered

,
in proprietary matters 5
( ) A. general sex in
equality has at times made woman the property or
the slave o f man I n short women have been
.
,
denied until with recent years entrance to the

, ,
higher intellectual forms o f activity and at th e

SOCIOLOGY OF L E S TE R F W AR D . 29 3
same time denied social and political rights .
’
R everting to Ward s classi fication o f desi res we
w
,
may no proceed t o a discussion o f the third set

o f forces the sociogenetic
, I n contradistinction to
.
the nutritive and the reproductive desires o r to the ,
ontogenetic and the phylogenetic forces re s p e c ,
t iv e ly the sociogenetic forces lead directly to race

, ,
or social improvement
, The ontogenetic forces
.
guarantee individual preservation ; the p h ylo ge n

etic race preservation ; and th e sociogenetic race
, ,
and social progress Ward classi fied the socio

.
31
genetic forces as moral esthetic and i ntellectual
, , .
Morality i s either racial o r individual R ace .
morality is largely an outgrowth o f custom Duty .

,
according to Ward i s conduct favorable to race

,
“
safety while virtue is an attitude o f li fe and char
,
acter consistent with the preservation and con

t inu ance o f man o n earth I ndividual morality
.
o n the other hand i s based o n altruism

,
A ltrui sm .
is the expenditure o f energy in behal f of other in

dividu als and involves the power o f representing
,
’
the psychic states o f others t o one s self Morality .
leads t o humanitariani sm whose aim i s meliorism

,
.
Meliorism aims to reorganiz e society so that the

minimum pain and the maximum enj oyment may
be insured Meliorism i s a no n sentimental im
.
-
provement o r amelioration of the human or social

33
sta t e .
Ward holds that the esthetic forces consist o f a

desire f o r open o r deep seated symmetrical forms
-
.
Behind a landscape which at first appears irregular
and j agged there is a fundamental symmetry
,
and balance S culpture painting and landscape

.
, ,
gardening a re largely imitations of nature A rchi .
tecture however emphasizes straight lines regular

, , ,
curves and other symmetrical and geometrical

,
figures .Because o f the invention o f popular mu

s ica l instruments music i s open to and enj oyed by
,
the common people N o such invention u nf o r.

,
t u na t e ly has taken place in the fields o f painting

,
and sculpture These realms are limited t o the

highest geniuses and their choicest productions
appropriated by the few h o combine wealth with
” 35
w
taste .
The intellectual forces are chiefly the desires t o

know These desires are three fold : ( l ) t o acquire
.
knowledge ( 2 ) t o discover truth and ( 3 ) t o impart

, ,
information Th e desire t o acquire knowledge I S

.
perhaps strongest in the young Y outh will often .
learn anything without exercising any powers o f

,
discrimination The grati fication o f th e desire t o

.
discover new truth yields almost divine thrills o f

satis faction There are four methods o f impart
.
ing information t o oth ers viz ( 1 ) by conversing ,

.
, ,
( )
2 by teaching ( )
3 by lecturing and 4
( )
,
by ,
writing .
I n addition t o th e dynamic forces there i s t h e

directive agent in soci ety namely the intellect , ,
.
Ward makes a precarious di stinction between the

feelings and thought o r between intellec t as a ,
cip le s of social dynamics and hence of societal
“
progress ( 1 ) The fi rst law he called di f ference
.
o f potential Thi s term which he borrowed from

.
,
physics refers t o the di ff erence in potential p o s

,
s ibilit ie s o f individuals Thi s di f ference i s mani

.
f e s t e d for example in the crossing o f cultures

, , .
I t disturbs social stability and creates social lia ,
b ilit y
. S ex is a d e v 1 ce whereby a di ff erence o f
potential i s maintained While asexual re p ro du c .
tion i s characterized chi efly by repetition o f forms ,
sexual reproduction creates changes in the stock

in countless directions The diff erence o f poten .
tial which is caused by a crossing o f str ains i s

highly dynamic resulting in unnumbered varia ,
tions and hence in providing endless opportunities

,
f o r progress I n a similar way a cross fertilization

.
o f cultures opens many opportunities f o r social ad

“
vancement Progres s results from the fusion o f
.
”
unlike elements Di f f erence o f potential again
.
40
, ,
i s illustrated in the friction o f mind upon mind .
Thoughts conflict and the result i s likely to be an ,
invention .
Difference o f potential may lead to creative syn

" 1
thesis . When two elements are j oined the result ,
i s usually more than the sum o f the parts The .
combining o f hydrogen and oxygen in given pro

portions produces water which mani fests charac ,
t e ris t ics that are no t possessed by either of the co n
s t it u e nt s L ikewise the combining o f two ideas

.
,
by the human mind may result in a new idea and ,

SOC IOLOGY OF L E S TE R F W AR D . 297
thus in progress .
2
( ) A second dynamic principle i s innovation ,
which has its biological homologue in the sport o r ,
mutant Throughout nature and society fortuitous

.
,
variations occur L i fe at times breaks over the

.
bounds o f pure heredity the result i s innovation—

.
Variation in the sense o f mutation o r innovation

, ,
appears t o be due t o the exuberance o f li fe A t .
times nature appears t o react against being bound

by rigid laws o f heredity to defy her o n rules ,
w ,
and to become rampant .
S ocial innovation i s invention N ew ideas often .
appear accidentally The mind in its exuberance

.
coins new phrases catches new glimpses o f reality,

,
and creates ideas which are contrary t o all that i s

established and supposedly true .
( )
3 Ward ’
s third law o f progress i s called cona
tion This concept refers t o social e f f ort which i s
.
carried on naturally t o satis fy desire t o preserve ,
or continue li fe t o modi fy the surroundings I n

,
.
satis fying normally the gregarious desires the in ,
dividual advances the cause o f social progress I n .
preserving th e li fe o f the child the mother pre ,
s u mab ly contributes t o the wel fare o f the race .
Th e sacri fices which parents make in behal f o f chil

dren are efforts which further th e wel fare o f
society Every constructive modification o f either
.
the physical or spiritual envi ronment benefits man

kind C onation is thus a term which covers a mul
.
t it u d e o f activities that are performed in the o r

d ina ry course of daily li fe and which unconsciously
,
to the doers are adding to the sum total o f human

wel fare .
( )
4 The fourth dynamic principle which Ward
described has already been discussed namely the , ,
principle o f social telesis The possibilities in social

.
telesis are illimitable S ocial telesis can turn the

.
passions and desires o f men into socially useful

channels These passions are bad only when di
.
re ct e d t o wrong ends They are like fire they can

.
—
destroy o r they can refine I f individuals as mem .
bers o f society could develop prevision and work

together f o r societary ends they would be able t o ,
trans form the world .
Ward believed that greatness does no t rest s o

much in intellectual power as in emotional force .
He had great faith in persons o f average int e lle c

w
tual ability h o are ambitious I t thus becomes the .
part o f wisdom f o r society t o educate wisely the

average intelligence Ward challenged the idea
.
that only a very few persons are geniuses and that

these individuals by vi rtue o f thei r superior abili
,
ties will uni formly overcome thei r environments

,
.
He held that genius i s largely a matter o f focaliza

tion o f psychic energy and that by this process all
,
individuals may have the honor o f contributing

something valuable t o civilization .
Ward pointed o u t that geniuses are as likely to

appear in o ne social stratum as in another among ,
the poor as among the healthy in the hovel as in ,

300 H I S T ORY OF SOCIA L TH OUG HT
noth ing in behalf o f society.
’
I n this treatment o f Ward s sociological thought
it has no t been the aim o f the writer t o ente r upon
a dissertation regarding th e abstract and philo
sophic implications that are involved in the subj ect
matter N either has he attempted a polemic against
.
’
the weaknesses in Ward s thinking except to note
,
the d efective monistic p hi lcg gphy and th e erroneous

“ ”
faculty psycholo gy I t has been his purpose to
.
’
let the strong constructive elements in Ward s sys
,
tem o f sociology speak clearly and e ff ectively for

th emsel v es
.
C H APTER X V I I I
A N T H R O P O LO G I C S O C I O LO GY
A dditional light upon the nature of sociological

thought may be secured by consulting t h e anthro
p o lo gis t
, s and particularly the students o
, f social
ori gins
. The last mentioned group of scholars
have been unusually successful in ma k ing v aluable
contribu t ions t o sociological thought because they ,
have used the psychological approach .
Fo r more than a century the anthropologi sts

ha v e been searchin g f o r materials and advancing
theori es concerning the ori gin o f man o f conflict ,
and co operative tendenci es and o f the early ideas

-
,
and institutions o f the human race They ha v e .
been aided by the investigations o f the geologists

and especially o f th e paleontologists The ethnog .
rap h e rs and ethnologists have also discovered im
portant data The findings o f all thes e g r oups of

.
investiga t ors as far as they relate t o the main

,
thread o f thi s book will be here trea t ed essentially

,
as a unitary contribution Th ere is no t space to deal

.
speci fically with th e work o f anthropologists such ,
as Tylor Morgan Pitt R ivers Haddon, Fr azer

-
w
, , , ,
Go ld e n e is e r Keane and a number o f oth er prom

, ,
ine nt aut h orities .

A nthropological social thought will be indicated .
here under several headings A s far as possible the .
controversial and technical theories in anthropology

will be avoided C ertain o f the ideas that have been
.
advanced by S umner Westermarck Hobhouse , , ,
Wundt Boas and Thomas will receive special a t

, ,
tention because they are unusually pertinent t o the

,
main theme o f this volume .
1 .There is common agreement among anthro

p o lo gi s t s that man i s the descendant o f a branch o f
higher animal li fe and that the creation o f man took
,
place by a slow evolutionary process The slow

, .
ness o f this developmental process does not ne ce s

sa rily lessen th e mysterious o r miraculous charac
ter o f it I t places the origin o f the human race at

.
a much earli er date than was once supposed per —
haps from to years ago The ani .
mal inheritance o f man need not lead anyone t o

deny t h e correlative fact that man possesses spiri
tual qualities not common to the highest developed
1
animals .
Even the psychic equipment o f man can be

traced in its origins t o th e primates with their indi
vidual and social instincts The instinctive bases o f
.
human conduct are hundreds o f thousands o f years

o ld . They are so intrinsically a part o f human
nature that no discus sion o f current social prob
lems will neglect the imperiousness o f the ancient
instinct heritage o f the human race .
2 There is extensive anthropologic evidence

.
v e lo p ing beyond a certain mental level which i s
lower than that attained by the C aucasian races ? I n
the past the answer t o thi s question has been a
strong a f firmative The bulk o f the evidence that
.
has been collected in recent years indicates that the

a f firmative answer i s incorrect .
4 . I t i s becoming C lear that every race is a com

p o s it e o f several races Ethnological
. data show
that th e fiv e grand divi sions o f the human race may
be sub divided into racial stocks and into races and
—
sub races until more than 6 00 races may be de

-
,
scribed ; and furth ermore that each o f the 6 00 o r

,
more races represents an amalgamation of at least

three o r four races I t i s evident that no clear line
.
o f racial demarcation ca n be drawn and that purity ,
o f race may be a fictitious term .
5. I ntermarriage o f th e representatives o f races

belonging t o similar racial stocks seems advisable
according t o the ethnologist Pure bloods appar .
ently die o u t The strongest races tod ay are those

.
in which amalgamation has taken place recently

that is within o ne thousand o r t o thousand years
,
w ,
f o r example the English o r the S cotch I rish

, ,
-
.
A mooted question o f world importance relates

t o the intermarriage o f the representatives o f rac e s
widely di ff erent such as the white and the yellow
,
races o r the white and the black races N o race

,
.
has yet developed o u t o f such combinations R ace .
prej udices and social distinctions have produced

conflicts which thus far have prevented the forma
AN TH RO P OLOGI C SOCIOLOGY 305
tion o f such a race V ery few scientific data are

.
available regarding mi scegenat ion .
A pparently the interbreeding o f whites and

,
blacks leads ultimately to the elimination o f the

racial characteristics o f the blacks and t o the co m
p le t e dominance o f the whites There
. are some
writers who assert that thi s process takes place t o
the gain of the lower race and to the loss o f the
higher race The last mentioned point has no t ye t
.
-
been proved Miscegenation between whites and

.
blacks occurs under such abnormal and vicious

social conditions that the racial tendencies are d e fi r
nit e ly obscured .
6
W W
between races today i s illustrated in national wars
I ; conflict
and race persecutions Weaker races have often

.
combined against a stronger race ; from these ex

p e r i e nce s there has come a growing sense o f the
value of co operation N ations with high moral
-
.
principles have united against a powerful neighbor

nation with bullying tendencies O ut o f these tem
.
p o r a ry combinations there has ari sen a sense o f

need f o r permanent forms o f national co operatio n -
.
Thi s common need will ultimately lead undoubt ,
e dly t o a permanent association of nations

, .
The conflict between the grand divisions of the

human race will probably continue f o r a long time
t o come . S ometimes it i s concentrated in an a nt ag
o nis m between the white and yellow races ; and
again it is expressed in th e more fundamenta l

,
struggle between O ccidentalism and O rientalism .
7 The origin and development o f primit i ve

.
ways o f doing constitute a well cultivated field o f -
study A nthropologi sts have published an endless

.
amount o f materials o n the origin o f languages ,
religions occupations sex distinctions A portion

, , .
o f this work has been done without an accurate u n
d e rs t a nd ing o f the psychological principles that are

involved and hence has to be viewed with caution
,
o r neglected entirely .
W G S umner whose argumen t in favor o f indi

. .
,
v id u alis m and o f a la is s e z fa ir e governmental policy
was given in Chapter X I published in his F o lk ays ,

w
a minute and extended account o f the nature o f
primitive institutions .
I n the development of his theories S umner began ,
with the need s o f p rim i iye p p eo l

‘
c s
‘
and with the at‘
tempts t o meet these needs R

” fl “
.
ep -etition o f these .acts “ n u n " M
leads t o established ways o f doing that is t o folk , ,
“
ways F olkways are the widest most funda
.
,
mental and most important operation by which the

,
!
” 2
interests o f men in groups are served S ocietal .
li fe consi sts chiefly in making folkways and apply

ing them Even the scie nce o f society might be de
.
fined as the study o f folkways F olkways are the .
product o f the trial and failure method of meet

ing needs They tend to become fi rmly established
.
and t o be passed o n from generation t o genera

tion They become traditional They acqui re all
. .
the authority which i s attached t o the memory o f

its creator I t often bears him down to a slavi sh
.
,
materialis t ic and even selfi sh exi stence L abor in

, .
the struggle f o r existence is irksome and painful .
Wealth and labor however are both commenda

, ,
tory when they are used t o increase human wel

fare I n this statement S umner overlooked the fact
.
that wealth in order to be commendable must also

be produced under constructively social conditions ,
and that labor in order t o be praiseworthy must in

its exercise be individually helpful I n other words .
,
’
S umner s test o f the use t o which wealth and labor
are put i s incomplete .
S umner gave a new meaning t o the term slavery ,

.
“
H e held that men o f talent are constantly forced
to serve the rest Th ey make the discoveri es and
.
inventions order the battles write the books and

'
, , ,
produce the S umner deplored th e tendency

to call whatever o ne does no t like by the name o f
slavery He felt that marriage slavery rent
.
,
slavery sin slavery are terms which are coined b y

,
a t o o easily disgruntled people . .
2
( ) The sex passion leads t o sex m o r e s which
cover th e relations o f men and women to each
other before marriage and in marriage and the ,
O bligations o f marr 1 ed persons to society The sex .
mo r e s determine th e nature o f marriage and o f di

vorce S umner derided sex equality Man has a
. .
more stable nervous system than woman is more ,
sel f absorbed more egoistic les s tactful S ince

-
, ,
.
man has greater physical strength than woman ,

AN THROPOLOG I C SOC IOLOGY 309
woman was educated by C ircumstances in pri m itive

days t o adapt hersel f t o the stronger sex and to win ,
by developing charms where her lack o f compara

tive strength rendered her helpless R esignation .
and endurance thus became acquired traits o f

women .
N either renunciation no r license is the proper

method of control o f the sex passions Both p ro .
duce unnecessary agony L icense f o r example

.
, ,
stimulates desire without limit and ends in impo

,
tent agony S umner advocated temperance and

.
regulation a regulation which comes from k nowl

—
edge and j udgment .
Women by necessity must bear an unequal share

in the responsibilities o f sex and reproduction .
L ikewise men must bear an unequal share o f the

,
responsibilities o f property war and politics Fo r

, , .
the latter types o f duties women are hampered by

a delicately adj usted and cumbersome generative
5
system which men do no t possess .
F ormerly women yi elded to the will o f men T o .
day the marital state is o ne o f endless discussion

, ,
a defeat f o r o ne party o r the other with unpleasant ,
e f f ects upon li fe and character I n ancient times

.
women took pride in the supervi sion which their

husbands exercised over them and valued them
“
themselves as hidden treasures This pro t ected
.
position was considered aristocratic U nder p o .
lygamy women looked with pity and dis gust upon

w
.
the man h o cannot o r i s unwilling t o support

, ,
more than o ne wi fe .
A t this point it i s interesting t o note that W I . .
Thomas has di stinguished between the sexes o n the

basis o f di ff erences in metabolism men being kata —
b o lic and women anabolic Man consumes more e n

.
e rgy than woman . He i s better fitted f o r bursts

7
o f energy while woman possesses more endurance

, .
’
Man s structural variability i s toward motion
’
woman s toward reproduction Hence man seems
,
.
t o have been assigned in primitive society t o tasks

requiring violence and exertion whereas t o women ,
fell the work requiring constant attention .
C ivilization thus far has largely profited by the

intelligence o f man I f t o thi s situation it will de
.
v e lo p and add the intelligence o f women it will be ,
supplanted by a higher type o f civilization U nder .
these conditions a large percentage o f marriages

“
will represent the true comradeship o f like
”
minds instead of being frequently as no
,
an ar ,
w ,
rangement in which woman i s t reated as a pet .
“
( )
3 The motive of vanity i s all powerful O ne
-
.
likes t o be separated from the crowd by what is

admired and di slikes t o be distinguished f o r wh at
,
is no t T o satis fy vanity barbarian ,
mothers deform their babies toward an adopted

”
type o f bodily perfection A ristocr acies grow up
.
o u t o f appeals t o vanity A n aristocracy is a group

.
o f persons closely united who define the possession
o f things f o r which they are admired and which
t h e m asses do no t p os s ess V anity le ads t o all typ es

.
o crit y They are o f average social usefulness ( 2 )
. .
Then there are the dependent and defective classes

—
a drag upon society but no t harmful or vicious .
3
( ) The delinquent classes are grossly harmful .
They are anti social and a grievous burden ( 4 )

-
.
A bove th e masses there are the people o f talent ,
“
and ( 5 ) above the talented are the geniuses A .
man o f talent practical sense industry persever

, , ,
ance and moral principle i s worth more t o society

w
,
than a genius h o i s no t morally responsible o r ,
” 11
not industrious .
I t i s a mistake t o think o f th e masses as being

at the base o f society ; they are located at the core .
They are traditional conservative and the bearers , ,
o f th e mo r e s The lowest sections of the masses

.
are a dead weight o f ignorance disease and crime , ,

.
12 . A social institution i s composed o f an idea ,
notion o r interest and a re sultant structure T h

, ,
.
f
primary institutions are property marriage and , ,
religion These began as folkways ; the y became

.
cus t oms S ocial institutions can be modified only

.
when th e mo r e s are changed ; they develop rituals ,
which are ceremonious solemn and strongest when , ,
”
perfunctory and wh en exciting no thought .
S umner boldly asserted that nothing but might

has ever made right and that nothing but might
w
,
makes righ t no The fact that property began

.
in force is no t proo f that property is an unjust

institution Marriage and religion also began in
.
force but the element o f justice in the existence

,
AN TH RO P OLOGI C SOCIOLOGY 3 13
o fthese institutions i s no t seriously questioned t o

day S umner however did no t discriminate b e
.
, ,
tween force as an agent o r a tool and force as a ,
primary cause H e did no t distinguish clearly b e

.
tween hate and love as the dynamic factors behind

action that i s decisive He did no t set forth the
.
distinction b etween harsh mat erial immutable , ,
force and a kindly spiritual attracting love, , .
13 The persistency o f folkways and mo re s i s

.
illustrated in a thousand ways by S umner H e de .
scribed ( 1 ) their slow variability under changed

li fe conditions ( 2 ) their sudden variability under
,
revolutionary conditions ( 3 ) th e possibility o f ,
changing them by intelligent action ( 4 ) the prob ,
lems involved in adj usting one s self t o the mo re s ’
of another group ( 5 ) the conflicts between the

,
mo res of di ff erent groups .

15
The 144 0 7 8 5 are powerful engines o f societal se

lection The most important fact about the mo re s
.
is the power which they exert over the individual .
He does no t know thei r source He i s born into .
them He accepts them in his early years u ncrit ic

.
ally His habits and character are moulded by them

. .
I f in adult li fe he challenges them h e is ostracized ,
by his group labeled unpatriotic and even trodden

, ,
“
under foot Th e mo re s develop powerful watch
.
words slogans and even epithets o f contempt and

, ,
disapproval which only the most independent and

courageous individuals dare t o face .
14 I deal s are e nti rely unsci entific declare d

.
,
S umner They are phantasies little connected with
.
fact They are often formed to paci fy the restless

.
,
o r t o escap e settling a question j ustly in the present .
“ ”
The poor are told to look t o the next li fe for their
rewards The radicals are urged t o accept the
.
C hri stian virtues o f meekness and lowliness I deals .
are useful chiefly in homiletics in sel f education

, , ,
-
v ia auto suggestion
—
in satis fying vanity in mar
, ,
ria ge . I n these observations S umner undoubtedly

,
pointed o u t genuine weaknesses in ideals He u n .
d e re s t ima t e d the psychological fact that they spring

from the very real a f fective phases o f COHS CI OU S T
ness and that they ca n be proj ected rationally He
,
.
was right h owever in deploring th e chasm which

, ,
exists between ideals and practices and in showing

w
,
ho ideals may become encysted in literature al

though no t in the mo re s “
The G reeks proved that
w
.
people could sink very lo while talking very

”
nobly .
I mmorality is conduct contrary to the mo re s o f

“
the time and place Chastity i s conformity to the
.
“
current taboo o n the sex relation Modesty i s re
.
“
serve o f behavior and sentiment Even naked
.
”
ness is never shameful when it i s unconscious that ,
i s when there is no consciousness o f a di f f erence

,
between fact and the rule set by th e mo res .
S umner deduced an important principle when he

”
asserted that th e mo re s can make anything right
“
.
The mo re s give usages a certain order and form ,
and c ov e r t h em with a p rotectin g m antl e o f p ro

well that he has given the Darwinian principles full
sway not allowing su fficiently for the rise and
,
operation o f complex psychic p rinciples He has .
made the folkways the connecting link between

organic and societal evolution but has not noted ,
fully the new countless and often intangible but

, ,
powerful factors by which societal evolution i s

characterized .
16 . The ré le that concepts o f conduct have

played in the evolution o f society has been analyzed ,
by E A Westermarck and L T Hobhouse Th e

. . . . .
former i s usually k nown as an anthropologist and ,
the latter as a sociologi st Pro fessor Westermarck.
has shown that strictly speaking a custom is not

, ,
merely the habit of a certain group o f people ; it

also involves a rule o f conduct I t po ssesses t o .
21
w
characteri stics habitualness and obligatoriness
—
.
N o t every public habit however is a custom in , , ,
22
volving an obligation There may be certain p ra c
.
tices which are more o r less common in society b u t ,
which at th e same time are generally condemned .
The disapproval o f these is as a rule not very deep

or ge nu me .
D r Westermarck has indicated that there i s a

.
C lose similarity between the conscience o f a Co m

“ 2
munity and of an individual I f a group commits
a sin twice it i s likely t o be considered allowable
,
.
I n order to get at the real nature o f soci etal li fe ,
“ ”
the bad habits as well as the pro fessed opinions
o f groups must be examined .
A N TH RO P OLOG I C S O C IOLOGY 3 17
S ociety says D r Westermar c k i s t h e birth

, .
,
place o f the moral E m otions

which are felt by the community at large t end to
take the form o f conduct standa r ds The m ora l .
emotions lead t o a variety o f moral concepts

w
.
These fall into t o main classes : concepts of di s

app r oval such as the concepts bad vice wron g ;
, , , ,
and con c epts o f approval such as good v ir t u e and

, , ,
merit .
Professor Westermarc k i s c onvinced of t h e

tremendous influence that religious beliefs h a v e
”
e x erted upon the moral i deas o f mankind Thi s .
influence has been exceedingly varied R eligion has .
taught the principles o f lOve and yet has indulged

in cruel persecutions I t has condemned murder
.
“
and yet been a party t o c h ild sacri fice I t h as em .
p h as iz e d the duty o f truth speaking and has

-
itsel
,
f
been a cause o f pious fraud Professor Wes te r
marc k has contribu t ed t o social though t no t only in
his valuable descriptions o f the rise and evolution
of moral ideas but also in his His t o ry o f Hu man
,
M arriage t o which re ference will be made in Chap

,
ter XX I V .
The writings o f L T Hobhouse reveal a tho r

. .
ough comparative study o f the cc ndu ct rules o f

,
mankind Professor Hobho u se h a s described th e

.
evolution o f ethical consciousness as displayed in

the habits customs and principle s hat h ave a r i sen
, ,
”
in human history f o r the re gu lat io of human co n
duct H e has shown how in t h e o west forms o f
.
,
3 18 H I S T OR Y OF SOCI A L TH O U G HT
the organic world behavior is regulated and di
, ,
27
r e ct e d to some purpose Thi s behavior is s ome
.
what definitely determined by the structure O f the

organism itself .
There are three forces which may be called

social o r which tend to keep society together
, .
These social bonds are : ( 1 ) the principle o f kin

ship ( 2 ) the p r1nc1p le o f authority and ( 3 ) t h e
, ,
“ 2
principl e o f citizenship Kinship i s the moving
force in primitive society The principle o f author
.
ity becomes prominent when o ne tribe captures and

enslaves a weaker group This principle is also in
.
v o k e d in order t o secure an integration o f openly
diverse attitudes within the group even o f modern ,
national groups I t i s exempli fied in the various

.
forms of absolutism in government The principle .
of citizenship finds expression when certain in

d iv idu a ls within the group are delegated to perform
30
as servants and ministers o f the public as a whole
w
.
Personal rights and the common good are the t o

reigning ideals Every individual i s recognized as
.
having a right t o the conditions requisite for the

full development o f his social personality The .
“
good in li fe consists in the bringing o u t into full
bloom o f those capacities o f each individual which
help to maintain the common The third
principle that o f citizenship when carried to its
, ,
“ 2
conclusion reveal s the possibility o f a world state .
I t is the contention o f Professor Hobhouse that

there is a close connection between the growth o f
the processes o f nature ; he has made a survey o f
human progress Hi s study opens with a discussio n
.
o f the processes which produced the digging stick ,
the club and the hammer ; it ends with an analysis

,
o f world empire world culture world religions and

, , ,
world history The intervening ages are the totemic

.
and the age o f heroes and gods .
World emp ire a f f ected primarily the material

aspects o f the li fe o f peoples I t led to world inter
.
cours e which in turn multipli ed the needs o f peo

,
ples These multiplied needs were followed by ex

.
changes o f the means o f satis fying the needs The .
external and material phases of culture are sur

v iv e d by the spiritual phases thus world culture
—
is a sequence o f world empire I t may be said that .
the vicissitudes o f peoples under the rule of the

world empire idea brings forth a uni fied hi s t ory .
World culture in turn creates a common mental

“
heritage f o r mankind .
I n the establishment o f a world culture world ,
religions are the leading forces They have been .
foremost in creating the idea o f a universal human

community I n particular C hristianity i s based o n
w
.
,
a belie f in a Go d h o makes no distinction between

“
race o r class o r occupation C onsequently it has
.
,
regarded mi ssionary activity among heathen p e o

ples as a task whose purpose it i s finally to unite
” 37
the whole o f mankind beneath the cross o f C hrist .
Fo r a long time in human his t ory religiou s ,
development was considered t o be the main co n

AN TH RO P OLOGI C SOCIOLOG Y 32 1
ne ct ing link such was the contention o f S t A ugus

—
tine I n 1 72 5 V ico argued that the development

.
,
of language and j urisprudence i s o f universal im

”
port . F inally world history has become an a c
,
“
count o f the mental li fe o f peoples a psycho —
”
logical account o f the development o f mankind .
18 The work o f Pro fessor Wundt is similar in

.
many ways although characterized by a distinctive

,
starting point and by many di f f erences to the co n ,
t ribu t io ns o f F ranz Boas and W I Thomas P ro

. . .
’
f e s so r Boas has declared his belief in man s ability
to dominate the laws o f organic evolution as ex
pressed ih human li fe H e has brought forward .
a large amount o f evidence in support o f th e theory

that environment has caused di f f erences between
races H e has pointed out that race prej udice is
.
largely a product of s o c1al environment and that ,
under changed conditions o f li fe it has little place

in the world Boas i s a strong advocate o f the
.
theory already advanced in this chapter that all

, ,
races are potentially equal in ability and that they ,
would demonstrate th e truth o f thi s statement i f ,
given a common cultural background and social !
“
opportunities H e has advanced the idea that the
.
organization o f mind i s practically identical among

all races o f
Professor Boas has amassed considerable evi
dence to show that in the matter of inhibition o f
impulses of power o f attention o f ability to do
, ,
original thinking primitive man compares favor

,
ably with civilized man I nasmuch as the social
.
environment is powerful and education i s e f fective

in making over social environments education can ,
raise all races t o the same high level and at the ,
same time uni fy them upon the same knowledge

bases This contention is similar t o the position
.
that Professor Hobhouse has made clear namely : ,
“
While race has been relatively stagnant soci ety ,
”
has rapidly developed Moreover social progress
.
,
is determined no t by alterations o r racial type but ,

“
by modifications o f social cultures Thes e mo difi .
0
cations are caused primarily by the interactions of

social causes .
19. N oteworthy pioneering in the field o f social

anthropology and social origins has been done by
W I Thomas He has developed the theory th at
. . .
“ ” 41
progress results from crises A s long as li fe
.
runs along smoothly a lack o f interest i s likely t o

,
ensue The result is ennui But a crisis in any o f

. .
the li fe processes arouses the attention that is p ro , ,
duces a concentration of psych ic ener gy A dis .
t u rb ance of any habit i s a crisi s When the exi .
g e n c e s o f the crisis are solved through a focaliza

tion o f consciousness the situation i s said t o be
,
controlled by the individual who again lapses into

,
a state o f disinterestedness until another disturb

ance o f habit occurs The new method o f control
.
will be imitated I f imitated widely it will mark a

.
,
rise in the level o f civilization .
I t will be observed at once tha t th e power of a t

accessible to the members o f a social group and a
meaning which may make it an O bj ect o f activity .
A ctivity i s thus the bond between a social attitude

and a social value The value is the meaning which
.
a material o r spiritual datum may have A n atti .
tude is a real o r implied going o u t after v alue .
S ocial psychology i s th e science o f social attitudes .
A t this point anthropologic social t hough t has

merged into social p sychology .
Until t wenty fiv e years a go anthropology inter

—
p re t e d societary origins pretty largely in terms O f

th e individual With the use o f a social psychology
.
“
such as C ooley represents anthropology has given ,
more accurate explanations and become essentially

”
a social anthropology .
Before we discuss the di f ferent phases of psycho

sociologic thought it will be well to make clear the
,
recent advances that have been made in the biologic

phases o f social thought The center o f attention.
in this field is the relation of the laws of heredity

to human progress which constitutes the problem
,
in eugenics A discussion o f eugenic social thought

.
will bring forward in a scienti fic way the chief ele

ments o f an intellectual situation that was left in ,
C hapter X V I in the unsatis factory S pencerian

,
formulae A pres e ntation of eugenic social though t

.
will give a valuable background t o the discus

sion which follows concerning psycho sociologic
: -
though t
C H APTE R XIX
EU G E N I C S O C I O LO G Y
Eugenic social though t i s the child o f biological

discoveries Eugenics the science o f good breed
.
,
in g which did no t achi eve scienti fic standing until

,
the closin g years o f the las t century may be traced ,
back in its incipient forms to Plato who advocated ,
that strength should mate only with stren gth and ,
that imperfect children should be eliminated from

society I n its scienti fic origins eugenics dates f rom
.
’
18 5 9 w h en Darwin s Origin o f S p e cie s was first
,
publis h ed I ts beginning as a di stinct fi eld o f h u

.
man thinking i s found in the articles by F rancis

“
Galton o n Hereditary Talent and G enius which ,
appeared in 18 6 5 ; and in 18 6 9 in book form under ,
the title H e re d it ary Ge niu s

,
.
1
Eu ge nie social thought deals with the opera t ion

of th e laws o f heredity in society I t was a part o f .
this field which F ranci s Galton made world know n -
by h is treatises on H e re d it ary Ge niu s and I nq u irie s

int o t h e H u ma n F a cu lty I n 19 04 G alton wrote a
2
.
,
“
paper entitled : Eugenics ; I ts Definition S cope and ,
”
Ai m s .I n this dissertation the new science o f
eugenics was formally introduced t o the world .
’
C al t on s analysi s o f eugenics became i t s leadin g
“
interpretation .
The mantle o f the founder fell upon Professor

Karl Pearson whose work at times has assumed a
,
’
distinctly statistical nature Professor Pearson s .
leaning toward biometry has brought s evere eriti

cis m upon him The stati stical approach while
.
,
exact and thought provoking is subj ect to various

-
,
errors in interpretation o f data The viewpoint

,
.
from which Professor Pearson writes h owever is , ,

“
no t o ne sided
-
Fo r example h e states that it may
.
,
require years to replace a great leader o f man but ,
a stable and e f ficient society can only be th e o u t

” 4
come o f centuri es of development H e holds that .
group conscience ought f o r the sake o f social wel

fare to be stronger than private interest and that ,
the ideal citizen should be able t o form a j ud gmen t

5
free from personal bias .
C W S aleeby another Engli sh writer h as de

. .
, ,
“
v e lo p e d an independent reputation as a eugenist .
’
I n the U nited S tates such men as C B Davenport , . .
and Paul P o p e no e have made important eugenic

contributions The recent tendency has been t o be
.
wary o f purely statistical studies o f h eredity and

t o rely more definitely upon case studies However .
,
since eugenics is directly indebted to the studies o f

heredity and since heredity must be investigated f o r
several generations eugenic social thought has no t,
yet developed far .
Galton defined eugenics as the science of good

breeding It s aim as a pure science is to study the
.
inherited in a degree nearer mediocrity by the o ff
spring than by the parents This law partially ex .
plains why gi fted men rarely have sons who are

equally gi fted The law seems to hold good f o r
.
large numbers but not when considered in relation

,
to single families I t serves as a check upon varia .
tion and mutation .
Galton and Pearson advanced another statistical

law the law o f ancestral inheritance Galton sup
,
.
posed that the parents contribute t o the child one

half o f his inherited factors th e grandparents one ,
fourth and so on Pearson has secured stati stical

,
.
’
evidence which shows that Galt o n s geometric series
is incorrect and that o n th e average in a large
,
number o f cases the parents together contribute

to the child 6 2 4 o f his traits ; the four grandp a r
.
ents 1 9 8 ; the eight great grandparents 06 3 and

, .
, .
so o n .
The law of mutation described by de V ries and ,
other geneticists refers to the appearance o f ma

,
tants o r individuals who do no t reproduce t o form

,
but represent a new line o f heredity I n this way .
the appearance o f genius may o ften be accounted

for . However th e factors which explain the ap
,
p e ara nce of mutants have no t yet been analyzed .
A nother fundamental genetic consideration i s the

law o f selection I f individuals with worthy traits
.
mate only with individuals who possess worthy

traits a s u p e rl o r stock will be produced This t end
, .
ency is very important since it points t h e way to ,

E UG E NIC SOCIOLOGY 29
a potent method o f securing social progress .
Eu ge nie social thought has been developed in pa r t

o n the basi s of the Weismann theory of no or slight
transmission o f acquired traits The germ plasm .

-
i s transmitted from individual to o f f spring in a di

rect line of descent I nj uries to the parent rarely
.
change the nature o f the germ plasm O nly ex -

.
treme malnutrition or excessive us e of alcohol a p

p a r e nt ly exerts a definite influence o n the germ
cells N ature has thus made provision for the
.
protection o f germ plasm whether stron g o r de

-
,
f e ct iv e S ociety then may encourage the mating

.
, ,
o f individuals who possess strong physical and men
tal traits and discourages the mating o f individuals

w w
,
h o are defective thus securing its o n positive

—
improvemen t .
Eugenic social thought follows two cours es R e .
s t rict iv e eugenics advocates the segregation o f the
s o called
-
dysgenic classes such as the feeble ,
minded the insane and the grossly defective crimi

, ,
nal . Public opinion reacts against sterilization ;

injustice that cannot be remedi ed may be done
through the use o f sterilization S egregation by .
sexes while involving expense i s a sati s factory

, ,
eugenic method o f safeguarding soci ety against the

reproduction o f dysgenic persons .
The other trend o f eugenic tho u gh t suppo r ts th e

raising o f the standards o f c h oice in matin g Co n .
structive eugenics as distingui sh ed from res t ric t i ve

,
eugenics urges a program o f e duca t ion w h ereby

,
young people will habitually ra t e o ne another by
physical and mental standards rather than bv
wealth and class standards .
Eugenics disapproves o f random mating I t .
favors assortative mating because f o r example

w
, , ,
“
the marriage o f representatives o f t o long lived -
strains ensures that the o f f spring will inherit more

longevity than does the ordinary Eugenics
thus stresses the importance o f teaching young
people eugenic ideas and o f training them t o be
,
guided by these ideals rather than by caprice and

passion Eu ge nie ideals include health paternity
,
and maternity and pleasing disposition Education

, .
and character are secondary eugenic ideals of im

portance .
A study o f the bir t h rate shows that the inferior

stocks and classes o f individuals produce many
more children than do the superior groups Many .
cultured people do no t marry o r i f they marry they

w
,
a keep the birth rate very lo A s a result the racial

.
,
ch aracte r o f a whole people may change within a

few generations The superior strains may be lost
.
and the inferior furnish the entire population .
The low birth rate o f th e superior stocks i s due

t o several f a t co rs : ( 1 ) The l engthening period o f
education and o f professional training calls f o r the
postponement o f marriage ( 2 ) The desire to give
.
children th e best advantages limits the birth rate .
( ) The increasing spirit o f independence o n the

3
par t o f wo m en causes a postponement of marriage
population o f city young men may be transfo rm ed
into an army of fit soldiers However t h e conclu
.
,
sions are obvious that the dysgenic e ff ects of war

are far more potent than the eugenic gains and th at ,
the eugenic advantages may b e acquired i n o th er

ways than by promulgating war .
Eugenics looks askance at t h e feminis m m ove

“
ment F eminism once meant the develop m ent o f

.
th e womanly traits of the sex I t now refers t o th e

.
elimination as far as possible o f sex di f ferences .
I t would make women as nearly as possible like

men Eugenics obj ects to t h is trend since i t under
.
,
estimates the importance o f the fact that women

physically are built t o be mothers T o th e ex t ent .
that women enter into all the occupations th ey will ,
become men like ; and thei r e f ficiency as moth ers of

-
the race will decrease and the race will suffer

, .
The economic equality of the s exes is a s at is f a c

tory doctrine to the eugeni st i f the doctrine is e x
tended t o make motherhood a salaried occu p a t ion ,
“ 12
like mill work or stenography Ch ild bearin g
.
-
should be recognized as being as wo r th y o f r emu

ne rat io n as any occupation which men ente r and ,
should be paid f o r ( by th e s t a t e ) o n th e same

basis .
Eugenics would throw every possible safegu ard

around motherhood especially in the period imme
,
d ia t e ly before and after th e birth o f the c h ild T h e .
“
mother even the expectant mother i s doing o u r
, ,
business indispensable and exacting business and

, ,
EU G E N I C S O CI O L O G Y 333
we must take care o f her accordingly S he i s no t .
”
only a worker but the foremost o f all workers .
14
Eu ge nie thought as represented in th e writings

o f C W S aleeby has denominated alcohol venereal
. .
,
“ ”
disease and tuberculosis as racial poisons While
, .
there i s some doubt regarding th e eugenic e f f ects

of taking small amounts o f alcohol into the human
body eugenists are agreed that alcohol when taken
, ,
in e xce s s q u ant it ie s a f f ects the germ plasm and pro

‘
,
-
duces a neurotic taint I t appears that alcoholism

.
may be a cause in producing defective children .
The verdicts of hygiene and e co no mie s that alcohol

1 5 m 1 s m j u r1 o u s t o the race i s supported by eugenics .
V enereal disease another s o called racial poison

,
-
,
produces toxins which apparently a f f ect the germ ~
plasm indirectly i f not directly I t lowers the .
physical and moral tone and causes unfavorable

racial tendencies V enereal disease tends t o destroy
.
the generative organs and t o cu t o ff the birth rate

entirely I t i s a result o f sex immorality which in
.
itsel f tends to produce Children under such ab no r

mal conditions o f vice that i t becomes an anti social —
i f not a dysgen ic factor in society To th e extent

, .
o f course that venereal disease kills o ff the racially

,
15
useless it may be considered eugenic
,
S uch a .
point o f view however fails to rate properly the

, ,
invasions which venereal disease i s continually

making upon normal and superior types o f germ
plasm .
Tuberculosi s weak ens the membranous ti ssues

3 34 H I S T ORY OF SOCI A L TH OU G HT
and probably leads in a few generations t o an u n
usual degree o f susceptibility to the invasion o f
tubercle bacilli I t is still a question however to
.
, ,
what extent tuberculosis may be coun t ed a racial

poison Professor Hobhouse has argued that by the
.
,
development o f scientific hygiene it will be possible

,
to center attention no t upon eliminating a t u b e rcu

“ 1
lar s t ock but upon eliminating the tubercle bacilli
I n regard to race questions the social anthro
p o lo g is t and the eugeni st represent di f f erent poles
of thought A s was indicated in the preceding
.
chapter the social anthropologists such as Boas

, ,
and Thomas support the theory o f potential race

,
equality The eugenist on th e other hand con

.
, ,
tends that there are inherently superior and inferior

racial stocks and that the marriages o f representa
,
t iv e s of inferior stoc k s with represen t atives o f

superior stocks will produce children of a stock dis
t inct ly lower than that of the superior stocks The .
eugenists in th e U nited S tates hold that the immi

g r a t io n o f the southern and eastern peoples o f Eu
rope will not only supplant through a higher birth
rate the native stock o f N ordic origin but where ,
marriages be t ween natives and southern and eastern

European immigrants occur it will lower the racial
,
quality of the population While eugenic though t

.
in this matter deserves a comple t e and respectful

hearing it must be considered along with the find
,
ings of social anthropolo gy .
Eu ge nie thought opposes the miscegenation o f

336 H IS T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OUG H T
able a large amount o f eugenic materials and in a ,
few genera t ions a reliable body of data for s tudy

ing racial heredity .
The debate regarding the comparative influences

of nature and nurture has been long and bitter .
I t may be said here that both heredity and environ

ment are more o r less equally essential in th e de
v e lo p me nt of human personality Without i mb er
.
it e d factors in the individual the environment has

nothing upon which to work Without a s t imu
.
lating environment the inherited traits will remain

dormant Each human being has inh erited factors
.
which i f played upon by certain environmental fac

,
tors may lead the individual t o try to wreck society

,
or himsel f or both Every person also has traits

.
, ,
which i f stimulated by the proper environmental

,
elements may cause him to develop into a useful

member of society While the environment can not
.
change the inherited potentialities very much i f ,
any i t is a prime factor o f vast importance in deter

,
mining which inherited tendencies will never find

expression which will be expressed in modifi ed
,
ways and which will reach full fruition Eugenics

, .
insists with increasing force tha t educational p ro

grams shall provide that every child be no t only well
reared but also well born A weakness in eugenic
.
thought is that it impli es th at sound racial stock is

su f ficient t o guarantee progress ; it tends a t times
t o overstress an aristocracy o f racial stock I t .
sometimes detracts from th e importance o f c h ar

E UG E NI C SOCIOLO G Y 337
acter and moral discipline as essential elements in

social progress
.
C H APTER XX
CO N FL I CT T H E OR I E s I N S O C I O LO G Y
The concept o f social conflict has already been

introduced t o the reader I n the chapter o n I n
.
d ividu alis t ic S ocial Thought the prolonged struggle

between individual rights and genuine social co n
trol was analyz ed Malthus described the conflict
.
between population and the means o f subsi stence .
C omte insisted that man i s no t naturally a social

being Hence thi s unsocial nature o f mankind is
.
a fruitful source o f human conflict Marx pictured .
the class struggle ; and Darwin elaborated the d o c

trine o f the survival o f the fittest .
The slightest grasp o f social thought reveals the

fact that human association i s characterized at
times by deep s eated and subtle conflicts ; and at
-
other times by a fundamental co operative spirit -

.
S ome sociological writers have seen only o r chiefly

the conflicts o f li fe ; others have sought o u t the co
operative activities ; still others have tried to dis
cover the relationships between conflict and co
operation in societal development This chapter .
will deal with the concept o f social conflict while ,
the next chapter will be centered o n the ideal o f

social co operation and upon the relationship o f co n
-
are thus continually arising o u t o f new j u xt ap o s i
tions of heterogeneous racial elem ents 2
’
.
I t was in an intense form of group self interest -
w
that Gu mp lo icz found the mains pring o f social
progress This self interest leads to an e x ag
.
-
gerated group appraisement a strong degre e of ,
group unity a state of warfare between groups

,
and perhaps progress Basic to this group self .
interest there are th e material needs o f t h e mem

,
bers of the group ; the economic desires and the

occu p ational interests ; and the moral and spiritual
tendencies The group i s bound togeth er by v arious
.
factor s such as a common social li fe a common

, ,
language religion and c ulture

w
, , .
Gu mp lo icz advocated a theory o f potential race

equality He argued against innate racial s uperior
.
ity and racial inferiority H e doubted the exist .
ence o f any pure races Each race i s a compound .
of other races and hence races are po t entially

,
similar in fundamental respects N ational progress .

,
therefore h olds no connection with race purity

w
,
Gu mplo icz minimized th e importance o f the

individual S ociety rules C enturies o f traditions
. .
dominate The thoughts o f the indivi dual are

.
almost i f not entirely a mere reflection o f the social

, ,
environment The group develops group pride o r

.
group disloyalty in the minds of its members The .
distinguished leader i s largely the man who ex

presses the will o f the group during the group
w
crisis Gu mp lo icz makes only a bri ef re ference
.
CON F L I C T THE ORI E S 34 1
to the process of interaction between the individual

“
and the group A n underlying theory o f natural
w
.
determinism vitiates much o f Gu mp lo icz s ideas

’
concerning t h e individual .
I nasmuch as soci ety li k e individuals passes

, ,
through a cycle o f growth and decay subj ect t o ,
unchangeable natural and societary laws there i s ,
no j usti fication f o r individual interference wi th

social processes I n fact this t h eory led Gum
w
.
,
p l o icz into pessimi stic conclusions concerning li fe .
H e failed to see that societal li fe i s not necessarily

a series o f hopeless cyclical conflicts and that social ,
processes are becoming increasingly subj ect to

human control f o r good o r ill He did not app re
—
.
ciate th e fact that groups are no t subj ec t to laws

of cyclical growth and decay after the manner o f
individuals H ence his conflict theory o f socie t al
.
,
li fe ended in con fusion and pes simism .
A re ference was made in C hapter X I t o the

theories o f F riedrich N ietzsch e ( 18 44 This
German philosopher developed the idea o f S ocial
“
conflict basing it o n the concep t o f the will t o
,
”
power . L eaders desire power They enj oy t o .
exercise power and they thrive under that exerci se .
Jealousy o f the leaders arises The weaker mem .
bers o f socie ty j oin together against th e possessors

o f pow e r . They develop a will to power but o f a ,
weaker type than that o f the leaders C onflicts .
ensue between the will t o power o f th e superior and

the will t o power o f th e in ferio r .
The superior and the inferior typ es each possess
4
a distinctive code o f morality The supermen .
develop a harsh and rigorous attitude toward them

selves and others They gird and prepare them
.
selves f o r the crises of li fe They strive to aug.
ment their power They become sel f contained

.
-
.
They take pride in crushing weaknes s and in dei fy

ing strength Their morality stresses those factors
.
in li fe which create power They feel a condescend

.
ing pity f o r the weak They experience no sense

.
of responsibility for the inferior classes S ince .
supermen are the supreme goal o f nature super ,
men feel that all persons and things should co n

5
tribute t o increasing the power o f supermen I t is .
a waste o f energy f o r supermen t o give their lives

in behal f o f inferior persons They are in t erested .
only in the wel fare o f other supermen .
The morality o f the inferior i s of a type whic h

furthers weakness I t accents sympathy I t em
. .
p h a s iz e s gregariousness Th e inferior create a

.
slavish cringing meek morality T h ey sacri fice

, , .
themselves readily and humbly in behal f o f others

w h o may be inferior to themselves .
N ietzsche believed in a eugenics program He .
declared that marriages should b e arranged with a

’
view t o producing supermen N i etzsch e s deter .
minis t ic view o f natural evolution led him to b e

lieve however that equality o f privileges is u n
, ,
attainable . He opposed democracy because its

theory o f e qual o pp or tu ni t ies c on t radi c t s th e t en
pain morality and a pain religion develop The pur .
“
po s e o f the pain morality i s to keep persons from
committing acts and putting themselves in situa
tion s which lead to destruction The pain religion .
,
li k ewis e aims to invoke the aid of higher powers

,
in the human conflict with enemies and death The .
social forces in a pain economy have been builded

up in the form o f s ets o f ideals instincts and , ,
habits .
S ociety however is now in a transition stage

, ,
entering a pleasure economy A large number o f .
the sources of pain have been eliminated through

the inventive and administrative phases of civiliza
tion Dangerous beasts and reptiles barbarous in
.
,
v a s io ns and superstitious interpretations are u n

,
common among the advanced human groups .
N o nation unfortunately has been able to live

, ,
under a pleasure economy I ts members have no t .
buil t up sets of instincts habits and ideal s that

, ,
withstand the e ff ects o f a pleasure economy C on .
sequently individuals and nations have fallen into

,
lethargy vice and decay Th e enemies in a pleas

, , .
ure economy are found within the individual ; these

are as yet unconquered under the allurements o f a
pleasure environment I n discussing the conflicts
.
between these habits and ideals D r Patten may , .
err in implying that the race once was no t in a pain

economy and hence did no t originally develop o u t
o f such an environment but he nevertheless has
,
analyzed an important societal fac t in h is pain

CON F L I C T THE ORI E S 34 5
pleasure transition concept .
A nother type o f conflict theory o f society i s a d

v a nce d by Thomas N ixon C arver Professor C ar . .
ver begins his analysis with a discussion o f t h e co n

fli e t o f human interests O riginally all confli ct s
.
were settled o n the basis o f might Bu t conflicts .
between persons who are beginning t o think some ,
times lead o ne o r each o f the con t ending parties t o

a consideration of adj usting the conflict by oth er
than physical stri fe A t thi s point the concept o f
.
justice begins t o ta k e form .
Justice according to D r C arver i s that syste m

, .
,
o f adj usting conflicting interests which ma k es the

”
group s t rong and progressive V irtue and .
7
strength are pronounced identical and strength is ,
defined according to its ability to make itsel f uni

versal .
C onflict arises o u t of scarcity Where two men .
want the same thing conflict ensues I t is this an

, .
t a go nis m o f interests which produces moral prob

lems and furnishes a basis o f determining j ustice
and inj ustice O ne reason f o r th e lack o f supply
.
of things which people seek is that in soci ety human

wants are unduly expended I f wants could be k ep t
w
.
lo and production high an adaptation o f people

,
t o things would take place which would great ly

lessen conflict .
C onflicts ta k e place in three di f ferent fields : ( 1 )

between man and nature ( 2 ) between man and ,
man and ( 3 ) between th e di ff erent interes t s of the

,
8
same man I f there were no such conflicts there
.
,
would be no moral problems The result would be .
paradise .
The institutions of property the family and the , ,
state have developed o u t o f antagonism o f interests ,
which in turn as has been said is the result o f

, ,
scarcity I f things were no t scarce no o ne would

.
,
think o f claiming property in anything I n a S imi .
lar way the kinship group becomes desirous of p o s

sessing property and hence acquires unity I n as .
serting that t h e uni fying principle in the family is

an economic o ne D r C arver espouses a theory o f
, .
economic determinism I n fact he holds that the

.
,
economic problem i s the fundamental o ne o u t of ,
which all other social and moral problems have

” 9
grown .
D r C arver somewhat softens hi s rigorous social

.
theories when h e admits that there may be a few

people 1n the world whose feeling o f humanity i s
strong enough t o overbalance an ant agonism o f ih
t e re s t s and to lead them t o trea t the world as a no r
mal individual treats hi s family A world o f such .
people would make a world o f communism But .
such a world i s unthinkable because world loving ,

-
people are social aberrations The individual whose.
altruism i s such that h e gladly gives his body to a

tiger is no t helping t o trans form the world into a
,
world o f saints but into a world of tigers Ex .

11
treme forms o f benevolence and meekness constitute

th e very food u p on whic h selfi sh nes s fa t tens .
12
resort is made to che ap persuasive methods such ,
as demagogy o r political claptrap S ometimes the .
persuasion falls t o the level o f deception and occa ,
s io nally t o destructive depths

,
.
4 The h i h f rm o f conflicts are the p r o

( ) t
‘
e s o
g
du ct iv e types S ome productive conflicts refer to
.
rivalries in producing economic goods ; others to

rivalries in rendering service I n h i s E s s ays in .
S o cia l J u s t ice Professor C arve r di scusses three

,
forms of economic competition at length H ere he .
includes competitive produc t ion competitive bar ,
gaining and comp etitive consumption o f economic

,
goods The second class has already been referred

.
t o as commercial persuasion C ompetitive produc

.
tion increases the supply of economic goods and

“ ”
always works well C ompetitive consumption
.
,
“ ” “
however always works badly
, I t mea ns rivalry
.
in display in ostentation in the e ff ort t o outshine

, ,
’
o r t o outdress all one s neighbors o r at leas t no t t o ,
”
be outshone o r outdressed by them I t is usually .
deceptive ; it has no productive fea t ures abou t it .
I t may even assume a form o f waste and de s t ru c

tion The highest type o f conflict is friendly rivalry
.
in rendering service to other peopl e .
Professor C arver would have sel f interest direct -
its e f f orts toward the wel fare o f the nation S ince .
neither law no r government can eliminate sel f

interest the next best thing i s to connect it with
,
national well being N early all useful things that

-
.
are done in a community are undertaken through

CO N F L I C T TH E ORI E S 349
self interest
-
. Even co operation i s a form of co m
-
“
petition The purpose o f co operation is to enable
.
-
groups o f individuals t o compete more e f fectively

against opposing groups .
C ompetition i s not an evil in itsel f The spirit .
which dominates competition is the important thing .
S ome p eople are motivated by the pig trough p h il - n
osophy which emphasizes struggle for the sake of

,
possession and consumption o f goods The work .
“
bench philosophy accents action and not posses
s ion p roduction and no t consumption
, .
These theories excellent in many particulars

, ,
apparently d o not rate at full value the fact that

education and love can and do modi fy the sel f
interes t o f the individual and at the same time di
,
rect t h e attention o f the individual toward unselfish

service I n stressing service through achievement
.
and production th ey neglect to emphasiz e achieve

,
ment through service C ompetition in rendering

.
unselfish ser v ice is underrated

w
.
It was N o vico the R ussian sociologist who

, ,
laid bare t h e alleged benefits of war showing ,
tha t the gains which come from war may be o b

t aine d through other methods o f social int e ra c
tion.
17
N o vico wargued forcefully that the real
enemies o f a group of people are disease germs and
death no t the best people o f oth er nationality
w
,
’
groups N o v ico s vision enabled him t o perceive
.
th e f o o lish ne s o f men who lock themselves together

in destructive conflict when the real enemi es are
,
microscopic disease bacteria and the gaunt black
specter o f death .
C onflict bulks large in the sociology of Edward

A R oss A ny interference with the carrying out
. .
’
o f the individual s plans and with the satis fying of
his interests creates opposition The best charac .
t e ris t ic of the phenomenon of opposition i s that it

”
awakens and stimulates C ompetition operates
.
according to psychologic laws ; f o r example the in ,
tensity o f competition varies according ( 1 ) to the

degree o f personal liberty ( 2 ) t o the rate o f social
,
change and ( 3 ) inversely as the e ffi ciency o f the

,
selective agents .
O ne of the most important forms o f comp e tition

is found in industrialism The invention and adop
.
tion o f t h e power driven machine has created an

-
industrialism which i s moulding and trans forming

“
society in startling ways and which i s causing its
,
members more and more to cluster at opposite poles

”
o f the social spindle
20
Pro fessor R oss expresses
.
S light hope that the ownership of industrial capital

will be disseminated th rough the working class a c
cording to the conflict rules o f the present economic
system .
O ther conflic t theori es will be presented in the

following chapters ; f o r example th e conflict the ,
o rie s of G ustav R a t z e nh o f e r and A lbion W S mall .
will be noted in the chapter on co operation co n -
’
ce p t s and G abriel Tarde s analysi s o f conflict will
,
be taken up in the discussion o f psycho sociological -

C H APT ER XXI
Co O P ER AT I O N
-
T H EO R I E S IN S O C I O LO G Y
O ne o fthe first p ersons to work out a systematic

interpretation of co operation was Giovanni V ico
—
( 1 66 8 an I talian philosopher V ico rej ected

.
‘
the social contract idea because he beli eved that it

was a false interpretation o f the true principle of
c o operation The concept o f a social contract em
.
bodied an arti ficial and metaphysical notion o f

social li fe
w
.
I n his chi ef work P r incip le s o f a N e S cie nce

,
C o nce rning t h e C o mmo n N a t u re o f N a t io ns V ico ,
inaugurated a study of actual social phenomena .
H e sought to discover possible social laws H e a t .
tempted to cast aside the accidental social ele

ments and to organiz e the regularities of social
phenomena into laws H e searched f o r the laws
.
governing the growth and decay o f societies He .
u nd e rt o o k t o analyze the history o f human society

'
A lthough V ico s important treatise was no t

’
known outside of I taly until a century and a half

after it was originally published it contained a ,
statement o f the factor which is basic to any sound

co operation theory of social progress
-
V ico was .
o ne o f the first writers to describe the principle

O P E RA T ION THE ORI E S
CO —
35 3
that all human groups have a common nature His .
comparative studies o f human institutions every

where led him always to the beli ef in the common
,
mind of mankind a concept which in recent years

,
has been ably elaborated by D G Brinton Fo r . . .
“
this contribution V ico has been called the father
”
of sociology .
A ccording to V ico the fundamental social mov e

,
ment i s a gradual unfolding o r evolution o f social

institutions in response t o the common needs o f
people S ociety owes its development in part t o
.
t h e reflections of the wise as the social contract ,
theori sts have said but also to the human feelings

,
even of the brutish Thi s natural sociability o f

.
man has furnished th e chief basis f o r the ri se and

development o f the spirit o f co operation —
.
The natural sociability o f human b e ings has led ,
more or less unconsciously o n th e part of man to ,
the establishment o f necessary social relations and

institutions The purpose of social organization is
.
t o produce perfect human personalities V ico o u t .
lined the evolutionary character o f society accord

ing to the spiral theory namely that society does re
, ,
turn upon itsel f but that when it completes a cycle

.
, ,
it is upon a higher plane o f co operation than when -
the given cycle began V ico also made religion a

.
necessary principle o f progress A lthough in ad .
justing himsel f t o the prevailing theological dogmas

o f hi s time V ico committed serious scienti fic errors
, ,
he nevertheless i s deserving o f special credit f o r his

emphasis upon the common nature and natural
sociability o f mankind .
Hugo Grotius ( 1 5 8 3 th e celebrated Dutch

scholar gave to social thought the international
,
concept He advanced the idea of the coming co

.
operation among the nations nations which in h is—
time were moved primarily by j ealousy and hatred

in their relations with o ne another G ro t ius was .
the originator o f a definite s et o f principles and

laws f o r international co operation His work in
—
.
this regard accentuated th e importance o f like

mindedness in matters of international polity .
S pinoza whose contributions regarding the co n

,
cept o f s overeignty have already been stated ,
declared that the instinct t o acquire is natura lly

stronger than the tendency to share H ence man .
,
must be educated t o perceive the advantages of co

operative living When thi s appreciation occurs
.
,
when the advantages o f co operation become clear

-
,
then man will sublimate hi s egoistic and sel f seek -
ing desires t o altruistic communal living A s man .
comes to understand step by step the values o f

, ,
co operative conduct he will overcome degree by

-
, ,
degree his selfi sh impulses

, .
The references which were made in C hapter XI V

t o the work and writings o f certain sociali sts such ,
as R obert O wen form another link in this discus

,
sion o f the development o f the co operation concept-

.
’
While the experiments in consumers co operation —
such as the activiti es o f the R ochdale Pioneers ,

species and moreover this alleged war is not a co n
, ,
dition of progress War declared Kropotkin i s

.
, ,
no t a condition o f social progress .
Kropotkin considered the clan and the tribe

rather than the individual o r even th e famil y the
starting point o f society The tribe itself developed
.
a morale o n the basis of beliefs in its common origin

and in the worship o f common ancestors Then .
the possession in common o f certain lands s erved

t o arouse new tribal loyalties These loyalties ex .
“ ”
pressed themselves in the form of e o n j u rat io ns -
,
sworn agreements and ultimately in fraterniti es

,
and guilds f o r mutual support Kropotkin believed .
that primitive man was naturally peaceful and that ,
he fought from necessity rather than from fero c ity .
I n primitive communal organization the j udge

“
and military chief united f o r mutual insurance o f
domination drawing to their support the slavish
,
lo yalty o f the witch doctor o r priest I n the twel fth

-
.
century however the o ld communal spirit broke

, ,
“ ”
forth with striking spontaneity all over Europe ;
it stopped f o r a time the growth o f the despotic
monarchies o f Eu rope ; it produced endless numbers
o f communes .
The free cities developed under th e shelter of

communal liberties and in them art and invention
,
flourished producing the beauty o f R aphael the

, ,
vigor o f Michaelangelo the poetry o f Dante and , ,

“
t h e discoveri es which have been made by modern
science the compass the clock the watch print

,
—
, , ,
C O- O P E RA T ION THE ORI E S 35 7
ing gunpowder the maritime discoveries the law

, , ,
“
o f gravitation .
Then there came the modern S tate formed by a

,
triple alliance o f the military chie f the R oman ,
j udge a nd the pri est The industrial revolution

, .
and the ri s e o f capitalism furthered the interests

of the military legal priestly triumvirate
- —
When .
the S tate and Church were separated the money ,
baron took the place of the priest in the triumvirate .
With the overthrow of militarism the power of the

triumvirate i s broken and the o ld communal co ,
operative feelin gs o f man again begin t o express

themselves Kropotkin led the way in defining the
.
law o f co operative individualism He urged de

-
.
centralization in social control and attacked mo n ,
o p o lie s o f all types public as well as private ,

Al .
though he exaggerated the rOle o f mutual aid in

primitive society considering it the main social
,
factor he nevertheless rendered a valuable service

,
in giving the world a vigorous presentation o f a

signi ficant concept .
The social process was analyz ed in terms o f both

conflict and co operation by Gustav Ra t z e nh o f e r
-
( 18 4 2 I t is characterized by a continuous
reappearance of th e phenomena o f individualization
“
o f structures already extant Bot h di f f erentiation .
and socialization arise o u t o f the operation o f h u

man interests Both are implicit in the nature o f
.
man C ertain human interests lead t o individuali

.
z at io n and some t o co mmu nit iz a t io n .

’
A t this point we encounter Rat z e nh o f e r s theory
of force F orce and interest are made the two
.
primordial principles These two factors work t

.
gether in order to secure f o r the individual th e

largest possible degree o f self development .
The struggle o f pre primitive men against the -
harsh phases o f nature established a pre primitive -
sociality S truggl e has always led t o co operation

.
—
in the interests o f preservation S imilarly war .

,
leads to co operation I n primitive society insti

-
.
t u t io ns arose in response t o community needs .
A mong barbarians the increase in numbers p ro

du ce d an increasing emphasi s upon conflict which ,
was expressed in robberies wars and enslavements , , .
Warfare led t o the formation o f classes and class

conflicts C lass interests as distinguished from in
.
,
dividual interests then began to secure definition

,
.
Wi th the rise o f capitalism the interests of capital ,
were asserted ; and at once the interests o f labor in ,
apposition assumed tangible expression A stage

, .
,
however o f stable social conditions i s coming in

, ,
which the whole world will be organiz ed o n t h e

basis of a single system o f economic and no n
competing production and o f free international ex
“
change .
Throughout this analysis Rat z e nh o f e r gives force

7
a leading place He also develops a theory o f a
.
ruling aristocracy o f supermen D espite these u n .

a
fortunate emphases Rat z e nh o f e r s contributio nt o

’
,
social thought in hi s theory o f in t erests as dom

in the terms nescience and omniscience ( 5 ) The
,
.
beauty interest secures satisfaction through an ap

preciation o f the symmetrical phases of material
and spiritual phenomena ( )
6 The . rightness in
t e re s t traverses the gamut o f all other interests It .
results in enj oyment when it secures th e sanction

’
of the individual s ideal sel f o r o f his whole sel f .
Each o f these interests tends t o be absolute .
Each seeks satis faction regardless o f the oth ers I n .
consequence there i s a universal conflict o f in

,
t e re s t s
. Moreover there is a universal conj unction
,
o f interests .The conflict however i s more spec

, ,
t acu la r than the conj unction I n the history o f

.
mankind this conflict has been the predominating

relationship The social process has resolved itself
.
into a series o f reactions between persons s o me o f

'
whose interests comport but others of which co n

,
fli e t F urthermore the social process is a continual

.
,
formation o f groups and institutions around in

t e re s t s
. I t is a perpetual equating and adjusting o f
interests ; it is a rhythm o f di f f erentiations and
integrations .
Professor S mall points o u t that struggle and

co operation are always t o a certain exten t func
-
”
tions o f each other Moreover in the social
.
,
process viewed historically there i s a movement ,
from a maximum toward a minimum o f conflict ,
from a minimum toward a maximum o f helpful

”
reciprocity . The social process thus is a per , ,
“
p e t u al readjustment be t w e en the forces which tend
CO -
O P E RAT ION THE ORI E S 36 1
backward toward more struggle and those that ,
”
tend forward toward more socialization By a .
minimum o f conflict Professor S mall does no t ,
mean absence o f conflict f o r h e recognizes that

“
stagnation would result in a society in which co n

fl ict was eliminated By a maximum o f co opera
.
-
tion he does no t refer t o a state of complete social

solidi fication which in turn would mean stagnation
,
and death .
The fundamental social problem is to give free

scope t o those interests which require the fullest
rational development of all other interests The .
social problem i s t o intellectualize all the interests ,
and moreover to intellectualize the conflict o f in

,
t e re s t s
. Hence the fundamental conflict today i s
between the knowledge interest and all other in
”
t e re s t s
. S ocialization then becomes the process
, ,
o f transforming conflict into co operation -

.
S ociology may be said t o be the study o f human

interests together with thei r conflicts and re cip ro c
,
ities I t is an interpretation o f human association

.
in terms o f the e f f ective interests o f man I t focal .
izes within o ne field o f vi sion all human activities

s o that the persons w
h o have the benefit o f this
w
outlook may rate their o n activities in relation t o
the whole .
I n a concrete speci fic way Pro fessor S mall has

,
presented his theory o f the social process in

,
w
the book B e t e e n E ras Fr o m Cap it a lis m t o De ,
mo cracy H ere i s a vivid picture of the conflict

.
between labor and capital with the resultant mis,
understandings and inj ustices A young lady .

,
H ector observes the essential activities o f labor

,
and capital and as a representative of capital per

,
ce iv e s the relationship which actually exists between
h ersel f and o ne o f the working girls S he receives .
large dividends f o r which she puts nothing into the

,
productive activities o f the corporation The work

w
.
ing girl i s paid lo wages but is giving her li fe t o

,
’
the industrial concern from which Hector s liberal
dividends are pouring forth The main end of the .
discussion is an argument for the establishment o f

the principle o f industrial democracy Professor .
S mall urges that th e employees pe r s e be given , ,
representation o n boards o f directors While this .
representation at first will necessarily be a minority

o ne ,it will serve the use ful purpose of providing
f o r regular meetings o f the representatives o f the
employees around the same council table These .
council meetings will enable the representatives o f

either party in the bitter labor capital conflict t o —
become acquainted with th e problems which the

opposing group faces I n thi s interchange P ro f e s
.
s o r S mall sees the ris e o f a spirit o f co operation -
which will melt many o f the di f ficulti es th at have

sprung up in the controversy between capital and
w
'
’
labor . A lthough D r S mall s B e t e e n E ras was
.
published in 19 1 3 the idea of industrial representa

,
tion was no t considered seriously in th e U nited

S tates until about 19 18 The initial steps w h ich
.
364 H IS T ORY OF SOC IAL TH OUG HT
things done . O rganization results ( 1 ) in the ac
co mp lish me nt o f ends which are unattainable other

w15 e , in arousing a common interest intermit
2
( )
t e nt ly in all ( 3 ) in dividing a task into its natural
,
parts ( 4 ) in securing a degree of expertness ( 5 )

, ,
in producing a co ordinated intelligent plan ( 6 ) in

-
, ,
”
eliminating needless duplication o f e ff ort O n the .
other hand organization leads t o wastes and

,
abuses which are : ( l ) overhead expens es ; ( 2 )

,
undue time devoted t o making o u t reports and simi

lar routine work ; ( 3 ) a loss in personal contacts ;
( )
4 a tendency to formalism and red tape ; 5
( ) an
inflexibility o f machinery ; ( 6 ) a misapplication o f
power to personal ends ; ( 7 t o o much s p e cializ a
tion ; ( 8 ) the organization becomes an end in itself .
S ocialization in content i s the development o f a

w
, ,
“
e feeling in a number o f
-
persons and th eir ,
growth in capacity and will to act A

very simple causal factor o f this process i s the age
long custom o f giving a banquet that is in eating , ,
and drinking together A consciousness o f k ind .
ari ses which as Professor R oss believes i s not the

, ,
“
perception o f a general resemblance but an aware
”
ness o f likeness o r agreement in specifi c matters .
20
N ationali sm o r the process o f creating a spirit o f

,
national patriotism illustrates th e meaning o f th e

,
socialization concept .
The sociology o f L T Hobhouse discussed in

. .
,
part in Chapter X V II I i s largely an interpretation

,
o f s ociety in t erms o f increasin g co Operation P ro -

.
CO -
O P E RA T ION THE ORI E S 36 5
f e s so r Hobhouse has defined social progress as t h e

development o f t h e principle o f union order cO , ,
‘
operation and harmony among individuals He has

, .
described a certain mutual interest similar to Gid ,

’
dings consciousness o f kind which has se r ved to ,
keep individuals together from the lowest groups ,
o f savages to the highest civiliz ed groups

21
.
The social process as Professor C ooley analyzes

,
it is not a series o f futile repetitions o r brutal and

,
wasteful conflicts but an eternal onward growth

, ,
which produces increasingly humane rational and , ,
co operative beings
—
While the element o f conflict
.
is useful in that it awakens and directs human a t

tention and thus leads t o activity it i s limited by ,
a superintending factor o f co operation and organi —
z a t io n to which the contestants must adj ust them
selves if they would succeed .

22
The discussions in this and the preceding chapter

have shown that the natural trend o f evolution is
away from a pitiless competitive and destructive
social process and toward a tempered productive
, , ,
and co operative process O f course there are re

—
.
,
actionary movements from time to time which halt

the co operative trend O n the other hand the de
—
.
,
v e lo p me nt o f reason gradually eliminates the more
brutal e f f ects o f conflict C onflict however will

w
.
, ,
always remain as far as ca n no be seen an essen

, ,
tial factor in the processes o f individual and soci etal

growth Through rational controls it will operate
.
,
in the direction and interest o f the co operative -

spirit I n the o ld social order hate and the spirit
.
,
o f conflict have ruled . The spirit o f co operation

-
has often been utilized only f o r selfish purposes I n

.
the coming S ocial order love and the co operative

-
spirit will direct while the spirit o f conflict will play

,
a vital but secondary ré le .

planation of social evolution H e made th e com .
mo n economic religious and other interests o f man

, ,
the basis o f social organization These interests .

,
according to Bodin led primitive families to form

,
a commonality of organization o r government .
I t was Hobbes who beli eved that man originally

’
was a being of entirely selfi sh in t erests Man s .
interest in others was based o n their ability t o cater

t o his own good This theory still has strong sup
.
port ; there are large numbers o f individuals who

today apparently are living according to this rule .
N ations oftentimes still seem to be motivated by no

higher principle O n the basis o f an introspective
.
psychology Hobbes made the scientific observation

,
“
that he that i s going to be a whole man must read
in himsel f mankind
—
S uch a person must no t
.
’
simply find in himsel f this or that man s interests ,
but the interests o f all mankind .
G eorge Berkeley ( 1 6 8 5 17 bishop o f C loyne

-
and eminent philosopher in his P rincip le s o f M o ra l

,
A t tra ctio n attempted to point o u t the analogies b e

tween the physical and social universe His work .
was stimulated by the discoveries o f I saac N ewton .
He tried to apply the N ewtonian formulas t o s o

”
cie t y
. While his physical analogies are o f little
value they represent a stage in the rise o f psycho
,
sociologic thought He made the social instinct o r

.
,
the gregarious instinct in society the analogue o f

,
the force o f gravitation The centri fugal force in

.
society is selfishness ; and the centripetal s o ciabil ,

P SYC H O SOCIOLOGIC TH OUG HT
—
3 69
ity A s t h e attractive fo r ce of o ne mass f o r another

.
varies directly in relation to the di stance between

them so the attraction of individuals f o r o ne an
,
other varies directly in proportion t o their re s em

blances The physical analogies howeve r could
.
, ,
no t be carried far without being lost in the r ealm

o f absurdity .
The S cotch philosopher Davi d Hume has been

, ,
called th e father of social p sychology because of his

splendid analysi s of sympathy as a social force .
“
L et all the powers and elements o f nature conspire
to serve and obey o ne man he will still be miser
,
able till you give him some o ne person at least with

,
whom he may share his happiness and whose e s ,

”
teem and fri endshi p he may enj oy Whatever .
1
other passions we may be actuated by pride ambi , ,
tion avarice curiosity revenge o r lust the sou l or

, , , ,
—
” 2
animating principl e o f them i s sympathy .
But sympathy i s not always limited in its opera

tion t o th e present moment Through sympathy we .
may put ourselve s in the future situation o f any

person whose present condition arouses o u r interest
in him Moreover i f we see a stranger in danger
.
, ,
we will run to hi s assistance .
V ice was defined by Hume as everything which

gives uneasiness in human actions By sympathy .
,
we become uneasy when we become aware o f in

justice anywhere “
S elf interest is the original
.
-
motive t o the establi shment o f j ustice ; but a sym

pathy with public interest is the source o f the moral
approbation which attends that virtue There is .
a continual conflict between self interes t and sym —
pathy both in t h e individual and between indi

,
v id u a ls in society A lthough at times thi s self in

.
—
“
t e re s t seems to predominate it does not entirely
,
abolish the more generous and noble intercourse of

” 4
friendship and good o f fices
S ympathy causes p eople to be interested in the
“
good o f mankind But whatever human factor is
.
contiguous either in space o r time has a propor

“
t io nal e ff ect on the will passions and imagination
, ,
.
I t commonly operates with greater force than any

human factor that li es in a distant and more obscure
light This principle explains why p eople often a ct
.
“
in contradiction t o thei r interests and why they ,
prefer any trivial advantage tha t i s present to the

”
maintenance of order in society .
I n accordance with the analysis of sympathy by

Hume A dam S mith made sympathy a leading co n
,
cept in his theory o f political economy S mith also .
carried the concept of self interest with the result

-
,
ant conflict between self interest and social interest

—
into nearly all his economic theories .
A ccording to A dam S mith there are four classes

o f people in modern life 1
( ) There are
. those h o w
live by taking rent They have social interests but
.
are not socially productive ; they grow listless and

careless ( 2 ) There i s the class which takes wages
. .
This group is large productive and socially inter

, ,
e s t e d but their widespread lack o f education makes

,
3 72 H I S T ORY OF SOCI A L TH OUG HT
competitive forces H e not only perceived the rise
.
o f mind out o f the obscure processes o f social evo
lu t io n but more important still he noted the part

, ,
that mind may play in modi fying the course o f

s ocial forces A lthough he considered the human
.
desires to be the dynamic social elements he gave ,
to mind through its power o f prevision t h e pre

, ,
r ogative o f directing the desires o f mankind .
Moreover he pointed o u t the direction in which

,
mind could best guide the desires He urged a

.
sociocracy m which the desires of th e individual

are so controlled that they operate only when in
harmony with the welfare of other individuals .
F or establishing thes e fundamental considerations ,
Ward ranks high in the history o f psycho sociologic -
though t
The chi ef founder o f social p sychology was
Gabriel Tarde ( 18 43 He wrote the fi rst im
portant treatise in the field o f the psychology o f s o
The L o is d e l imit a t io n established Tarde s’
’
cie t y.
reputation as a social psychologi st and at the same

,
time aroused the world of thought to the existence

o f a new phase of social science . Tarde was a j uri st
who inquired into the causes o f anti social conduct -
.
He was greatly impressed by the observation that

criminal acts are committed in waves U pon ex .
amination o f this fact he found imitation to be a

potent factor and began t o analyze the laws of imi
,
t a t io n .This study soon showed that not all i s

imitation but that much human conduct arises o u t
P SYC H O SOCIOL OG I C TH OUG HT
-
37 3
o f opposition His analysis o f the laws o f opposi

.
tion led him to th e conclusion that imitation and

opposition are th e bases of a third social factor in ,
v e nt io n The social process as he observed it is

.
, ,
characterized ( 1 ) by an ever widening imitation o f —
inventions ( 2 ) by the opposition o f conflicting cir

,
cles o f imitation and ( 3 ) by the ri se of new inv e n

,
tions ( out o f th ese oppositions ) which in turn b e ,
come the centers o f new imitations Thus the .

,
social process goes o n endlessly and unconsciously ,
o r consciously T o understand society Tarde b e

w
.
,
lie v e d that one must understand h o minds act and

interact .
Tarde s work first presented is L e s L o is d e l imi

’
,
’
ta t io n was formally developed in his L o giq u e

,
s o cia le and s u mma rI Z e d in his L o is s o cia le ( Engli sh
w
,
translation S o cia l L a s ) Togeth er these books

, .
,
’
constitute a unique social theory A lthough Tarde s .
approach to the psychology o f society was obj ective

and sociological and although he did no t give seri
,
o u s attention t o the purely psychological nature o f
the mind no r to the instinctive bases o f conduct ,
he nevertheles s made a contribution to social

thought which is valid and enlightening .
S ociety according to Tarde i s a group o f people

, ,
who display many resemblances produced either ,
” 7
by imitation o r by counter imitation A gain he
-
.
,
“
says th at society is a group o f distinct individuals
who render o ne another mutual S oci e
t ies are grou p s of peo p le w h o are organi z ed b e cau s e
“ “
o f agreement or di sag r eement of beliefs S ociety .
is The outstanding element in social

li fe is a psychological process in which inventions
are followed by imitations which when coming into
,
inevitable oppositions produce new inventions .
To the degree that a person i s social he i s imi

t a t iv e
. I n the way that vital o r biological resem , ,
blances are due t o heredity s o human resemblances

,
are caused by imitation The closer the human re

.
semblances between individuals even though they ,

'
be occupational competitors the larger will be the ,
proportion of imitations and the closer th e social

w
.
’
relationships The father will a l a ys b e t h e son s
.
~
11
fi rst model . A beloved ruler will so fascinate h is
people that they will 1 m1t a t e blindly yea even be , ,
thrown into a state o f catalepsy by him I n such .
a case imitation becomes a kind o f somnambulism .
I mitations are characterized by inclines plateaus , ,
”
and declines Th e incline refers t o the period o f
.
time which an imitation requires f o r adoptio n The

plateau is t h e length o f time during which an imita
tion is in force The decline o f course has t o do
.
, ,
with the passing away o f an imitation Each o f .
these phases are o f varying lengths dependent —
upon the operation o f almost countless socio p sy —
chical factors I t is this career through which all

.
imitations must pass that is the important phase o f

”
history .
There are t wo causal factors determining th e na

”
t ure of imitation : logical and no n logical L ogical
,
-
.
3 76 H IS T ORY OF SOCI A L TH OUG HT
v e nt io ns .
I mitation i s divided into sets o f co mp le me nt a rv

tendenci es ; custom imitation and fashion imitation ;
sympathy imitation and obedience imitation ; nai ve
”
imitation and deliberate imitation Everywhere .
custom imitation and fashion imitation are e mb o d

ie d in two parties divisions o r organizations the
, ,
—
20
conservative and the liberal .
Through custom imitation usages acqui re au t o ,
cratic power They control habit regulate private

.
,
conduct and define moral s and manners with im

,
perial authority U sages are frequently extra lo g

.
-
ical imitations U sages are commonly accepted fi rst

.
by the upper classes They usually are related pri

.
marily to obj ects of luxury ; they stick tenaciously

to the leisure time phases o f li fe Their most favor
—
.
able milie u is a social and individual status of igno r

ance .
F ashion imitation rules by epochs f o r example ,
A thens under S olon R ome under the S cipios F lor

, ,
“
ence in t h e fi fteenth century These epochs o f 1
fashion produce great individualities illustrious —
legislators and founders o f empire Whenever t h e

, .
curren t s o f fashions are set free th e inventive ,
imagination is excited and ambitions are stimulated .
F ashion imitation has a democratizing influence .
“
A prolonged process o f fashion imitation ends by
putting pupil peoples upon the same level both in
-
,
their armaments and in their arts and sci ences with ,
”
th ei r master p eo p le 22
I n f ac t t he very d e si r e t o
.
,
P SYC H O SOCIOLOGI C TH OUG HT
-
37 7
be like the superior i s a latent democratizing force .
The counterpart of imitation is opposition Op .
position however may be a very special kind o f

w
, ,
repetition There are t o types o f opposition

.
interference combinations and interference co n

— -
”
fl ict s The fi rst type refers to the coming together
w
.
of t o psychological quantities o f desire and belief
with the result that combination takes place and a

total gain i s made The second type refers t o th e
.
opposition resulting from incompatible forces I n .
this case an individual o r social loss is registered .
F rom another standpoint opposition appears in ,
one o f three forms namely war competition and , , , ,
”
discussion C onflic t s often pass through these
.
three forms which are obedient to the same law of

,
development but in order are characterized by ever

,
widening areas o f p acificat io n alternating however ,
with renewals o f discord A S war is the lowest .

,
most brutal form o f conflict discussion i s the high ,
est most rational form

, .
’
O pposition in human li fe i s socie ty s logic al
duel This duel sometimes ends abruptly w h en
o ne o f the adversaries i s summarily suppressed b v
force S ometimes a resort t o arms brings a mili

.
tary victory S ometimes a new invention o r dis

.
co v e ry expels o ne o f the adversaries from the social
scene .
The logical result of opposition is invention o r

adaptation I nvention i s a question followed by
.
a n answe r I nvention
. o r ada ptation at it s b es t
, ,
i s the felicitous interference o f two imitations ,
” 27
occurring first in o ne single mind I nventions .
grow in two ways : ( 1 ) in extension by imitative —
di f fusion ; and ( 2 ) in comprehension by a s eries —
o f logical combinations such as th e combination o f ,
the wheel and the horse in the inventions o f th e

”
h orse car t
-
.
I nventions partially determine the nature o f new

inventions and new discoveri es A new invention .
makes possible other inventions and so o n Each , .
invention is the possible parent o f a thousand o ff

spring inventions .
To be inventive o ne must be wide awake inquir ,

—
ing incredulous no t docile and dreamy o r living in

w
, , ,
a social sleep The inventor is o ne h o escapes f o r

.
,
”
the time being from his social surroundings
,
In .
venting develops from wanting A man experiences .
some wan t and in order to satis fy this want he in

,
vents I nventiveness is contrary in nature t o sheep

.
is h ne ss .
S ince an invention i s th e answer to a problem ,
inventions are the real obj ective factors which mark

the stage o f progress But invention according t o .
,
Tarde becomes increasingly diffic ult

, Problems .
naturally grow increasingly complex as the S impler

ones are mastered U nfortunately the mind o f .
,
man is no t capable o f indefi nite development and ,
therefore will reach a limit in solving problems .
A t this point Tarde is o n doubtful ground His

, .
argument can neither be proved nor di sproved A p .

3 80 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OU G HT
modified by the sociologists it has opened mines ,
of valuable social ores N o t the least important .
consideration was the imp e t us which the Tardian

thought gave to A merican writers such as E A , . .
“ ’
R oss Tarde s name however will be long revered
.
4
, ,
f o r the penetrating way in which h e developed the

concept of imitation A lthough Walter Bagehot .
,
an English publici st in an epoch stirring book ,

—
P hys ics and P o lit ics published an important chap

,
“ ” ’
ter o n I mitation as early as 18 72 it was Tarde s ,
L o is d e l imit a t io n in 18 9 0 which at once became

’
the authority o n the subj ect I n the U nited S tates .

,
Michael M Davi s J r has written an excellent

.
, .
,
’ ”
summary of Tarde s socio psychologic thought —
.
A S a critical digest of Tardian thought D r D avis ’

, .
P s ych o lo gica l I nt e rp re t a t io ns o f S o cie ty i s u ns u r

passed .
I n 1 8 92 Profesor H S ch midk u nz published an

, .
elaborate work on the P s ych o lo gie d e r S u gge s t io n .
This book i s an important pioneer work I n the .
English language the writings o f Boris S idis o n

,
the psychology o f suggestion are well known P ro

,
-
.
f e s s o r E A RO S S h as given an in t ensive trea t ment

. .
o f the theme in his S o cia l P s ych o lo gy I n t h ese .
various discussions however the fact is no t mad e

, ,
.
clear that suggestion and imitation are correlative

phases o f the same phenomenon The poin t also .
, ,
i s no t developed that suggestion imitation phe —
no me na are natural products of social situations in

which li k e stimuli normally produce like responses .
P SYC H O SOCIOL OGIC T H OUG H T
-
38 1
I n 18 9 5 the first book by G usta v e L e Bon o n

,
crowd psychology was published L e Bon has also .
written o n the psychology o f revolutions of war , ,
and of peoples H e gave a limited definition to the

.
term crowds and then applied the term to nearly

, ,
all typ es of group li fe H e conceived o f crowds as

.
“ ”
feeling phenomena They are more or less patho
.
logical S ince the p roletariat are subj ect to crowd

.
psychology they are untrustworthy and to be re

,
warded perpetually with suspicion A sounder .

,
more synthetic and historical position concerning

,
the p sychology o f groups and of society i s ta k en

by G L Duprat in L a P s ych o lo gie s o cia le
. . .
I talian contributions in th e fi eld o f crowd and

’
group psycholo gy are represented by Paolo Orano s
P s ico lo gia s o cia le which includes only a partial
,
treatment o f the subj ect that is indicated by the

title ; and by S cipio S igh e le s L a fo u le crimine lle ’
and P s ych o lo gie d e s s e ct e s Permanent groups a c.

,
co rding to S igh e le ( following Tarde ) are either ,
”
sects castes classes or states
, , Th e sect i s a group
, .
of individuals which possesses a common ideal and

faith such as a religious denomination o r a political
,
party The caste arises from identity o f profession

. .
The class is c h aracterized by a strong unity o f in

t e re s t s S tates possess common bonds o f language
.
,
national values and national prestige ,

.
“
The concept of consciousness o f kind was de
v e lo p e d by F ranklin H Giddings in his P rincip les
.
o f S o cio lo g
y C onsciousness o f kind is t h e
38 2 H IS T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OU G HT
original and elementary subj ective fact in society .
Professor Giddings defines this term to mean a

state o f consciousness in which any being wheth er
w
,
lo o r high in the scale o f li fe recogniz es another

,
”
conscious being as o f like kind with itself I n its
.
widest meaning consciousness of kind marks the

,
di f ference between the animate and the inanimate .
“
A mong human beings it distinguishes social con
”
duct from purely economic o r purely religious
activity A round consciousness o f kind as a de
.
,
t e rmining principle all other human motives o r

,
g a niz e themselves .
People group together according to the develop

ment o f the consciousness o f kind in them R oughly .
“ 8
speaking th ere are four such groupings
,
l
( ).
The no n social are persons in whom the conscious

-
ness of kind has not yet developed in whom it

—
finds imperfect but no t degenerate expression and ,
from whom the other classes arise ( 2 ) T he anti

.
social o r criminal classes include those persons in

, ,
whom the consciousness o f kind is approaching ex

tinction They detest society
. .
( )
3 The pseudo
social o r pauper classes are characterized by a de
, ,
generation o f the genuine consciousness of kind .
4
( ) The social classes are noted f o r a high develop
ment o f the consciousness o f kind ; they constitute
the positive and constructive elements in society .
A t the head o f the list are the pre eminently social

-
.
These people devote their lives and means t o the

amelioration o f society ; they are called the natural
cu s s io n With the rise of discussion social m
. emory , ,
o r traditions becomes possible

,
Moreover a sense .
,
of social values arises Public o p 1n10 n springs from

.
the passing o f j udgment by th e members o f the

41
group upon any matters o f general interest .
S ocial memory o r traditions becomes h ighly

, ,
”
di ff erentiated I t consists o f impressions concern
.
ing the tangible world the intangible world and the

, ,
conceptional world The traditions in any field plus

.
,
current opinion in that field form the standards , ,
“ ”
ideals faiths i sms of the time Fo r example
, , .
,
the integration o f economic traditions with current

economic opinions is the general standard of living
of the time and place The in t egration of the .
aesthetic tradition with current critici sm i s taste ,
and the modification o f a traditional religious belief

by current religious ideas i s a faith .
I nasmuch as consciousness of kind is the p sy

ch o lo gical basis o f social phenomena it is natural ,
that the chief social value i s the kind itself or the ,
type o f conscious li fe t hat is characteri stic of the

”
society . The social cohesion i s another important
social value S ocial cohesion is vital to the unity o f
.
any group ; therefore the group i s usually willing

to make many sacri fices in its o n behal f The w .
distinctive possessions and properties o f the co m

munity such as territory sacred o r hi storic places
, , ,
heroes ceremonies constitute the third class o f

, ,
social values A fourth group i s found in the gen

.
eral principles which promote the growth o f th e

P SYC H O SOCIOL OGIC TH OUG HT
—
38 5
group ; f o r example the principles o f liberty equa l

, ,
ity and fraternity The social values largely deter

,
.
mine the social choices o f group s and th e nature o f

social o rgamz at io ns .
Professor Giddings develops an interesting the

o ry o f the dualism in social structures C ivilization .
i s marked by the contemporaneous existence o f

public and private associations C ivilized society .
a ff ords four main sets o f duali stic associatio n s:

political j uristic economic and cultural I n the
, , , .
political field there are private political parties and

th e public association namely the government o r , , ,
the political party in power A mong j uristic asso .
ciat io ns there are the privately organized vigilance -
committees and the public associations such as the ,
police the courts the prisons I n the realm o f

, , .
economics there are private individual e nt re p re

ne u rs partnerships corporations ; and on the o t her
, ,
hand there are the governmentally owned rail

,
-
roads postal service the water systems the coinage

, , ,
systems I n regard to cultural associations we may

.
note the privately endowed universiti es and state

universities privately o rganl z e d churches and state
,
churches private charities and public charities

,
.
This dualism in social structure i s supported by

Professor Giddings o n the grounds that private
associations are needed f o r purposes Of initiation ,
experimentation and stimulation ; and the public

,
associations serve the useful purposes o f regulation

and maintenance o f balance among various contend
ing factors .
The highest test o f social organization i s the

development o f social personality A n e ff i cient
.
social organization i s o ne which makes its mem

bers more rational more sympathetic with an, ,
”
ever broadening consciousness of kind
-
.
I n recent works Professor Giddings has devel

“
oped the concept o f pluralistic behavior A ny one .
o r any combination o f behavior inciting stimuli may
o n occasion be reacted to by more than o ne indi

” “ 4
vidual . The character o f pluralistic reac t ions
whether similar or dissimilar S imultaneous o r not , ,
equal o r unequal is determined by two v ariables

,
( )
1 the strength o f the stimulation ; ( 2 the S imi
la rit y o r dissimilarity o f the reac t ing mec h anisms
”
.
Thus Professor Giddi ngs considers p luralistic b e

havior the subj ect matter o f the psychology of
society o r sociolo gy
, .
I n 18 9 7 S o cia l a nd E t hica l I nt e rp re t a tio ns b y

, ,
J. Mark Baldwin was printed

, ; it bears the sub
”
title o f A S tudy in S ocial Psychology This was .
the fi rst time that th e term social psycholo gy h ad

, ,
appeared in the title o f a book in A merica though ,
three years earlier in 18 9 4 o ne o f the leading parts

, ,
o f S mall and V incent s I nt r o d u ct io n t o t h e S t u d

’
y
o f S o cie t
“ ”
y was designated social psychology and
included a discussion o f social consciousness social ,
’
intelligence and social volition Baldwin s S o cia l
, .
’
and E t h ica l I nt erp re t a t io ns and G iddings P rin
ciples o
f S o cio lo gy appeared almos t simultaneously ,
’
of society o f the individual s particularizations .
The essence o f the fi rst phase o f this process 1 s

invention and o f the second imitation Baldwin
w
, .
considered I nvention and imitation the t o funda

mental processes o f social growth .
I n this chapter the strength o f the psychological

approach t o an understanding o f societary processes
has been demonstrated I n the chapter which f o l
.
lows the reader will find further materials show ,
ing the tr emendous vitality o f psycho sociologic

-
thought .
C H APTE R XXI II
Ps Y C H o -
S O C I O LO G I C T H O U G H T
( C O N TI N U ED )
I n 1902 H u ma n N a t u re a nd t h e S o cia l Ord e r

,
by Professor C harles H C ooley was published . .
This book was at once accepted as an authority o n

t h e in t egral relationship of the individual self and
the social process I t was followed in 1909 by
.
S o cia l Orga niz a t io n and in 19 18 by S o cia l P r o ce s s

, .
The three books constitute a chronological develop

ment o f a logical system o f psycho sociologic —
though t
The fi rst volume treats o f t h e sel f in its re a c
tions to group li fe ; the second explains the nature
o f primary groups such as the family playground
, , ,
and neighborhood o f the democratic mind and o f

, ,
social classes ; the third analyzes the many elements

in the processes by which society i s characterized .
The chief thesis o f the three volumes i s that the in

dividual and society are aspects o f the same phe
no me no n and that the individual and society are
,
1
twin born and twin developed
- -
.
A n individual has no separate existence .
Through the hereditary and social elements in his

2
li fe he i s inseparately bound up with soci ety He .
390 H I S T OR Y OF SOCI A L T H OUG HT
canno t be considered apart from individuals Even .
“
the p h enomena whic h are called individualistic are
always socialistic in the sense that they a re ex
p r essive of tendencies growing o u t o f th e general
I t is not only tr u e tha t individuals make
society but equally t rue that soci ety makes indi
,
v id u als .
"
Professor C ooley has given an excellen t presen

t a t io n o f what he calls the lookin g glass sel f
-
.
There are three dis tinct psychic elements in this

’
phenomenon : ( 1 ) the imagina t ion o f one s appear
ance t o another person ; ( 2 ) t h e ima gined est i
mation o f tha t appearance by the oth er person ; and
( )
3 a sense of pride o r chagrin tha t is felt by the
firs t person The looking glass sel f a ff ects the daily
.
-
li fe of all individuals We are asha m ed t o seem

.
evasive in the presence o f a straigh t forward man ,
cowardly in the presence of a brave o ne gro s s in ,
th e eyes of a refined o ne and so ,

Even a per
’
son s consciousness of himsel f i s largely a direct re
fl e ct io n of the opinions and estima t e s w h ic h h e b e
“
lie ve s that o thers hold o f h im .
Professor C ooley makes a lucid dis t inc t ion b e

t ween sel f consciousness social consciousness and
, ,
public consciousness The fi rs t is w h a t I th ink o f

.
mysel f ; the second what I think o f other people ;

,
and the third a collective view o f the sel f and th e

,
social consciousness of all the members o f a group

organized and in t egrated in t o a communicating
“
g rou p Mo r e o v er all thr ee ty p e s o f c onscio u sness
.
,
cation i s the means whereby the mind develops a
true human nature The symbols o f o u r social
.
“
environment supply the stimulus and framework
”
f o r all o u r growth . Thus the communication con
cept furnishes a substantial basis for understanding
the psycho sociologic phenomena which are ordi
-
na rily called suggestion and imitation .
Personality has its origin partly in heredity and

“
partly in the stream of communication both o f
w
,
”
which fl o from the corporate li fe o f the race .
A study o f communication shows that the individ

ual mind i s no t a s eparate growth but an integral ,
development o f the general mind .
The means o f communication developed remark

ably in the nineteenth century chiefly in the follow
,
ing ways : ( 1 ) in expressiveness that is in th e , ,
range o f ideas and feelings th ey are competent to

carry ; ( 2 ) in the permanence in recording ; ( 3 ) in
swi ftness o f communication ; and in di ff usion
”
t o all classes o f people .Thus society can be o r
g a niz e d o n the bases o f intelligence and o f ration
a liz e d and systematiz ed feelings rather than o n a u
t h o rit y autocracy and caste

, , .
A free intercourse o f ideas that is free and 11n

, ,
impeded communication will no t produce uni form

,
ity S elf feeling will find enlarged opportunities

.
f o r expression . A n increased degree o f communi

cation furnishes the bases f o r making the individual
conscious o f the unique part he can and should play .
1n 1 m ro vin the quality f t he social whole O n

p g o .
P SYC H O SOC IOL OGI C TH OUG HT
—
39 3
the other hand freedom of communication is tend

”
ing to produce the disease of the century namely , ,
the disease of excess o f overwork o f prolonged

, ,
worry o f a competitive race for which men are no t

,
”
fully equipped .
Public opinion according to Professor C ooley i s

, ,
no t merely an aggregate o f opinions o f individuals ,
“
but a co operative product o f communication and
—
reciprocal I t is a crystalization o f
diverse opinion resulting in a certain stability o f
,
thought . I t i s produced by discussion Public .
opinion is usually sup erior in th e sense o f being ,
more e f fe ctive th an the average opinion o f the

,
members of the public .
The masses make fundamental contributions t o

public opinion no t through formulated ideas but
,
through thei r sentiments The masses in their .
daily experiences are close t o the salient facts o f

human nature They are no t troubled with that
preoccupation with ideas which hinders them from
immediate fellowship N either are they limited by
.
th at attention t o the hoarding o f private property

which prevents the wealthy from keeping in touch
with the common things o f li fe .
The strikin g result o f the social process i s the

development o f personalities The social process .
a f f ords opportunities which individuals ambitious ,
and properly stimulated may accep t Education , ,
may perform a use ful function in adj usting indi

v iduals t o opportunities But education often fails
.
becaus e it r equires t o o much and ins p ires t o o li t tle ;
it accents formal knowledge at the expense of
kindling the spirit .
S ocial stratification hinders . I t cuts off co m

mu nicat io n I t throws social ascendancy into t h e
.
hands o f a stable communicating minority The

, .
majority are submerged in the morass o f ignorance .
D egrading neighborhood associations vicious par ,
ents despised racial connections these all serve t o

,
—
produce stratification and to hinder progress .
Professor C ooley holds that in the social proces s

the institutional element i s as essential as the per
“
sonal I nstitutions bequeath the s t andard gi ft s o f
1
the past to the individual ; they give s t abili ty At .
the same t ime i f rationally controlled they leave

,
energy free f o r new conques t s V igor in t he indi

.
vidual commonly leads to dissatis faction o n his

par t with institutions Disorganization thus ari ses
.
from the reaction against institutional formalism

mani fested by energetic individuals I t may be .
regarded as a lack o f communication be t ween t h e

individual and the institution F ormalism indica t es
.
that in certain particulars there has been an e x cess

of communication .
The economic concept o f value h as long been

analyzed in individualistic terms th e economic —
“
desires aris e o u t o f the inscrutable depths o f the
”
private mind . T o this explanation Professor
C ooley replies that economic wants interests and , ,
val u e s are p r imarily o f institu t ional ori gi n; th ey

Mr M cD o u gall consi ders social psychology
.
largely as a study o f the social instincts o f in

d ividu als ; Professor R oss concentrates attention
upon the suggestion and imitation phases of soci etal
li fe I n a sense Professor R oss begins his analysis
.
where Mr M cD o u gall concludes

. .
Mr M cD o u gall treats the instincts as the bases

.
o f social li fe He makes them the foundation o f

.
”
nearly all individual and social activities I ns t incts .
are biologically inherited ; they cannot be eradicated

by the individual I nstincts constitute the materials
.
o u t o f which habits are made C onsciousness arises

.
only when an instinct o r a habit ( tha t is a modi fied ,
instinct ) fails t o meet human needs .
The primary instincts are th e sex and paren t al ,
the gregarious curiosity flight repulsion Each is

, , , .
accompanied by its peculiar emotion f o r example , ,
the instinct o f flight by th e emotion of fear the ln ,
s t inct o f curiosity by the emotion o f wonder This .
instinct emotion theory is however drawn o u t

-
, ,
until it seems t o become academic rather than actual

in its detail s .
Professor M cD o u gall points o u t that the instincts

are the basic elements upon which all social ins t it u
”
tions are built Fo r example the sex and parental
.
,
instincts are the foundations o f the family ; the

acquisitive instinct is an essential condition o f the
accumulation o f material wealth and o f the ri se o f
private property as an institution Pugnaciousness .
lead s t o war .
P SYC H O SOCIOLOGI C TH OUG HT
-
39 7
Thi s emphasi s upon the instincts reaches an ex

treme form in W Trotter s I ns t incts o f t h e H e rd
.
’
in P e a ce a nd Wa r where the herd instinct is made

,
all dominant A ccording t o Mr Trotter the herd

—
. .
instinct arouses fear in the individual and rules him

through rigorous conventional means in a large —
percentages o f cases t o his detriment .
I n conj unction with his theory o f instincts P ro ,
f e s s o r M cD o u gall has advanced a noteworthy co n

ce p t io n of the sentiments The three leading ex
.
pressions o f sentiment are love hate and respect , , .
S ympathy is regarded as an elemental sentiment in ,
fact as an emotion in its simplest form A senti

, .
“
ment i s an organized system o f emotional tenden
”
cies centered about some obj ect The sentiments
.
comprise an important phase o f the sel f and func

,
,
tion powerfully in determining social conduct .
I t was in 19 01 that Professor E A R oss made . .
hi s initial contribution t o psycho sociologic thought

—
—
seven years before h is S o cia l P s ych o lo gy was
published Hi s fi rst great work was S o cia l Co ntr o l
.
.
I n this excursus he defined social psychology as the

“
study of the psychic interplay p e t e e n man and w
his environing society ”
. This interplay i s t o
20
w
fold : the domination o f society over the individual
( social ascendancy ) and the domination o f the in
dividual over society ( individual ascendancy ) S o .
cial ascendancy may be either purposeless ( social
influence ) o r purposeful ( social control ) S ocial .
psychology according t o Professor R oss deals with

, ,
39 8 H I S T O RY OF S O CI A L T H O U GH T
psychic planes and currents ; i t does not treat of
groups which is a part o f the preserve o f psycho
,
logical sociology .
The psycho sociologic grounds o f control are

-
found in such factors as sympathy sociability an , ,
elemental sense of j ustice and particularly in g roup

,
needs There are individuals whose conduc t e xa s

.
“
perates the group I n this common wrath and
.
common vengeance lies the germ of a social control

o f the
’
Perhaps the best part of Professor R oss discus
sion o f social control i s hi s analysi s o f th e agents
of control ”
Public opinion and law are th e t o
. w
mos t importan t means o f controlling individuals .
The weakness o f one in this connection i s i t s fit f u l

, ,
ness ; of the other its rigidity Personal beli efs

, .
and ideals function widely and e ff ectively b e c ause

of their subj ec t ive character A n individual may .
escape the operation o f law ; he can hide away from

the winds of public opinion ; bu t he cannot ge t away
from his own ideas and conscience I t i s f o r t hi s .
reason that religious convictions are powerful A rt .
as a means o f social control i s commonly under

rated I t arouses t h e passions kindles sympathies
.
, ,
creates a sense o f the beauti ful and perfects social

symbols such as C olumbia L a B elle F rance
, , ,
”
Britannia .
S ystems o f social control are political o r moral .
The political form is more o r less obj ective is likely ,
t o be in the hands of a few i s apt t o be used f o r ,

cause children possess a small store o f facts and an
undeveloped ability to criticize ; that people of a
nervous temp erament are more suggestible than
persons who are phleg matic because o f di f ference ,
in sensibility ; that women are more suggestible than

men because they have not had the broadening in
,
“
fl u e nce s which men have enj oyed such as higher ,
education travel self direction professional pur

, ,
-
,
suits participation in intellectual and public

,
The laws of imitation particularly o f fashion ,
imitation and rational imitation which M Tarde , .
was the fi rst to outline have been elucidated and ,
illustrated by Professor R oss He has cu t boldly .
into the S hams o f fashion convention and custom , , ,
and made a strong plea f o r rationality in these

fields He has shown h o mob mind the craz e and
. w , ,
the fad sweep no t S imply the fooli sh and light

headed individuals o ff their feet but also th e per ,
sons who are counted as sane and acquainted with

common sense I n fact he has made clear that even
.
,
the most level headed are blindly o r slavishly gov

-
erned by custom o r fashion o r both He does no t .
develop however the fact that imitation i s largely

, ,
a result o f like mindedness and common social

—
stimuli He implies an individual rather than a

.
group origin of suggestion imitation phenomena —

.
I t is in discussion that Professor R oss sees o ne

o f the main hopes o f progress
”
Discussion brings .
conflicts t o a head and leads to group progress

,
.
’
Discussion changes a person s opinions A dequate .
P SYC H O SOCIOLOGIC TH OUG HT
-
401
discussion leads t o the settlement o f a conflict and

the creation of an established public opinion which ,
remains in force until a new invention occurs a re ,
s u lt ant conflict ensues and a new public opinion

,
comes into p ower .
I n 192 0 Professor R oss made hi s largest and

,
most important contribution t o social thought in his

P rincip les o f S o cio lo gy This work however i s .
, ,
essentially a treati se in social psychology The orig .
inal social forces are the human instincts notably ,
the fighting instinct the gregarious instinct the

, ,
parental instinct the curiosity instinct The deriva

, .
tive social forces are societal complexes which tend

’
to satis fy instinctive cravings Professor R oss .
classi fication o f the derivative social forces o r in ,
t e re s t s i s primarily fourfold
, These fundamental .
interes t s are wealth government religion and

w
, , ,
knowledge Thi s classi fication contains only t o

.
,
o r at best three o f the six groups o f interests which

,
” ’
are found in Professor S mall s exhibit .
’
Professor R oss analysis o f the process of social
iz a t io n has been indicated in C hapter XXI This .
phenomena i s t o be sharply distinguished from ossi

ficat io n which i s the hardening o f social li fe into
,
“ 0
rigid forms G roups often become unduly solidi
.
fie d. The salvation of S uch a situation lies in indi

viduation which is a process o f pulverizing social
,
lumps and releasing the action o f their memb ers

31
.
A ny movement that develops that spirit of personal

liberty leads to individuation .
C ommercialization i s th e increasing subj e c tion
o f any calling o r function to th e profits
Th e various factors which hold the profits motive in

check are : ( 1 ) pleasure in creative activity ; ( 2 )
’
pride in the perfection of one s product ; ( 3 ) the de
sire to live up to accepted standards o f excellence ;
’
( )
4 abhorrence of sham in one s work ; ( 5 ) interest
in the welfare o f the customer ; ( 6 ) the social serv
ice motive The profits motive however receives
.
, ,
support from many social tendenci es notably : ( 1 )

,
the increasing distance between producer and co n

sumer ; ( 2 the growing differentiation between
principals and subordinates ; ( 3 ) the increasing im
portance of capital in the prac t ice o f an art o r o ccu
p a t io n .
Professor R oss has set forth a valuable e x hibit o f

”
the canons o f social reconstruction ( )
1 R
. eforms
must no t do violence to human nature ( 2 ) They .
must s quare with essential realities ( 3 ) They .
should be preceded by a close sociological study o f

“
the situation which it i s planned to change ( 4 ) .
R e forms should be tried o u t o n a small scale before

being adopted o n a large scale ( 5 ) A re form
.
S hould be the outcome o f a social movement ( 6 ) .
Under a popular government reforms should move

,
according t o legal and constitutional methods .
I n regard to the improvement of social ins t it u

tions Professor R oss rests his argument o n the im
,
“
portance o f standards . S tandards are perhaps , ,
the most important things in A lthough

404 H I S T ORY OF S OCIAL TH OUG HT
sta t e shall be organized not with provinces and lo
calit ie s as semi autonomies but with industrie s e x
-
e rcis ing a degree o f autonomy O ur auth or e n

.
dorses the general shi ft which i s occurring at the

present time from the coercive side t o the se rv i ce
side o f industrial li fe .
Professor R oss has deduced several importan t

sociological principles o f general import These h e .
calls the principle o f anticipation the principle o f ,
simulation the principle o f individualization and

, ,
the principle o f balance .
By the principle o f anticipation he means tha t a ,
known policy o f an institution will come to be an

t icip at e d by the members o f the institution and will
”
result in modi fying behavior U nfair advantage
.
is often taken o f people o n th e basi s o f thi s prin

cip le. Fo r example children frequently coun t o n
,
’
favor and leniency The false beggar s whine is
.
often e ff e c tive I t i s in thi s connection that genuine

.
social reform di ff ers from a common conception o f

charity f o r the former method fits people t o run
, ,
clears their course and incites them to make the

,
”
race while the latter fails to render assistance o f
,
permanen t value .
The principle o f simulation re fers t o the common

“
tendency of the unworthy to simulate every type
o r trait which has won social approval in order to ,
steal prestige from C ommercial competition

has produced adulterations misb randings counter
, ,
feiting There is the pro fessional a thle t e who

.
,
P SYC H O SOCIOL OG IC TH OUG HT
—
405
some times poses as a sincere enthusiast f o r physical

development Poli t icians are often expert d is s e m
.
ble rs .
T he principle o f individualization refers to giv

ing individuality a reasonable chance f o r growth .
A s society grows more complex institutions more ,
o s s ifie d and li fe more standardized the average in

, ,
dividual is increasingly in danger o f being crushed ;

at least his opportunities f o r sel f expression grow
,
-
more slim There i s need of constant vigilance in

.
education in allowing f o r individual di ff erences in ,
industry f o r safeguarding the laborer in expressing

his personality in his work in government in per ,
mittin g free discussion .
The principle o f balance is stated by P r ofessor

RO S S as follows : I n the guidance O f society eac h
social element should share according t o th e int e lli
gence and public spirit o f its members and none
should T h ere has been in the past ,
and even now there is in all countries a bi t ter strug ,
gle taking place be t ween classes apparently o n the

basis that some o ne class should rule all the oth er
classes S ociety h as su ff ered immeasurably in this
.
way S ometimes society has been the victim o f the

.
rulership o f the dead o f the rulership o f masculin

,
ism o f clericalism o f militari sm o f commercialism

, , , ,
o f legalism o f leisure class ascendancy of int e lle c

, ,
t u alis m o f prole t ariani sm bu t always by o ne class

, ,
lording it over th e weak er classes until some o ne o f

the weak er classe s acquires s t rengt h enough t o over
406 H I S TORY O F SOCIA L TH OUG HT
throw th e class in powe r .
The socio psychological though t o f Professor

-
R oss h as penetrated the farthermost reaches o f

human li fe I t has been stated in lucid stimulating
.
,
langu age I t has commanded the attention o f s o

.
c ially thinking persons in many lands

-
I t has de .
fined the fi eld o f sociology giving the psychological

,
approach .
S pecial a tt ention may be given t o the conce p t o f

”
the great society as used by G ra h am Walla s T h e .
G reat S ociety i s a name f o r curren t h uman society ,
the product o f mechanical inven t ions indust r ial ,
produc t ion commercial expansion democ r a t ic evo

, ,
lu t io n highly organi z ed and intrica t ely c omplex

—
.
“
I t i s ruled in th e main by men w h o direc t enor
, ,
mous social power without a t tempting t o fo r m a

”
social purpose and it i s composed t o a surpassing
w
,
degree o f individual s h o recognize th e power o f

socie ty b ut dimly and who o f t en tr ea t socie ty w i th
”
distrust and disli k e .
Mr Wallas substitu t es o r ganiza t ion f o r o r gan

.
ism as a fundamen t al social concep t He mak es a .
distinction be t ween thought o r ganiza t ions will o r ,
g a n iz a t io ns and
, h appiness organiza t ions Though t .
organizations are those institutions in socie ty w h ose

main function i s the organization o f thought such ,
as discussion groups ranging from a philosophical

,
club t o an ordinary committee that i s called togeth er

to plan new legisla t ion At this point Mr Wallas
. .
as s e rt s that he h as a tt ended pe rh a p s 3000 meetings

408 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH OU G HT
Th e writings of Charles A Ellwood deal p a rt icu .
la rly with that part o f sociological thought which

rests upon psychological theory Professor Ellwood .
“
defines a society as a group o f individuals carrying
o n a collective li fe by means o f mental int e ra c
A s a result o f mental interactions co o r ,
-
d inat io n o r co adaptation o f the activiti es o f th e

-
members is e f f ected .
The psychological basi s o f social interactions is

found in such characteristics of the individual as
spontaneity instincts emotions consciousness
, , , ,
mind . O rganisms posses s spontaneity that is , ,
movements are set up in them without the apparent

aid o f external causes .
" 7
The organism h owever , ,
is dependent largely upon the environment f o r the

“
development o f its potentialities but the essential ,
ground f o r the beginning o f its activities lies

within in its o n organic needs
—
w ”
I nstinc t s the .
,
produc t o f natural selection represent preformed ,
neurological pathways that developed in response

”
to the demands o f previous li fe conditions The .
emotions also hereditary are complexes of feelings

, ,
and sensations The desires are complex combina

.
tions o f feelings and impulses which are aecom

p a ni e d by an awareness o f the obj ects that will
”
satis fy the impulse C onsciousness develops t o
.
solve problems which the instincts cannot meet A t .
first consciousness i s largely a selective activity I t

, .
develops however into a highly complex agency for

, ,
mastering the problems o f li fe and th e universe .

P SYC H O SOC IOL OG I C TH OUG HT
—
409
Mind is a product o f
the social li fe process I t has -
.
arisen under conditions of association .
O ne o f the most fundamental phases o f the asso

cia t io na l process is communication Th e need o f .
acting together has given ri se to int e rco mmu ni

cative symbols .
Professor G eorge H Mead has given a thorough.
going discussion o f communication language and , ,

”
the consciousness of meaning He begins with a.
social S ituation where the actions of o ne person

,
‘
serve as stimulations to other persons who se re ,
spo u ses in turn act as stimulations t o the first per

so n. Thus li fe is a series of actions stimulations , ,
responses resultant stimulations

, these activities —
constitute gestures o r symbols with meanings .
S ymbols and the consciousness o f meaning o f thes e

symbols are the main elements in c o mmunication .
C ommunication says Professor Ellwood i s a

, ,
device to carry o n a common li fe process among -
several distinct though psychically inter acting in

, ,
”
dividual units . Thi s definition probably e mph a
50
”
sizes unduly th e individual units which are ,
doubtless a product in part o f the stream o f social

, ,
li fe S uggestion is an elemental but quick form o f

.
,
communication related in its simpler phases to sym

,
pathetic emotion I mitation is a common mechan

.
ism whereby actions and ideas spread C ommuni .
cation in the form o f oral and written language i s

the chie f mechanistic factor in securing social
change .
The con t ention o f Ward that primitive man was “
anti social is refuted by Professor Ellwood who

-
,
points o u t that according to social anthropolo gy the

s o called anti social trai t s o f earliest man are not
- -
“ ”
found fully developed among savages bu t among
people o f later ages Primitives were characterized
.
by a narrow sociality confined largely t o the fam i ly

,
51
and small groups .
’
Professor Ellwood s theory o f social change i s of
a two fold character : unconscious and conscious
-
,
the former being characteristic of the lower stages

of social evolution and the latter increasingly char
, ,
52
a ct e ris t ic o f the higher stages The forms o f u n .
conscious social change are mani fold .
N atural selection tends to crush and destroy the

weaker individuals and the weaker groups A n .
other type o f unconscious social ch a nge is that

which comes th rough a gradual disuse o f certain
cultural elements O ne generation fails to copy the
.
preceding in all particulars A not h er se t of sources .
o f unconscious social change i s found in t h e shi ft
ing relationships between individuals tha t is p ro

“
d u ce d by the increase of population a new physical ,
environment a new cultural contact a new d is co v

, ,
”
ery o r a new invention I n fac t Pro fessor Ell
.
,
wood states that all social changes start in an u n

“ 3
conscious way .
C onscious change begins with the awareness o n

the part o f o ne o r more individuals that some social
habit is not functioning well Th r ough co mmu m .
s t it u t io ns A utocratic rulers propertied classes
.
, ,
ecclesiastical class es special group s in power a

, ,
general intellectual stagnation are factors which ,
tend to resist institutional flexibility I f this adapt .
ability does no t exist then social conditions will

,
produce revolutions I f the ruling autocracy is s o

.
powerful that the lives of all obj ectors are snu ff ed

o ut ,
then revolution i s indefinitely postponed I f .
the energetic forces within a society are hampered

greatly in securing constructive opportunities f o r
expression they become forces of discontent a nd
,
agents o f revolt I f a revolution comes then much

.
,
that is worthy in social organization will be o blit

e ra t e d along with the unworthy confusion ill ,
w
reign and a reversion t o the brutal stages o f societal
li fe i s easily possible .
I n his discussion o f the social problem P ro f e s ,
s o r Ellwood points o u t that the good fruits of the
World War are in danger o f being destroyed by

“
the blindness and sel fishness o f some in o u r
socially privileged classes the fanatic radicalism ,
and class hatred o f some o f the leaders o f the no n

The forces which are combining
against making the world safe f o r democracy today
are national imperialism commercialism material , ,
is t ic standards o f li fe class conflicts religious, ,
agnosticism and a reckless attitude toward mar

,
ria e and the family

g The s o cial p ro b le m from
.
57 ‘
o ne angle becomes the problem o f training people

,
t o live together justly constructively and co , ,

P SYC H O SOC IOLOGIC TH OUG HT
-
4 13
o p e ra t ingly .
A s Turgot indicated the only way t o avert social

w
,
revolution i s through suitable and ell timed re -
forms Today the reforms most urgently needed

.
,
are three fold : the substitution o f an unselfi sh

-
internationalism f o r a selfi sh nationalism o f a ,
spiritual civilization f o r a rampant materiali sm ,
and o f a socialized human race for individualized

peoples T o bring about these changes is a gigantic
.
task namely t h e social problem

, .
C ivilization is a complex o f social values P ro .
’
f e s so r Ellwood s classi fication o f values i s widely
di f f erent from the analysis that Professor Gid
dings has made ( given in the preceding chapter ) .
A ccording t o Professor Ellwood western civiliza ,
tion i s represented by the following groups of

social values historically derived : ( l ) a set o f
S piritual and ethical values described by the ,
ancient Hebrews ; ( 2 ) a set o f esthetic and philo

sophic concepts from the G reeks ; ( 3 ) a set o f a d
ministrative and legal forms o f R oman origin ;
4
( ) a set o f pe r sonal liberty beliefs o f early Teu
tonic derivation ; ( 5 ) a scienti fic spirit and tech
nique originating during the R enaissance ; ( 6 )
,
economic e f ficiency born o f the industrial re vo lu

,
tion ; and ( 7 ) an extensive group o f humanitarian

values the product o f the nineteenth century This
,
.
vast and complicated Western C ivilization needs ,
however to remove from its structure the three

,
”
rotten pillars o f hyper individualism material
-
,
ism and selfish nationalism substituting for each
, ,
its spiritualized and socialized counterpart .
The nature of social control according to the ,
“
analysis by Professor E C Hayes i s to secure
. .
,
the completed and most harmonious realization o f

good human experi ence regarded as an end in
,
S ocial control should prevent activities

which do no t bear t he test of reason and should ,
elicit those which stand that test when j udged by ,
their own intrinsic value and by th eir e f f ect upon

other values This statement o f the purpose o f
.
social control i s similar to that o f other standard

interpretations o f the matter .
There are two types o f social control The fi rst .
is control by sanctions and the second by social

,
suggestion sympathetic radiation and imitation

, , .
S ocial sanctions refer to pro ff ered rewards and

threatened puni shments Professor Hayes how
.
,
ever makes not law bu t personality the ultima t e

,
basi s o f social order R epression o f crime is a

.
correct social procedure but of a distinctly lower

grade than the movement t o raise the moral char
acter of those who never go to prison Th e prob .
lem o f social control i s to take th e instinctive ten

d e ncie s of each individual when he i s young and
make them over into a disposition that i s character
iz e d by the four following traits : ( 1 ) reliability ,
o r honesty ; ( 2
) controlled animalism o r temper ,
ance regarding eating drinking and other animal

, ,
propensities ; ( 3 ) steadiness in endea v or ; ( 4 ) the

The C anon of Pecuniary Emulation describes the
restless straining o f certain individuals in society
to outdo o ne another in the possession of wealth .
S uch possession is interpreted as conferring honor

o n its possessor . Wealth becomes intrinsically
honorable The C anon o f Pecuniary B eauty refers
.
to the impression that things are beauti ful in pro

“ 4
portion as they are costly . Th e marks of e xp e n
s iv e ne s s come to be regarded as beauti ful features .
The C anon o f C onspicuous C onsumption i s a

’
term which describes a method o f showing o ff one s
“ 5
wealth by an elaborate consumption o f goods .
C onspicuous consumption i s seen more in matters

of dress than in any other line o f consumption .
The C anon o f C onspicuous L eisure i s the rule

which some people are following when they live a
li fe of leisure as the readiest and most conclusive
”
evidence o f pecuniary strength S ometimes a man
.
’
keep s h i s wi fe frittering her time away in a doll s
house in order to show his wealth status .
The C anon o f L eisure C lass C onservati sm i s

V eblen s label f o r the conservative tendencies o f the
’
wealthy Those whom fortune has greatly favored

.
are likely to be content with things as they are .
S uch people are averse t o social change f o r social

,
innovation might upset their comfortable existen ce .
They have a dominant material interest in letting

things alone .
Mr V eblen s C anon o f Pecuniary Effi ciency

.
’
means that many persons conceive of e f ficiency

P S Y C H O SOC IO L OGI C TH OUG HT
-
4 17
lar gely in terms of p r ice T h e person who can in

.
duce his fellows t o p ay h i m well i s account e d effi

cien t and se r viceable “
T h e m an h o gains m uch
.
7
w ’
weal th a t little co s t i s r ated hig h in hi s neighbor s
esteem The inves t o r who a t the t urn o f his h and
.
reaps in a s toc k o r bond deal i s praised

widely I n oth e r words there i s a common t en
.
,
den e y t o rate p eople h igh in direct proportion t o

the amoun t o f money tha t they are able to e x tract
from t he aggrega t e produc t .
T h e C anon o f Bellicosene ss r efe r s t o the e nth u

s ia s m f o r war w h ic h the h e r editary leisure class
di splays The very wealthy no t being obliged to

.
,
wor k f o r a living find th a t t ime drags Therefore

, .
,
th ey see k excitemen t and relief from ennui and ,
find th ese condi t ions in va r ious things especially ,
in wa r .
The C an o n o f Pecuniary Educa t ion co v e r s th e

“ ”
t endency t o deman d prac t ical education which , ,
“
upon examina t ion i s education t h a t will gu arantee

,
“ ”
individual success . S uccess fo r w h ich education
,
i s t o fi t young people t urns o u t t o be in the eyes o f

, ,
”
th e prac t ical man a pecuniary success
,
P r ac t ical .
means use ful f o r priva t e gain The t es t that many .
persons would give t o a course in educa t ion i s

?
th i s : Will i t help o ne to get an income The C anon
of Pecuniary Thinking deno t es th at many occu pa
tions lead t o h abits o f pecuniary though t Fo r .
numbers o f people th e beginnin g and end o f thei r

more se r ious th ough t i s o f a pecuniary nature .
The C anon of Machine Process Thi nking i s th at
mechanical employments produce a typ e o f thin k
ing that is based more o r less o n material cause and
e f fect The Machine knows neither morality no r
.
dignity no r prescriptive right The machine process .
laborers working in a world o f impersonal cause

,
“
and e f f ect are in danger o f losing the point o f
,
view of S in .
Professor V eblen has developed the concept o f

the instinct of workmanship at considerable length .
A ccording to thi s contention it i s natural f o r in ,
d ivid u als to do to construct to achieve t o work

, , , .
Through activity the individual expresses himsel f

and in so doing develop s and attains happiness
, , , .
Every individual i s a center o f unfolding impulsive

activity ; he i s possessed of a taste f o r e f fective
”
work .L abor acquires a character o f irksomeness
by vir t ue o f the indignity that i s falsely imputed to
”
it by a hereditary leisure class I t was th e in s tinct .
o f work manship which brought th e li fe o f man
kind from the brute t o the human plan .
The contributions o f Mr V eblen to social thought

.
are always o f a thought provoking nature S ome—

.
times they give rise to invidious comparisons often ,
they antagonize but as a rule they are unique

, ,
.
N O brief reference such as is given in the foregoing

paragraphs can d o justice t o Mr V eblen s pungent
’
.
criticisms o f soci etal foibles .
I t would be a decidedly incomplete treatment o f

the nature o f psycho sociologic thought that did
—
42 0 H I S T OR Y OF SOCIAL T H OUG HT
the pressure upon the individual o f social condi
”
tions customs and conventions
, ,
Without giving .
additional interpretations of social control t h e ,
reader will be referred directly to V olume XI I o f

the Publications as the best symposium th at i s avail
able o n the subj ect .
I n di scussing ideals as a phase of international

control Professor Howa r d m ak e s clea r th a t cer t a
,
ideals exert a baneful influence Th e ideal of the .
“
nation state appears to be unmoral i f not immoral
—
.
O f four prevailing standards o f e th ics namely per , ,
s onal morality business morality national morality

, ,
“
f o r home consumption and standards o f inter ,
”
na t ional morality for us e with outlanders the ,
scale i s descending and the fourth type i s the low

,
est N at io nalis ms have been overdeveloped at the

.
—
expense o f a needed internationali sm .
A nother false ideal of which soci ety needs t o rid

itsel f is its conception o f the function o f war and
militaris m War i s no t a good in itsel f War as
. .
war i s no t h eroic R ace values constitute a third

.
“
false ideal Every race deems itsel f superior t o
.
every other race and every race i s

R ace conceit i s contrary to the C hristian ideal and
has s t eadily been supplanted by the new doc t rine o f
the potential equality o f all races .
The ideal o f democracy o n the other hand r ings

, ,
t rue to the needs o f progress I t makes f o r peace . .
D emocracy however must rid itsel f o f blemishes

, ,
.
Hereditary and class privilege must be abolished ;

P SYC H O SOC IOLOGIC TH OUG HT
-
42 1
political Cor r uption and race riots must be defeated

“
woman the original social builder t he mo th er of
, ,
”
industry the fi rst inventor o f the ar t s o f peace
, ,
must be gran t ed a full voice in social control .
The ideal o f education i s exceedingly delica t e ,
f o r it involves the process of the changing o f ideals .
Educa t ion may prepare a people to admire a u

t o cracy o r to build a sel f governing democracy
-
.
Dr Howard enters a strong plea for s ocial

.
‘
ideali sm the most e f f ective tha t has yet been

—
” “
written . The idealist i s th e inspired social archi
te e t who dreams a plan f o r th e sanitary o r moral
,
cleansing o f a great city ; the campaign for purging

poli t ics o f graft ; a law f o r saving little children
from the tige rish man o f the factory o r the sweat
shop ; a referendum for banishing from th e com
w
mo n e alt h the saloon that chief breeder o f pauper
,
ism sin a n
,
d crime ; a conference f o r th e rescuing
,
from the hands o f predacious greed f o r the use of ,

’
the whol e people o f the remnant o f o u r country s
,
na t ural wealth The idealist is th e s t atesman the

.
—
head o f a nation who dreams a scheme f o r

—
safeguarding democracy and gua r an t eeing peace

”
th r oughout the wo rld .
I t i s evident from th e introduction to th e h is t ory

o f psycho sociologic thought that has been given in
-
this and the preceding chapter supported by t h e ,
material s in the chapters o n social conflict and

social co op era t ion concep t s that psycho sociologi c
-
,
-
th o u ght h old s a place o f fi r s t r ank in th e fiel d o f

sociology I t bids fair t o become the central force
.
in social thinking and to lead the social sciences .
I t deals with the most vital social concepts namely, ,
groups personality behavior conflict co operation

, , , ,
-
,
and process O f all the main approach es to an

.
understanding o f soci etary problems it promises

,
most .
’
science D r Henderson s name i s synonymous
. .
with a practical interpretation o f both democ r acy

and Christianity with the spirit o f vigorous yet ,
kindly reformation in p enology with the concept o f ,
prevention in philanthropic endeavors and with ,
j ustice and love in all the fi elds o f human ach ieve

ment There are many other important names in
.
the li s t of those persons who helped to found ap

plied sociology ; for example such individuals as ,
C anon Barnett A rnold Toynbee Jacob R iis Jane

, , ,
A ddams and many other social welfare saints

w
.
,
Poverty and crime have been the t o chi ef p h e

no me na with which welfare work has been co n
cerned U ntil the present century t h e at t emp t s to
.
meet the problems o f poverty have been la r gely

remedial Jesus said th a t the poor a r e always
.
present in any age o f socie ty St F ranci s o f A s . .
sisi tiring of monas t ery li fe sough t o u t the poor

, ,
in the natural wal k s o f li fe and dedica t ed h imsel f ,
in th eir behal f .
Fo r centuries England h as experimen t ed with

solutions f o r th e problems o f poverty and paupe r
is m Sh e has l e arned that w h en s h e c ares t o o as
.
s idu o u s ly f o r t h e poo r she encourages the spirit o f
pauperism and increases the numbers o f depend

ents When she provided liberal aid f o r illegitimate
.
children sh e found that illegitimacy was furthered

, .
England has had a seri es of important literary

leaders w h o h ave in t erested th emselves in be h al f o f
th e poo r and o utcast D ick ens d r ew m i n u t e w o r d
.
A PP L I ED SOCIO L OG Y 42 5
pictu r es o f
pove r ty C arlyle t h e iconoclas t and in
.
,
d ividu alis t pi e r ced repeatedly the S hams o f society

,
whic h are partly responsible f o r the pe rpetual exist

ence o f social misery I n beauti ful diction R us k in .
spo k e in beh al f o f social j ustice I n S imila r fields .

,
F rance has her Hu g o and Balzac ; G e r many h er ,
Hauptmann ; R ussia her Tolstoi and Go rky ; S can ,
dinavia her Bj ornson I bsen and S trindber g I n

, , , .
dividu als o f this type however cannot be co ns id , ,
er ed s ocial technologists They have directed pub .
lic opinion t o speci fic social problems bu t rarely ,
o ff ered t echnological programs o f prac t ical value .
S ince 19 00 the leaders in social technology such

, ,
1 2
as C R Henderson S idney and Beatrice Webb
. .
, ,
“
and E T D evine have made clear the specific co n
. .
,
d it io nS under whic h the poor may be p ermanen t ly

4
aided . R emedial c are will always be necessa ry ,
bu t i t must be offered in ways th at will no t e n

courage anyone t o make a living by begging The .
prevailing thought today regarding poverty i s in

preventive t erms The individual s h ould be shown
.
how t o h elp h imsel f up th e economic pathway Edu .
cation will ma k e th e individual e f ficient and s afe

gua r d h im agains t falling in t o a ch ronic s t a t e o f
pauperis m .
A bove all else social t ech nology urges the es t ab

,
lis h me nt o f j ustice in economic conditions As .
shown in C hapter XI V Henry G eorge in hi s , ,
P ro gres s a nd P o v e r t y made a fundamental analysis ,
Of o n e S e t o f ca us e s o f pover t y w h ic h h e f ou nd i n ,
the unj ust factors in the economic system He
w
.
S howed h o ownership in land may be traced back

to force S hall the fi rst person who acquires a sec
.
tion o f land b e allowed to fence i t in and to keep o u t

all other persons unless they pay him a price that
rises rapidly as the number of other persons in
creases ? 5
Why is there increasing misery amid a d
v a nc ing wealth ? The larger the city the greater
’
the degree of squalor this was George s perplexing
—
observation Material progress does no t improve

.
the condition o f the lowest classes Prosperity

.
under the present economic system appears to be a

heavy wedge driven into society The individuals
.
who are below the line o f cleavage are crush ed

down ; those who are above this line are hoisted
upward into positions of luxury and affluence .
Henry George despite the large number o f f o l

,
lowers which hi s ideas have today was probably in

,
error in believing that to take the ownership o f

land o u t o f the hands o f individuals through the ,
method o f the single tax would prevent poverty

,
.
However no o ne should be blind t o the fact that

,
increasing land values result from mere increase

in population Either the birth rate o r immigra
.
tion increases population and sends up land values ,
which in turn is accompanied by a rising scale o f

r
ents with an elevated cost o f living and increased
poverty .
T he hi story o f human thought concerning crime

has run a vicissitudinous career I t was not until
.
42 8 H I S T ORY OF SOCIA L T H OUG H T
and his followers i s found in soci ety S ociety is
,
.
responsible f o r t he criminal ac t s of its members I f .
society should surround all individuals from in

fancy with a favorable en v ironment th en crime ,
would end I n the writings o f G a r ofalo F er r i de

.
, ,
Q uiros ,
G ross and other C ontinen t al criminologists ,
a broader point o f v i ew i s usually ta k en making ,
the responsibil i ty for crime to r est o n t hr ee factors ,
heredity envi ronment and individual morality

, ,
.
The margin o f choice and th erefore of individual

,
responsibility is usually made very slender Euro

, .
pean criminological experts and even A merican ,
writers such as Parmelee have commonly mini

, ,
miz e d the importance o f moral charac t er and th e

accountability o f the individual .
I n the U nited S tates the trend o f in t eres t h as

been penological S ince the days of William Penn
.
,
who had been a prisoner in England A me r i can ,
th ought has cente r ed o n the problem o f prison re

form Barrows and B rockway devo t ed thei r lives
.
to the reorganization of prison procedure Wines .
and L ane show lucidly the t rend in penological

thought paying splendid t ribute to th e achieve
,
ments o f Z R B rock way 1n establis h ing th e Elmira

. .
R e forma t ory ( N ew Y ork ) .

7
The fundamental principles o f th e Elmira p ro

ce du re are as follows :
( )
1 The average prisone r
can be reformed
( )
2 R e formation
. o f the prisoner
is th e du ty o f the s t a t e ( 3 ) Prisoners mus t be
, .
c onsid e r e d a s individuals and acco r ded t h e tr ea t

A PP L I ED SOCIOLOGY 42 9
men t which each needs in order t o bring him to a

normal attitude o f li fe ( 4 ) The prisoner s re f o r
.
’
mation requires hi s own co operation in the process-

.
( 5 ) The prison must have the power to lengthen

’
o r s h orten the sentence according t o the o f fender s
stage o f reformation ( 6 ) The en t ire process o f

.
refo r ma t ion i s educational giving the o f fender o p

,
p o r t u nit y fo r psychical mental and moral

, growth
, .
( 7 Punishment f o r crime is administered in the

discipline and labor which are unremitting and
,
exactin g .
I n recen t years T h o m as M O sborne h as been .
developing the honor system and sel f government -
“
among prisoners The idea i s dramatised by Bur
.
“
leigh and Bierstadt in P u nis hme nt The co nce p .
tion i s that kindly a dministration and the personal

’
touch o f love will win the o ff ender s heart and
mind and e ff ect a reformation
,
.
T h e last t wenty years have seen a remarkable

development o f the concept o f prevention o f crime .
This theory however takes the problem back t o

, ,
pre adult years t o th e adolescent to childhood

-
, , ,
and even t o the pre natal years o f the specific in

-
dividual The establishment o f the j uvenile court

. ,
wit h the success o f Judge Ben B L indsey has .

,
served t o call attention t o the fac t tha t cr1m1nals are

made as a rule before t h ey reach th e age of twenty
o ne .
T h e con t ribu t ors t o r ecen t th ough t abou t de lin

quen e y such as Jane A ddams B reckinridge and
, ,
A bbott W R G eorge Ben B L indsey Mrs L ouise
, . .
, .
, .
de Koven Bowen Fle xne r and Baldwin are pretty , ,
largely agreed that the causes o f delinquency and ,
hence o f criminality are as follows : ( 1 ) The de ,
f e ct ive home made defective by illness poverty

—
, ,
shi ftlessness ignorance immorality desertion di

, , , ,
vorce death is the leading S ingle causal element

,
—
.
N early all criminals begin their careers as dis

obedient s o nS The law o f obedience and self
.
discipline i f not observed in the home i s learned

, ,
later only at the expense o f anti social and criminal -
acts .
( )
2 Mental defectiveness often causes de
linq u e ncy The mentally defective child i f ener
.
,
getic has great di f ficulty in withstanding the evil

,
temptations o f li fe H e o r S h e h as bodily passions .
that are further developed than hi s mental inhib i

tions I n this connection the public school has an
.
impo rt ant function t o perform in detecting mental

defectives and in segregating them under special
educational care They should b e segregated also .
by sexes so that th ey may no t reproduce their kind

, ,
and they should be kept under educational and in

s t it u t io nal direction t hroughout their lives They .
can be made us eful and happy under a guarded

environment ( 3 ) C ivi c neglect is a third cause o f
.
delinquency and crime Y oung people are released .
from the public s chools often without proper home ,
t raining and supervision and dri ft about in a highly ,
complex urban environment full o f commercialized ,
and vicious devices f o r preying upon the curious

I n rega r d t o labor problems s ocial technology
,
has made notable contributions C hild labor is a

.
term which refers to the employment of adolescent

children for wages when such children are thereby
,
deprived from normal opportunities o f mental and

physical growth C hildren should learn t o work
.
,
even at unpleasant t asks but when at an early age

,
th ey are taken o u t o f o r quit school and become

gainfully employed they are deprived of a normal
,
adolescence ; they and society both lose .
The problem of women in industry i s due t o th e

migration o f millions of women from the home into
industry While women are en t i t led t o equality o f
.
opportunity with men th ey are o ften unmind ful

,
th a t constitutionally they are no t fitted t o p e f f o rm

all th e t asks tha t men are doing ; t hat i f they fail
in th e bearing and rearing of children ra t ionally ,
the race dies ; and t ha t i f th ey neglect to m ake th e

,
h ome attrac t i v e the family as an essential social

,
in s titution is undermined .
T h e labor problem when applied t o men brings

, ,
forth a multiplicity o f contradictory opinions The .
idea o f indus t rial democracy i s t he storm center .
While praising modern capitalism for its stimulus

t o initiative and f o r its large scale enterpri ses that
-
have been highly beneficial in many ways th e ,
so c ial t echnologist pronounces modern capitalism

unde m ocratic He declares tha t it must purge i t s elf
.
or be supplanted by anoth er industrial order ; it

mus t take cognizance o f social changes and adj us t
A PP L I ED SOCIO L OGY 4 33
itself accordingly o r be r outed .
Th e inj ustice in modern capitalis m i s often

stressed in social technologic thought O nly o ne .
factor wealth i s represented in the management of

, ,
business The S killed o r unskilled laborers often

.
,
”
the h ardest working partners in the busine s s are ,
not represented A pplied sociology unli k e social

.
,
ism would k eep industry in the hands of indi

,
vid u als .T h e idea has been best developed perhaps , ,
by a social theorist Professor A W S mall L abor

, . . .
and capital m us t bo th have represen t ation o n

boards o f di r ec t o r s i f capitali sm i s t o pro v e that
,
it i s no t undemo c r ati c .
Tripartite managemen t o f industry i s a cur r ent

phase of industrial thought Where employers and .
employees have reach ed a common ground o f co ‘

~
opera t ion they h ave o ften j oined forces in collusion

,
agains t the public and the consumer T h e employer .
agrees t o a rise in wages for t h e employee and the ,
employee t o an increase in dividends providing he ,
receives a portion o f the added returns meanwhile —
the public i s apathe t ic o r rages impotently The .
best thought today i s urging tha t on boards o f di

r ectors and managers all th r ee interested parties
shall have representation namely labor capital
, , , ,
and th e public .
I t is a curren t opinion that the failure o f capi t al

is m t o democratize itsel f will result in the rise of
sociali sm by revolutionary means I f capital with its .
o ne sided control o f industry i s supplanted by labor

—
with another typ e of control it i s doubtful how ,
much will be gained Th e labor standard i s mani

.
festing itself as a class standard and at times ,
arbitrarily To have society controlled by labor

.
standards no matter under what form of socialism

,
they may appear will no t guarantee progress The

, .
labor classes the capitalist classes th e pro fessional

, ,
classes all must rule and u ns e lfish ly f o r the wel

—
fare O f society .
The current socialist thought ranges from a

radical bolshevist theme o f a dictatorship of the
proletariat to a conservative state sociali sm like ,
that advocated by John S pargo Bolshevism has .
the earmarks of class autocracy Progress cannot .
be secured by a social order in which th e least e d u

ca t e d and trained are in control
,
O n the other
hand it is no t clear that state sociali sm
governmental control o f interest producing capi
ith its
.
—
, w
tal and rent producing land will best guarantee
-
,
progress The socialization o f individuals wi ll

.
probably be more e f fective than the socialization o f

industri es .
The tendency i s toward th e elimination of p ro fit

ism Thi s negative thought it i s claimed will re
.
, ,
lieve capitalism o f its worst evils and allow the ,
educational process o f socializing individuals to go

forward .
The concept o f social insurance has been given a

remarkable reception since 18 8 2 S ocial insurance .
was introduced as a means o f paci fying labor and

43 6 H I S T ORY OF SOCI A L TH OU GH T
industrial democracy and j ustice ; and a comple t e .
socialization program .
A nother set o f problems concerning which applied

sociolo gy is endeavoring to find solutions relates to
the family feminism marriage divorce and b ous
, , , ,
”
ing Professor G eorge Elliott Howard and D r
. .
”
Edward Westermarck have traced the development
o f the family and marriage throughout human his
tory The primitive rela t ionships between se x es h a v e

.
been described by many anthropological wri t er s A .
history o f the A merican family has been written

”
by A W C alhoun. . S ingle v olume t reatmen t s o f
.
the family as a s ocial institution have been made by

” 17
Bosanque t and Goodsell These works essentially.
agree that the family i s an e v olutionary produc t ,
that th e primitive family cen t ered about t h e mo the r

and child that patriarchalism in t roduced a high de
,
gree of masculine arbitrariness and that the family ,
is at present undergoing marked changes whereby

the spirit o f democracy i s gaining ground .
I n the new found spirit o f freedom woman h as ,
sometimes been captivated by the desire t o follow

man in t o all the man made occupa t ions S e x nature
-
.
predestines woman to the chie f occupation o r p ro

f e ss io n o f all that o f motherhood
, F or woman t o .
rush headlong after men into industry may t urn

o u t t o be no t liberty but license and deterioration
,
.
C urrent social though t protests vigorously against

th e idea of women being household drudges and ,
also against women wasting their time in pluming

themselves o r in idling away their days in dolls ’
houses sup p o rt ed dep endent s o f men Women are

, .
enti tled t o learn vocations and to live constructive

li v es in an atmosphere o f the largest possible free
,
'
dom consi sten t wit h th e development of themselves

and th e race O n the other hand any mo v e m en t
.
,
wh ich weakens the ho m e as a societary t raining in

s t it u t io n apparently defies the laws o f social a d
v ance .
T h e housing problem is provokin g urgen t

th ough t With the ri se o f large cities the economi c
.
o r der favors exorbitan t land values and e xt rao rd i

na rily h igh rents The social incremen t goes into
.
the h ands o f the few T h e flat and apartment house

.
li fe O ften favors pe t bulldogs rather than children ,
and dec r eases th e e ffi ciency o f the home as a social

ins titution These untoward tendencies fur th er
.
,
mo r e are being supplemented by an attitude o f

,
more o r less h elpless apathy o n the pa rt o f th e

public .
A noth er field o f appli ed sociologic though t is

rep r esen t ed by the terms race problems immigra , ,
tion and naturalization These concepts are all

, .
ou t growth s o f the population concep t w h ich has

been t rea t ed in an earlier chapter The human race .
with its common origin h as subdivided and wan

dered into all the inhabitable parts o f the globe .
C lima t e geography and social environmen t h ave

, ,
operated t o ma k e the r ace subdi v isions distinct and

dis c r i m ina to ry R ace pride and p r ej udice h ave
.
raised impassable race barriers .
I n the U nited S tates the leading race problem in

”
volves the N egroes Booker T Washington urge d
. .
that i f the N egro shows himsel f industrially e ffi

cient and morally worthy the prej udice against him
,
”
will disappear W E B D u Bo is asks that the
. . . .
prejudice against the colored race by the white race

be removed in order that the N egro may have a fair
chance to S how himsel f capable The S outhern .
white p eople declare that the colored peopl e must be

segregated o n a lower plane than that occupied by
the white race N orthern peopl e assert that the
.
trouble li es chiefly in an undemocratic attitude o f

S outhern white people toward the colored race .
Thus the currents o f thought concerning the N egro

come into conflict but without forming a common
,
current of action .
A nother phase o f the race problem is conveyed

by the concept o f hyphenated interests The A meri .
ca niz a t io n movement has assumed momen t um b e
cause o f the need f o r a more unifi ed spirit within

the nation A lthough some o f the promo t ers o f
.
A mericanization have used autocratic means t h e ,
opinion is gaining ground that the trans ference o f

the loyalty o f the immigrant from his home coun
try to his adopted country can best be effected by
treating the immigrant sympath etically and demo
c ra t ically in all hi s contacts industrial social p o
—
, ,
lit ical with the people o f our land

—
”
.
The public health movement h as acquired force

440 H I S T ORY OF S OCI A L TH OUG HT
by co m munity recrea t ion main t ained by th e people,
them s elves in socially cons t ructive ways and at a

mini m u m o f expense ( 2 ) I n participating in and
.
buildin g up community enterprises such as com

munity recreation the people o f the community d e
,
v e lo p a co operative democratic consciousnes s

-
The .
problem o f the use o f leisure time i s growin g in

propor t ion to the extent that the laboring classes
are winning a shor t er wor k day I n add i tion t o .
community r ecreation community heal th mo v e ,
ments community newspapers community co oper

, ,
-
a t ive s t ores community commit t ees fo r securing

,
needed legislation and for breakin g the force o f

econo m ic monopoly are a tt racting widespread a t
,
tention T h e social unit and the block sys t em o f

.
community service are terms whic h indicate var i a

,
tions o f t he communi ty organization concep t orig ,
inally a product o f the need o f mee t ing th e leisure

time problem cons t ruc t ively with th e very impo r tant
resul t o f re crea t ing democracy
-
.
S ocial t echnology has produced the s u rv ey T h e .
social s u rvey being related in its origin t o t h e cen

,
sus is an accurate method of gathering social facts

, ,
not me r ely facts about the numbers o f people the ,
acreage and the amount o f wealth but th e facts

, ,
about the soci e t ary assets and liabilities o f a city

o r community and concerning the constructive and
,
the destructive forces By making surveys at regu

.
lar in t ervals of five o r t en year periods a commun ,
ity c an de t e r mine the a m ount and direct ion o f i t s

o w
n progress The idea o f a survey i s S imilar to
.
tha t o f an inventory o f a business house t o find —
o u t t h e gains and losses and to plan for the fu t ure

,
according t o the v e r dic t o f the in v en t o ry .
I n recen t years social cas e work has acquired an

impo rt ant rank in the fi eld o f applied sociology .
S ocial refo r m deal s with methods f o r improving the

whole mass o f individuals and for raising the level
o f the en t ire group ; social case work o n t he other
hand s t imula t es individuals to improve th e quality

o f t h eir lives to adj ust t h emselves more adequate ly
,
to th eir envi ronmen t and to tr ansform their e n

,
v iro nme nt s S ocial case work insists that sound

.
social r eforms can be e ff ected only on the basis o f

firs t hand experiences with the needs o f individuals
-
w h o are th e victims o f social imperfections o r their

w
o n sho r tcomings S ocial work with individuals
.
h as provided a body of speci fic facts of fi rst ma gni

t ude as a foundation f o r measures o f social amelio
ra t ion and prog r ess ; it has mirro r ed li fe which is
under t he h arrow o f circums t ances ; it h as po r
t raye d li fe w h ere living conditions are harshes t .
A ppl i ed sociology rep r esent s m ethods o f social

a tt ack I t fur thers progress by planning fo r society
.
o n th e basis o f past socie t al experiences and current
fac t s and t endencies I t fulfils the demands o f s o

.
cial t elesi s.
C H APTE R XX V
TH E R I S E OF EDU C AT I O N A L S O C I O L O GY
I n recen t decades educational leaders have been

thinking in sociological terms I n its experimental
.
phases educational sociolo gy constitutes a phase o f

applied sociology The principles o f modern educa
.
t io nal sociology have a thousand sources .
Pestalozzi ( 1 74 6 18 2 7 ) may be considered a

-
forerunner of current social theories o f education .
’
H e was interested in humanity f o r humanity s sak e .
L ike S t F ranci s of A ssisi he lived with the poor

.
,
in order that he might teach them to be thri fty and

worthy citizens I n his L e o na rd a nd Ge r tru d e he
.
,
described the li fe o f the poor and formulated an ,
educational procedure f o r educating the poor H e .
was a lover o f little children o f poor people o f, ,
anyone in trouble o f all humanity H e spoke in

, .
digni fied terms of the function o f a good woman

w
,
no matter h o humble her station in li fe Her fi rst .
duty is t o educate her children and t o meet the needs

o f her family . S he has also obligations to her
, ,
neighbors and community O thers seeing h er co n

.
,
structive work will be inspired and motiva t ed to do

,
likewise.
444 H I S T ORY OF SOCI A L T H OUG HT
vidual choice .
I n Horace Mann ( 17 9 6 A m erican educa

tion found a new social emp h asis Educ ation in a .
democ r acy accordin g to Mann should be public and

, ,
op en equally t o all classes o f people Mo r eover in .

,
a democracy education i s no t a mere acquisi t ion o f

,
knowledge ; it is no t concealed in college degrees as

’
such ; i t i s not aristocra t ic It was Mann s co nt e n
tion that educa t ion should be an ac t ual t raining fo r
rearing worthy families f o r living an u ns e fish s o ,
cial li fe f o r bein g a p ublic spi r i t ed c i t i z en in one s

’
,
daily ! ac t ivi t ies .
Mann asse r ted th a t th e com m on sch ool i s t h e b ul

wark o f th e nation He believed th a t educa t ion
.
should encourage t rue religion H e inaugu rated the .
normal training sch ool in suppo rt Of his t heory ,

—
o f specially t r ained t eachers Hi s soc i al p h ilosop h y

.
i s con tained in a s t atement from h i s las t public a d

dress °
“
Be asha m ed t o die u n t il yo u h ave o n
”
w
a vic t ory f o r humani ty .
During th e in t ervening decades since th e days o f

Horace Mann th e s o ci al conception o f educa t ion
,
has b een assuming new prac t ical pha ses P r ofessor .
Jo h n D ewey h as poin t ed o u t th a t all communica t ion

i s education ; that the te r ms common community , , ,
and communica t ion possess more than a verbal re

,
‘
lationship . A nyth ing i s educative w h ich produces
similar emotional and intellectual dispositions that ,
i s like ways o f responding t o s t imuli S ocietal li fe

, .
hence is un us ually educa t ive Edu c ation co nsi s t s

, .
E D UC A T IO N A L SOCIO L OGY 44 5
o fprocesses of self development of self continua

-
,
-
tion of social con t in u ation These processes are

, .
possible only o n base s of co m mon means o f co m

mu nicat io n I t i s these means as Professor C H
.
, . .
C ooley has indicated which make even the power

,
ful fac t ors of sug gestion and imitation s o unive r sal .
I t is no t t he en v i r onment which directly implants

“
cer t ain desires in individuals The environment
.
se t s up conditions which s t imula t e cer t ain ways of

acting The child ge t s a real idea o f a hat not by
.
,
seein g a ha t o r by being t old o f its uses but by

, ,
actually usin g a ha t The social en v ironment in

.
,
othe r wo r ds fo r ms the m ental and emotional dis

,
posi t ion o f behavio r in individuals by engaging

”
them in ac t ivi t i e s th a t arouse various impulses ,
“
purposes and produce s cer t ain consequences
, .
A s society become s e x ceedingly complex it is ,
essen t ial t hat society provide a S I mp lifie d s ocial

environment through which the child may pass in ,
orde r that h e may adj ust himsel f the more quickly

and easily t o the comple x societal environment To
w
.
this end t he school s erves a v aluable purpose Ho .
ever in order t o func t ion bes t the s ch ool mus t be a

“
, ,
‘
repli c a in as many ways as possible o f real society .
The special social environmen t namely th e , ,
school must simpli fy and arrange in an orderly

,
way the dispositional factors it wishes to develop in

children It must present the e x isting social cus
.
toms in puri fied and ideali z ed forms I t must create .
a wider and bet t e r b alanced en v i r onment f o r the

young th an they would have i f they were not in .
school .
I mitation to D r D ewey is a less useful term

,
.
, u
than many social psychologists believe What o b .
j e c t iv e ly i s a process o f imitation is subj ectively a

process o f like response to like stimuli The term .
imitation does no t explain ; it simply describes

obj ectively The fundamental fact that the socio
.
“
logical student needs t o keep in mind i s that per
sons being alike in structure respond in the same
” 5
way to like stimuli This conception i s similar t o
.
ideas that Professors Giddings and C ooley have

elaborated The societal signi ficance o f this inter
.
p re t a t io n ca n be stated best in terms o f social co n

trol The highest type o f social control i s that which
.
plans f o r a common mental disposition a common ,
way of understanding obj ects events and acts , , ,
common sets of socially constructive stimuli .
Professor Dewey argues f o r a school li fe which

fully connects theory and practice While prag .
matic he emphasizes the necessity f o r a correct

,
theory but more particularly the co mb ining o f

,
theory and practice in t h e school li fe itsel f I n

—
.
other words anything which sets school li fe apart

,
from actual li fe is a disutility ; it is educationally

harmful Hence school li fe must include the actual
.
occupations nature study and the like I t must

, , .
relegate formal education to a secondary positio n .
The moral atmosphere of the schoolroom must

change fro m o ne primarily o f discipline even f o r ,
448 H I S T ORY OF S OCIAL TH OUG H T
I nasmuch as men and women live and d e v elop
and work a s membe r s o f groups it i s vital acco r d , ,
in g t o Dr S nedden that children be taught a s in

.
,
t e gral units o f group li fe I t i s sociology th a t mus t

.
“
determine the aims o f education By sociological .
standards it has been proved tha t existing curricula

in the United S ta t es are excessively indi v iduali s t ic
in aim as well as in method Their purpose has .
been t o encourage the individual t o win against ,
rather than with his fellows O ur curricula pro

, .
v ide self culture st u dies and self development stud

- -
ies but few social culture and social de v elopmen t

,
s t udies The forme r are indi spensable but i f no t

.
,
p r ope r ly balanced by t he la tt er t hey are positi v ely

dange r ous .
The responsibilities of individuals f o r collec t i v e

thinking and acting ha v e never been taught to any
degree in the sch ools and yet these r esponsibilities
, ,
not only in time of war but increasingly so in t ime

,
o f peace must be assumed widely else democracy

, ,
itsel f will collapse By training pupils in the prin

.
cip le s o f individual success primarily the schools ,
ha v e turned o u t a generation o f persons who are

unready t o meet th e new world p r oblems tha t a r e
w “
a t hand and h o are unable t o p r omo t e construc t
,
ive programs m aking for international co opera -
tion and friendliness .
C ustom no t social needs has t o o of t en controlled

, ,
school curricula The A na bas is and C aesar s C o m

.
’
me nt arie s al th ough splendid bits o f literary co m

,
E D UCA T IONAL SOCIOLOG Y 449
position are about as signi ficant to the re alit ie s o f

'
a nineteenth o r twentieth century as bows and

arrows would be in modern warfare o r R oman gal ,
l ys in the naval contes t s of tomorrow ”

e The study
.
o f forgotten tongues and antiquated fragments of
literature falls far short of training twentieth cen

tury youths f o r the conscious co operative di r ection
-
of the social forces o f th e future .
V ocational education i s no t all s u fficie nt Youth

-
.
must be taught to be socially and morally e fficie nt

no less than physically and vocationally I n addi
.
tion t o the current emphasis upon vocational edu

cation attention must be given to a moral education
,
in the schools that can produce in individuals the

moral character required to me e t t h e needs o f a
'
highly developed democracy .
Educational sociology has viewed with alarm cer

tain recent tendenci es in vocational guidance I t .
h as supported h eartily the plans for giving every

child an occupational training and o f enabling him
to earn his own living O n the other hand i t h as
.
,
deplored the idea that a vocation o r earning a living

is an end in itsel f I t has insisted th at the main
.
reason for teaching a boy a trade i s that the b o y

may have a larger opportunity for developing his
personality and f o r serving society .
L ikewise educational sociology h as often looked

,
askance at scienti fic management o r the movement

,
for educating all workingmen to th e point of high

es t productive e f ficiency S uch a training has f re
.
quently produced a maximum increase in profits f o r
those who have promoted it and a minimum of in
crease in wages for the workers besides tending t o,
turn the latter into mere machines instead o f i nto ,
human leaders with increased capacities f o r enj oy

ment and spiritual service .
The studies in all school curricula must be e valu

ated in terms o f social worth Fo r example what
.
,
is the purpose of teaching hi story ? I s it t o give

the pupil a chronology o f dates and a catalogue o f
ignoble kings and bloody battles o r is it to give ,
the pupil the meaning o f social evolution social ,
progress social inheritances the ri se o f social

, ,
”
needs ?
Educational sociology holds the theory that train

ing f o r unselfish social living i s as important as
training f o r individual pecuniary success I t i s .
engaged at the present time in working o u t tech

niques f o r introducing every member o f the public
schools t o the sociological viewpoint The names .
under which such techniques appear is immaterial .
whether as community civics A merican history ,
studies elementary social science o r elementary

, ,
sociology The next few decades will undoubtedly

.
be marked by the rapid spread of educational s o

cio lo gy .
that was often left in the wake of the cap italistic
movement Thes e individuals while no t blind to
.
,
the social values o f capitalism were in touch with,
the laboring man and by these contacts caught the

,
social need o f the hour I n thi s social crisis they

.
heard the still small voice coming down through

,
the centuries even the voice o f J esus as he spoke

,
in behal f o f the poor and outcast .
I t was Washington Gladden who startled and

even angered the world of religious and e eo no mic
thought by protesting against th e acceptance o f
“ ”
tainted money By this term he referred to
.
money which had been made under a capitalistic

system at the expense o f the lives o f men women , ,
and little children in the industrial processes D r . .
Gladden weathered the storm of protest and gave

the capitalistic world a new concept which while ,
it aroused anger also brought introspection and a

,
'
new typ e o f social conscience into t h e live s o f many

C hri stians
.
’
I t was D r Gladden s contention that employer
.
and employee ought t o be friends because they are ,
SO closely associated I t is a very large part o f the

.
business o f the employer to maintain sympathetic

1
relations between himself and his employees If .
the business man will no t let hi s fellowmen S hare in

his prosperity he will become in spite of himsel f a
,
S harer in their adversity .
The attitude o f D r Gladden toward the accept:

.
ance o f railway passes by the clergy attracted wide

M O DE R N C H RI S T IAN SOCIAL TH OUG HT 45 3
spread attention He came to th e conclusion that

.
a railroad company is bound to render an equal

service to all the people ; its business i s no t to S how
special favors t o th e representatives o f either re
“ 2
ligio n or charity What it has no right t o give
.
me I have no right to take and f o r several years

, ,
I have not taken it ; I pay the regular fare as all

my neighbors do o r ought .
Dr Gladden urged the abolition of city slums by

.
governmental action I nasmuch as slums are ri fe.
with moral miasmas and are breeding places o f -
pauperism and crime t h e city has the same right t

'
abate such cu rs e s a s t o drain a morass Moreover

'
-
,
.
“
individuals ought t o have no property rights in
premises which breed death and engender vice .
Wh en they have proved that they lack the power

t o keep their property from falling into such co n
d it io ns thei r property must be summarily taken
,
away from
Without minimizing the importance o f conflict as
a principle o f social progress D r Gladden stressed , .
the concept o f co operation Fo r example in in

-
.
,
d u s t rial matters h e advocated the idea o f a true

“
trades union —
the union o f employers and em
ployed O f guiding brains and willing hands all
— —
’
watch ful o f each other s interests seeking each ,
’ ” 4
other s wel fare working f o r the common good
,
.
I n h is well known treatise o n S o cia l S a lva tio n

—
D r Gladden a s s e rts that in order t o be s oundly co n

.
,
v e rt ed an individ u a l mu s t comp rehe nd his social re

,
and strive to fulfil them as well as set
la t io ns h ip s ,
up right relationships with Go d S anct i fica t io n

.
5
’ ’
consists in fulfilling one s social as well as one s di
vine privileges and in living according t o the needs
,
o f human soci ety as well as according t o the needs
o f the human soul A n individual ca n no more be

.
a C hri stian by himself than he can S ing an oratorio

“
alone .
I t is no purely social gospel that Dr Gladden .
taught He was correct in protesting against the

.
attitude o f certain reformers who hold that Chang

ing the environment is all s u fficie nt I t is possible
-
.
to go t o o far in removing temptations from th e

pathway o f men ; it would be unwi se t o neglect the
problem o f equipping men t o resist temptation and ,
“
hence to weaken the sense o f moral responsibility .
I n the field o f practical social reform D r Josiah .
S trong did e f fective work He also re interpreted

.
—
the social principles o f J esus and boldly proclaimed

,
the spirit o f love as th e cardinal principle f o r t h e

“
organization o f human society He indicated that
.
people have stressed properly the importance o f b e

lie ving the truth but underestimated the import
,
“
ance o f liv ing the truth He protested against the
.
tendency t o separate th e sacred and the secular a nd ,
t o divorce doctrine from conduct H e believed that

.
the prevailing religious tendency t o neglect the

’
sacred commandment o f loving one s neighbor as
,
’
one s self has led to a selfish individualism on the
,
part o f many religious people .

t hat the essential purpose o f C hri stianity was to
transform human society into the Kingdom o f God
by regenerating all h uman relations and re co ns t it u t
”“ 2
ing them in accordance with the will of God He
then raised the question why has C hristianity no t
,
undertaken the work o f social reconstruction ? He

believed that i f the Church were t o direct its full
available force against any social wrong probably ,
”
nothing could withstand it D espite th e fact that
.
C hristianity has played a leading part in li fting

woman t o equality and companions h ip with men in ,
changing parental despotism t o parental service in ,
eliminating unnatural vice in abolishing slavery in

, ,
covering all lands with a network o f charities in ,
fostering institutions o f learning in aiding the,
progress o f civil liberty and social j ustice in di f

'
fusing a softening tenderness throughout human

li fe in taming sel fishness and in creating a resolute
, ,
sense o f duty it h as no t yet underta k en a recon

,
”
struction o f society o n a C hristian basis I t has
.
been engaged in suppressing some o f the most glar

ing evils in the social s ys t e m o f th e time ”
. .
Dr R auschenbusch pointed o u t s everal his t orical

.
factors which have prevented C hri stianity from

entering upon a program o f reconstructing society .
many o f which no longer obtain ” These hindering

.
factors have been : 1 ) th e moral resentment of the

classes whose interests are e ndangered by a moral
campaign ; ( 2 ) the belief in t h e immediate re turn
o f C hrist which precluded a long outl o o k
, ; ( 3 ) th e
primitive attitude o f fear and distrust toward the

state ; ( 4 ) the other worldliness o f C hristian de
-
sire ; ( 5 ) the ascetic and monastic ideals ; ( 6 ) cere

mo nialis m ; ( 7 ) dogmatism ; ( 8 ) the monarchial o r
g a n iz a t io n of the church ; ( 9
) an absence o f the in
t e lle ct u al prerequisites f o r social reconstruction .
To the extent that C hri stianity i s no longer ham

pered by these characteristics it is ready to under
take t h e task of making over society .
The main danger in the present crI S I S w h ic h de

mands the attention o f social Ch ristianity was
found by Profes sor R auschenb usch in th e auto
.
cra t ic unj ust phases o f capitali sm with its some

, ,
wha t undemocratic wage system To this expres .
si on o f autocracy there i s a three fold class re ac -
”
tion . F irst th ere are those classes which are in
,
practical control o f wealth ; they have no reforma

tory p rogram ; they are anxious to maintain the
present soc i al order intact S econd there are th e
.
,
middle social classes which sharing partially in th e

, ,
advantages o f the present social adj ustmen t a r e ,
also chafing under social grievances whic h th eir

ideals do no t allow them to attack vigorously ; they
want re form wor k b y peace ful and gradual meth
o ds. Third there are the di sinherited classes which
, ,
see a widening ch asm between themselves and th e

“
wealth y a ch as m th at only a revolutionary li f t can
,
carry th e m across I t is around th e condition and

.
attitude s o f th e masses that the social crisi s re

volv es This social attitude i s li k e a tank of gaso
'
.
line which by a single explosion will blow a ca r
,
sk
y hi
-
gh or which
,
by a series of little
,
explosion s
”
will push a car t o the t o p o f a mountain Which .
process does C hristianity wish t o further ? I f the

latter then C hristianity must socialize first the atti
,
tude o f the classes o f wealth and social power U n .
fortunately wealth often grows stronger than the

w w
,
man h o owns it ; it may o n him and ro b him o f

”
hi s moral and spiritual freedom C an C hristian
.
ity dissolve this dilemma ?
The principle that a Christian should seek an

ascetic departure from the world o f li fe and work
is no longer acceptable H e has t o other possibili
. w
ties He can either condemn the world and try to
.
improve it o r tolerate it and gradually be co n

,
30
formed t o it By these sharply drawn alternatives
.
,
Professor R auschenbusch awoke th e C hri stian

world While many C hristians did no t believe that
.
the situation was as crucial as thus depicted they ,
nevertheless were j arred from a state o f moral

lethargy .
A S a pastor f o r eleven years among the working

people o f N ew York C ity Dr R auschenbusch , .
learned to understand t he heart throbs and yearn

ings o f the masses and dedicated his li fe through
,
Christian service t o easing the pressure upon the

work ing classes and t o increasing the forces that
bear them up He saw the solution o f th e social
.
problem in a Christian socialism that would destroy

the autocracy o f wealth and establish a democratic
many o f the phases o f the conflict capitalism is ,
swallowing up Christianity The church beco mes .
traditional narrowly ecclesiastical dogmatic o p

, , ,
posing science and democracy Where capitalism .
is strongest the churches as virile social forces are

,
“ 4
weakest .
I n reply t o th e often repeated charge t hat social

iz e d C hristianity is no C hri stianity at all Profes so r ,
R auschenbusch shows that personal religion inste ad ,
o f being defeated by a socialized religion will gain ,
strength and be able to present a much stronge r

w
appeal than it no does The advocate of the social
.
teachings o f J esus is no t attacking personal religion ,
but rather endeavoring t o give personal re ligio n a i
new dynamic especially in those phases of modern

,
li fe where personal religion has lost most o f its

appeal The opponents o f social Christianity can
.
no t afford to neglect the fact that the often one

sided mechanical and superficial gospel and meth
, ,
o d s o f evangelism have created a religious apathy ,
”
i f not a definite reaction against religion It is .
blind foolishness to try to fence o u t the new social

spiri t from C hri stianity instead o f letting i t fuse
“
wi th the older religious faith and create a new total
that will be completer and more C hristian than the
'
o ld religious individualism at its
D r R ausch enbusch insisted that there mus t be a

.
Christianizing o f international relations th a t indi ,
v id u als must be taught to see the sinfulness o f th e
presen t social order and that the popular co nce p

,
”
tion o f
G od must be democratized He reinter .
p re t e d the organic unity of human society assert ,

—
ing that when one man sins other men su f fer ; and
,
that when o ne class S ins other classes bear a part

,
of the su ff ering .
I n 1908 the F ederal C ouncil o f the C hurches of

,
Christ in A merica was organized at Philadelphia .
Th e C ouncil adopted with slight modi fications the

resolutions which some months earlier had been
accepted by the G eneral C onference o f the Metho
dist Episcopal C hurch ( N orth ) and which R ev ,
.
Harry F Ward and others had drawn up

. .
Thi s Bill of R ights as the R esolutions have been

,
called imposed upon the members o f the more than

,
thirty Protestant denominations the duty of Obtain

ing industrial j ustice f o r the cause o f labor It .
spoke for ( l ) the principle of arbitration in indus

trial dissensions ( 2 ) the adequate protection o f
,
workers in hazardous trades ( 3 ) the abolition o f

,
child labor ( 4 ) the safeguarding o f physical and

,
moral health o f women in industry ( 5 ) the sup ,
“ ”
pression of the sweating system ( 6 ) the red u ,
'
tion o f the hours o f labor t o the lowest practicabl e

point ( 7 a living wage in all industri es ( 8 ) o ne
, ,
day of rest in seven f o r all workers ( 9 ) the most ,
equitable division o f the products o f industry that

can ultimately be devi sed 1
( )0 suitable
,
provi sions
f o r o ld age o r disability o f workers and ( 1 1 ) the ,
abatement o f poverty .
A t th e meeting o f the F ederal C ouncil o f the

Churches o f Christ in A merica at a special meeting
held at C leveland O hio May 6 8 1 9 19 the fore
, ,
—
, ,
going platform was re afl i rme d ; and in addition as

-
,
a means o f meeting the need s o f the reconstruction

days following the World War the following no t ,
able resolutions were adopted The C ouncil de .
cla re d no t only that labor i s entitled t o an equitable
share in the profits o f industry but took the new ,
step o f expressing the belief that labor i s entitled

also t o an equitable share in the management o f in
“
d u s t ry
. The sharing o f S hop control and manage
”
ment i s an inevitable step in the attainment o f an
ordered and constructive democracy in industry .
The C ouncil asserted that the fi rst charge upon in

d u s t ry S hould be wages su f ficient t o support an
A merican standard o f living .
I n 19 19 the C ommittee o n S pecial War A ct iv i

,
ties o f the N ational C atholic War C ouncil published

a brief but important document o n social recon
struction I n this pamphlet the defects o f the capi
.
t alis t ic system o f industry are declared t o be

“
Enormous ine f ficiency and waste in the production
and distribution o f commodities ; ins u fli cie nt in
comes f o r the great maj ority o f wage earners and -
unnecessarily large incomes f o r a small minority

o f privileged capitalists
” o
. The C ommittee urged
that employees S hall exercise a reasonable share in
the management of industrial enterprises and that ,
the S tate Should inaugurate comprehensive p ro

visions f o r health insurance and o ld age insurance .
spirit S ocial service is not a selfish program o n
.
,
the part o f the church for increasing its memb e r

,
ship I t i s as natural to C hri stianity as personal

.
evangelism and equally intrinsic and vital I t has

w
.
,
o n more than national recognition While i t is .
radical in the eyes o f th e conservative it contains ,
an analysi s o f social conditions that many o f its

critics have not appreciated I t breathes a sincerity
.
and a straightforwardness that compels the fair

minded reader to give h eed .
S lavery was rej ected as the economic basis o f

civilization and monarchy has recently been re
,
j e c t e d as the political basis I n each instance. th e

world came t o a j unction where idealistic impulse
’
overthrew entrenched power I t is D r Ward s . .
con t en t ion that th e world i s now reaching a similar

junction point a point where idealistic impulse will
,
dethrone the autocracy in capitalism The idealistic .
impulse to which re ference has been made in the

,
foregoing lines i s germinal in th e teachings o f

,
Jesus .
With prophetic vision more organized th an th e

,
vi sion o f A mos Hosea I saiah but equally sincere

, , , ,
and fearless D r Ward points o u t the principles o f

, .
the new social order which he believes are almost

upon the world He then descr ibes the various
w
.
factors which are struggling each in its o n way

to inaugurate t h e new order .
The fiv e principles o f the new social order are

equality universal service e f ficiency th e supremacy
, , ,
o fpersonality and solidarity ( l ) Equality is the

, .
O ld word which won attention in the A merican and

F renc h R evolutions I t grew o u t of the theory o f
.
natural righ t s which was discussed in C hapter XI .
The A merican emphasis o n the principle of equality

is S hown in the admiration that is acco r ded the
achievements o f energy and toil in the common ,
s t ruggle f o r more wealth and luxury in foreign ,
missionary activities in the ri se o f the democratic

,
conscience and th e idealistic impulses o f the people .
O n th e other hand the principle o f equali ty i s

,
being violated when instead o f trying t o remove

,
“
the natural inequalities among folks we increase ,
them by giving special privileges t o the strong as

”
the r eward o f t heir strength The U nited St a t es
.
i s at the crossroads O ne highway i s characterized

.
by luxury and extravagance o n o ne side and by ,
poverty and slavery o n the other it leads t o re vo lu

t io na ry attempts o n the part o f th e masses to over
th row t h e privileged class e s I t ends in national.
decadence The second highway is characte r ized

.
by j ustice Those in economic authority are willing

.
to grant representation to labor in th e management

of industry and to further the rise o f th e co oper -
a t iv e spirit They are willing to sacri fice their o n

. w
special privileges for the sake of th e wel fare o f th e
disinheri t ed .
The intellectuals o f the middle class h old v ast

power I n crises they usually j oin the privil e ged
.
,
classes rather than the masses ; and hence t h ei r in ,

fl u e nceoften swings to the S ide of inj ustice .
2
( ) U niversal service i s th e principle o f equal
obligation Equal rights by itsel f may mean equal
.
, ,
rights to cheat to exploit I t needs to be checked

,
.
by its complement of equal obligation D uring the .
World War there was a frequent demonstration o f

“
the principle o f universal service We are e n .
”
gaged in helping the boys at th e front became the
slogan A t the front as well as in the home towns
.
and cities wealthy and poor capital and labor

, ,
served together The end o f the War gave prom

. .
ine nce to this question : Will the universal service

idea spread o r will it be discarded ? Will indus t ry
”
go back to the unashamed pursuit o f private gain ?
D r Ward makes a care ful distinction between
.
the service o f democratic mutual help fulness and

the service o f a governing class no matter h o w
w
,
”
excellent I t i s a lo type o f service which grants
.
Christmas dinners to the poor with the result that

the poor are thereby made contented with their lot
in li fe .
3 ) E f ficiency is a term which is th e product of

the mechanical era which originated in the business
,
world and which is now being applied to all phases

,
”
of social organization I ts aim i s perfection in
.
social mechanics S ocial e f ficiency includes not only

.
social engineering but social knowledge social phil ,
osophy social ethics and social religion Evidences

, , .
of social ine ffi ci ency are common ; for example the ,
failure t o use and apply the social knowledge that

468 H IS T ORY O F SOCIAL TH OU G HT
5
( ) The new social order will be governed by a
sense o f solidarity that i s by a community of feel
, ,
ing and thought which arises when individuals

associate together in working f o r a common end .
World solidarity will come when all peoples learn

to work toge ther for public welfare and sub ,
ordinate all selfi sh desires t o this end C hristianity .
is moving in this direction when it advances the

“
concept o f comradeship of all men with each o t her
”
and with the G reat C ompanion when it g radually ,
unfolds th e idea of a uni fied world li fe when it ,
applies its doctrines o f brotherhood o f man to the

relations o f the employer and employee o r to the
relations o f white and black races when it seeks ,
the democratic solidarity o f the h uman race rather

than the imperialistic solidarity o f an overhead
religious control when it endeavors to spread love
,
and faith rather than to spread dogmas and p ro

,
51
mote organizations C las s cleavage nationali sm
.
,
as distinct from nationality race prej udice igno r , ,
ance and selfishness are the main opponents o f the

,
world brotherhood principle .
Dr Ward having defined what he considers th e

.
,
chief principles that will govern the new social

order proceeds to measure current movements by
,
certain standards He reviews the declarations of

.
the British L abor Party the R ussian S oviet Re

,
public the L eague o f N ations and the labor move

, ,
ments in the U nited S tates Thes e tendencies are .
all expressions o f a more o r less blind desire f o r

M O DE R N C H RI S T IA N SOCIAL TH OUG HT 469
j ustice I n all countries o f the world the masses

.
are res t less stirring and experiencing a keen sense

, ,
of inj us t ice Their leaders are struggling u n

.
,
s cie nt ifically as a rule toward the light o f a new

,
day of democracy The trend which this struggle

.
takes depends o n the given social environment and

the attitude o f the persons in authority I f undue .
repression and au t ocracy are exercised for a long

period of time as in R ussia under the C zars revo
, ,
lu t io n i s t h e only means o f escape open t o the

masses S chooled for a long time under th e lash
.
o f au t ocracy when th e y themselves come in t o co n

,
trol th ey will us e the only means o f control that

,
they know th e las h o f autocracy

, .
The Bri t is h L abor Party is moving in th e dir ce

tion o f guild socialism which includes the organi ,
z a t io n o f industry in t o large units in charge o f the ,
workers and r elatively free from the rule o f the

politicians T h e national governmen t is t o have a
.
general oversight o v er the large indus t rial units .
A s im m ediate steps in this direction t he L abor ,
Party demands the nationalization o f the railroads ,
mines and o f the production o f electric powe r

, .
Municipalities participate in the common owner

ship p r ogram The method o f t rans formation is to
.
be gradual la r gely based o n political action

,
.
I n regard t o the L eagu e o f N ations C ovenan t ,
w h ic h was agreed upon in Paris in 19 19 D r Wa r d , .
tak es a negative attitude A lthough h e believes .
fi r m ly in an organization o f good will in inte r ,

national friendship and in world solidarity upon
democratic bases he asserts stoutly that the Paris
,
“
C ovenant is a symbol o f the sacred right o f private
”
property that it provided for an international
,
52
organization o f capitalism wi th all the force o f

powerful national governments behind it that it ,
represented a series o f compromises between na

t io nally selfi sh units that i t was an expression o f
,
the wishes o f the rulers o f th e democratic states

“
who are essentially o f the same moral caliber as
the ruling class o f imperialistic militarism and ,
bear a similar sinister relationship t o the f uture

wel fare o f the common
’
The weakness of D r Ward s treatment o f the .
programs f o r the new social order i s that it dis

cusses almost entirely programs platforms ideals , , ,
without co ns ide rat ing the relations between the p ro

gams and the actual practices o f the various organi
z a t io ns I n contrasting the best phases for ex
.
,
ample o f the B ritish L abor Party with the worst

,
phases o f capitali sm an incomplete pic t ure is given

, .
However this weakness in method need no t obscure

,
the strength o f thought which Dr Ward dis .
plays S ome o f the most thought p rovoking d e du c

.
-
tions are
.1 That individualistic C hristianity i s losing
ground .
.2 That the middle class is becoming a class o f

privilege .
.3 That the intellectuals o f th e middle class ,

social message Preachers theologically trained
.
, ,
are bound t o give the social phases o f C hristianity

a secondary place I n recent years however a
.
, ,
movement known as religious education has been

acquiring momentum Moreover a social theory .
,
o f religious education has been formulated I n this .
connection D r G eorge A lbert Co e has perhaps

, .
done th e most signi ficant work O ur li fe D r C oe .

, .
believes gets its largest meaning not from the fact

,
of individual sel f consciousness alone but from the

-
,
”
equally important fact that li fe i s social With out .
a belief in social consciousness an endless e x istence ,
after death in terms o f sel f consciousness pri

,
-
marily would be meaningless and probably value

,
less R eligion must solve the problem o f establish

.
ing a Kingdom of Heaven o ff earth and also train ,
its v otaries for a societal li fe in Heaven T h e .
lat t er problem will be me t easily when the former

i s solved I t is well illus t rated by the young C hris
.
tian lady f r om V irginia who asked : Won t there

’
have t o be a separate Heaven f o r N egroes S ince ,
we hate them so here ? I n other words will there ,
no t h ave t o be a thousand or a million Heavens in

order t o accommodate happily all th e antagoni stic
C hristian groups no o n eart h ? w
How can th e
Protestan t U ls t ermen and C atholic I rishmen live
together lovingly in H eaven ? The problem goes
back to solving the social implications o f C hri stian
ity in earthly relationships .
The social aims of C hristian education accordin g ,

to D r Co e are as follows : ( 1 ) S ocial wel fare o r

.
, ,
the control o f the no n human environment in the

-
interest o f human li fe ( 2 ) S ocial j ustice o r the

.
,
inauguration o f fai r play in all the dealings of

every individual no matter how strong and shrewd
, ,
with e v ery other individual no matter how weak ,
and ignorant ( 3 ) A world society o r the promo

.
“
tion o f a code o f conduct that leads to the integra
tion of all peoples into a single democratically gov ,
”
erned mankind N ationalism must melt into a
.
large r regard f o r human beings ; and that w h ich is

“
a climactic expression o f the selfi shness tha t is to ,
say the injustice that i s organiz ed in o u r legal sys

”
t em s and o u r national sovereignties must be re ,
”
vealed to all even in the S unday schools
, .
T h e implications o f a sound social theory o f re

ligio u s education are met by the religious doctrine
o f personal fellowship be t ween Go d and man and ,
between man and man ; by a r eorga nization o f th e

church as a religious insti tution in a way w h ic h
s h all put religious education o n as scienti fic a basi s
as the ordinary day school education ; and by t rain
'
ing t h e ch u rch school pupils in the principles o f

social j ustice co operation and love as well as in
,
-
, ,
ma tt ers per t aining t o personal salvation .
A nother current development i s th e religious S O

cial service director F or some time th e religious
.
education direc t or h as been a recognized force in

church work The social serv i ce direc t or in c h u r ch
.
li fe i s coming into the foreg r ound bearing the re ,

sponsibility o f working o u t social wel fare programs
f o r the church services directing the training o f
,
the membership in volunteer social work inau gu ,
rating religious social surveys in fact carrying the , ,
social message of the church into all the church

activities .
The social service activities o f the church h ave

often been used as a net f o r catching the church
less S ocial service as a bribe however will
.
, ,
fail G enuine religious social service is that which

.
emanates naturally and easily from the lives o f th e

church members and o f the church itsel f asking no ,
pay and possessing no sinuous ends The church .
that inaugurates a social program for building up

the family li fe the play li fe the moral li fe the eco
, , ,
nomic li fe as well as the religious li fe in the com

, ,
munity in which it i s located most truly represen t s,
a socialized church The church however that uses

.
, ,
its social wel fare program merely in order t o build

itself up fails t o understand the social calling as a
,
religious institution .
The social thought o f the Hebrews revolved

about the idea o f social j ustice ; o f Jesus about ,
the concept o f active love ; and o f modern C hri s

t ianit y at its best about an unsel fis h social program
, ,
f o r bringing about a j ust c o operative and b armo

, ,
nio u s li fe ranging in its operation from the indi

,
vidual in h is family and local community li fe to

the individual as a functioning unit in a new world
society .
who hindered the reali z a t ion o f these ideals This .
method of creating social thought i s noteworthy b e

cause o f the religious dynamic behind it and b e ,
cause o f the social pattern ideas which it produced

-
.
Plato and A ristotle we r e pion e er social ph ilo s o

h r who took cosmic views o f li fe O ne followed
p e s .
the method o f abstract reasoning and centered his

thought in a world o f I deas ; the other viewed li fe
pragmatically employing a method o f empirical
,
tests While sociology will always have a place f o r

.
methods which interpret the daily facts o f indi

vidual and social experi ence in their r elationships
t o t he whol e human society and t o the universe it ,
will insist that as large a body o f societary da t a as

possible be gathered together be fore philosop h ic
sociology speak s positively .
I n the t eachings o f Jesus a rare insight t o h uman

nature is mani fested Jesus studied individuals as
.
individuals and perceiving thei r selfish na t ures

, ,
proclaimed a remedy in an inner trans formation

through consecration t o obj ective factors suc h as ,
persons and ideals Jesus was peculiarly h appy in

.
his method of moving among all classes o f people ,
o f studying their needs and o f testing in prac t ice

,
his social principles While his acquaintance with

.
human li fe was limited to small groups o f o ne race ,
he sought universal as well as particular human

tendencies His method included an absolutely u n
.
selfis h spirit a search f o r the truth a broad view

, ,
point all o f which are thoroughly scientific

—
.
SOCIO L OGICA L IN VE S T IGA T ION 477
The Ut o p ia o f S ir Thomas More preceded to be ,

’
sure by Plato s R e p u blic introduced another social
,
thought method The utopian formula consists in

.
set t ing forth a set o f ideals whic h presumably are

distinctly in advance o f current standards The .
method o f arriving at utopian ideas i s largely

through the use o f the imagination S tandards are .
postula t ed s o far in advance o f current conditions

as t o make th em o f little value U topian social .
thought however does have some scienti fic me r it

, , .
The imagination may be used in revealing reality

to o therwi se blind individuals A utopian though t .
may startl e a sel fish individual o u t o f a part o f his

selfi shness A utopian idea possesses the power
.
which i s inherent in indirec t suggestion ? i t may

arouse without antagonizing .
I n the approach t o the social question through

an analysis o f th e natural rights o f the individual ,
the seventeenth and eighteenth social writers fell

into a deductive and a priori procedure which led
them far astray L ike the theory o f individual
.
rights th e correlative doctrine o f the social contract

,
contain ed more error than truth .
The method o f positivism ordinarily connec t ed ,
with the writings of C omte essayed a scienti fic ap

,
proach t o the social question I t insisted upon accu

.
racy induction and a righ t emphasis upon sequence

, ,
and co existence
-
But positivism even in the
.
,
hands o f its exponents became deductive and philo

,
sop h ic I t promised well sci enti fically but fell into

.
,
nearly all the errors which it condemned I t was .
,
however a factor in producing the nineteenth cen

,
tury humanitarianism .
The organic analogy method o f studying h uman

society attracted widespread attention appealed ,
strongly to the imagination even of scholars but ,
resulted in findings o f negligible value The paral .
le lis ms between an organism and society proved to

be scienti fically valueless except as they revealed
,
some of the connections between organic volution

and social evolution They created a considerable
.
vocabulary of bio social terminology which has been

-
more o f a hindrance than a help in social thinking .
The psychical approach t o the study o f societary

li fe introduced by L ester F Ward and made s cie n
, .
,
t ific by the findings of inductive and behavioristic

psychology has proved thus far to be the best
,
method of understanding the social process and o f

arriving at a statement o f sociological laws Thi s .
method has revealed human li fe as a series o f social

conflicts and co operations and o f forms o f social
-
,
control designed to re gulate individuals f o r selfish

and unselfi sh group purposes A n explanation o f .
the more important phases of the psychical me t hod

ology has been presented in several chapters of this
volume .
The individual rights doctrine the social co n ,
t ract theories the concept o f positivism and the

, ,
organic analogies belong to the unscientific age in

sociological methodolo gy I n the main these sets o f
.
48 0 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH O UG HT
cen s us There are evidences that rulers and kings
. ,
a t least two o r three millenniums before Ch rist had ,
enumerations o f their subj ects made I n co nnec .
tion with poor law administration people as early

—
as th e R oman Era were counted But it was no t .
until the eighteen th century that sta t i stics became

scientific with statistical laws drawn from a study
,
o f tabulated facts Q uetelet gives 1 8 2 0.as the birth

year o f statistical science I t was F rederick Wil .
liam I o f Prussia who i s reported to ha v e had

‘
f
an enumeration made o f occupational facts ; and

F rederick the G reat with having established a sys ,
tem for making regular stati s t ical studies o f p o p u

lation I t is said that early in the eighteenth cen
.
tury th e U niversity o f Jena began t o o ff er courses

in s tatistics .
I n England in the latter part o f the seventeenth

,
century C aptain John G raunt i s credi t ed with ap

,
plying me t hods o f counting measurement and in , ,
duc tion to the births and deaths in L ondon His .
studies were referred to as political arithmetic and ,
were a forerunner o f the current investigations in

vital statistics Malthus made use o f statistical
.
methods in hi s work ( 1 798 ) o n population changes .
Q uetele t ( 1 7 9 6 1 8 7 4 ) is usually considered

-
the
founder o f statistical science He not only applied .
the method o f counting to the study o f the mem

bers o f human society ( the census method in its
common form ) but he tried to get at the problem ,
of causation and to indicate rules o f procedure f o r

,
SOCIOLOGICAL IN VE S T IGA T IO N 48 1
making causal studies in statistics A lthough t h i s

.
celebrated Belgian statistician tabulated and ana

lyz e d facts ranging from the astronomical to the
societary fields hi s ideas can be mentioned here only
,
so far as they contribute t o the subj ect o f social

thought Q uetelet pointed out certain o f the pit
.
falls in the way o f gathering accurate data He im .
proved the methods o f census taking and undertook,
the di f ficult tasks that are involved in qualitativ e

human studies .
’
A mong the results o f Q u e t e le t s work the co n ,
“
cept of the average man i s well known Q uetelet .
defined the law o f averages and described types e s ,
p ec i a lly the average individual A. lthough it is very

“
important and useful t o know about the average
”
man the term is practically fictitious since no o ne
, ,
even in a large group exactly fits the description .
“ ” “ ”
A ll individuals are either above or below the
average .
The contributions o f Q uetelet in the field of social

statistics were admirably supplemented by the
achi evements of L e Play ( 18 06 Thi s F rench
sociologist and mining engineer applied the methods
of physical science to social science H e insisted .
upon observation of data and the use o f induction

in making generalizations His method i s illus
.
t ra t e d by his studies in family budgets I n order .

.
to secure accurate data he lived with individual

families studying at firs t hand the conditions by
,
-
which they made a livelihood L e Play opposed

.
laiss e z -
faire theories and urged programs of reform
through the j ournal which he founded namely L a , ,
R e f o rme S o cia le He rej ected socialism and a d vo

.
,
cat e d the method o f conciliation and sympathy for
e f f ecting agreements among employers and em

l
p y
o e e s .
S imilar methods were evolved by Engels and

’
B ii ch e r G erman investigators
,
Engels studies o f .
family budgets led him to draw certain average o h

s e rva t io ns
“ ”
These averages are known as Engels
.
’
laws for example : ( 1 ) The smaller the income

, ,
the larger the percentage o f expenditure f o r food .
2
( ) The percentage o f expenditure for clothing ,
and f o r lodging o r rent vari es directly with the in

,
come ( 3 ) The larger the income the larger the

.
,
percentage o f expenditures f o r sundries ( including

luxuries ) .
The statistical method has been carried forward

by a large number o f social investigators With
w
.
averages modes and medians it i s no possible t o

, , ,
make accurate quantitative studies C urrent stati s .
tical methods include the use o f index numbers f re ,
quen e y tables discrete series deviations skewness

, , , ,
correlations S tati stics has thrown a flood o f light

.
upon important phases o f societary li fe such as the ,
economic where wage scales and price levels are

,
significant concepts S tatistics has been widely uti

.
liz e d in the study of crime and poverty The vari .
o u s methods o f graphic presentations are valuable
in interpreting tables o f statistical data to the lav

standing o f mental operations He divided mental .
processes into three namely feeling memory rea

, , , ,
soning ; and made a corresponding division o f

knowledge into art history and science A uguste
, , .
C omte c lassi fied the social elements into four

groups : the industrial the esthetic the scienti fic
, , ,
and the philosophical ( previsional ) His hierarch a l .
classification of the sciences into mathematics as ,
t ro no my physics chemistry biolo gy and sociology

, , , ,
has been discussed in an earlier chapter .
Guillaume de Gre c f may be considered the best

exponent o f the cla s s ifica t o ry method D e Gre e f .
’
accepted C omte s hierarchy of the sciences with its
basic principles o f decreasing generality and in
’
creasing dependence o f parts assented to S pencer s ,
evolutionary dictum o f increasing coherence and

heterogeneity and added his o n concept o f voli
, w
t io nal co nt ra ct u alis m .
D e Gre e f argued that social progress i s charac

t e riz e d by an increasing degree of volitional a ct iv
ity and freedom This v o lit io nalis m is t h e basis o f
.
rational social control The telic factors however

.
, ,
are not well developed by de Gre e f His social .
thought rests upon a certain logical but inaccurate

classi fication of the social elements .
The basis o f this classi fication is increasing voli

t io nalis m and particularism D e Gre e f gives th e .
following classi fication : economic industrial ge , ,
netic artistic scientific moral j uridical and p o

, , , , ,
lit ical . I n holding that the economic elements in

SOCIOLOGICAL IN VE S T IGA T ION 48 5
society represent the least vo lit io nalis m and the p o

,
lit ical the most volitional activity with graded de

,
grees o f volitional activities represented by t h e

’
intermediate factors the weakness o f de Gre e f s
,
analysis becomes evident While an improvement

.
’ ’
over C omte s classi fication and sup erior to S pencer s
’
me chanistic order de Gre e f s contribution possesses
,
only a relative degree o f logical merit I t is far .
from being obj ectively correct and i s indicative o f

,
the di f ficulties in the way o f classi fying social ele

ments in an evolutionary o r filial order There i s .
no doubt but that any classi fication o f merit would

have to be arranged according to some correlative
plan which would serve the purposes o f an exhibit
,
but would no t be o f much scienti fic value More .
over the classi fications that are most useful are

,
those classi fications o f societary forces ; these are

psychical in nature and have been treated in fore
going chap t ers .
De Gre e f perceived th e importance o f the prin

!
cip le o f socialization .He emphasiz ed the import

“ ”
ance o f a we feeling in societary li fe His social .
unit i s the primitive family I n the evolution from

.
the primitive family and state the evidence of prog

,
“ ”
ress i s the degree of togetherness tha t has been
developed D e Gre e f advanced the idea tha t there
.
1 8 an increasing degree of co nt ra ct u alis m and hence

’
o f freedom in soci ety D e Gre e f s work may be
.
’
taken as the best attempt t o carry C omte s class ifi
cation o f th e sciences to a logical conclusion by
furnishing a classi fication o f the elements which
“ ”
function in the field of the highest science o f all ,
namely sociology , .
A t this p o mt and in concluding the methodology ,
o f A lbion W S mall will be considered

. Professor .
’
S mall s other contributions to sociologi cal thought
have been indicated at the proper places in earlier
chapters The correct method f o r pursuing socio
.
logical analyses is t o treat human society in terms

o f process The main current in all sound socio
.
logical study i s the social process Th e signi ficant .
test o f progress in thi s social process is achieve

“ ’
ment A ccording to Professor S mall s class ifica
.
tion there are six main phases o f social progress

, .
na m el y
1 A chievement in promoting health
.
,
2 A chi evement in harmonizing human rela

.
tions ,
3 A chievement in producing wealth

.
,
4 A chievement in discovery and spread o f

.
knowl e dge ,
5 A chievement in the fine arts

.
,
6 A c h ievement in religion
. .
These grand divisions are the expressions o f cer

“
tain interests that human beings possess : ( 1 )
h ealth interests ( 2 ) wealth interests ( 3 ) s o ciabil
, ,
ity interests ( 4 ) k nowledge interests ( 5 ) estheti c

, ,
interests and ( 6 ) rightness in t erests A s a r esult

, .
of the operation o f t h ese inte r ests social p r obl e ms ,
“
are produced S ociology is the science of h uman
.
48 8 H I S T ORY OF SOCIAL TH O UG HT
educational religious economic political and other
, , , ,
important human aims .

C H APT ER XX V I I I
T H E D I S S E M I N AT I O N O F S O C I O L O GI CA L T H O U G H T
D espite its youth inchoateness and na1 v e t é S O

, , ,
cio lo gica l thought i s exerting a vital influence in the
world I t i s giving a new rating t o all the estab

.
lis h e d values o f li fe undermining some strengthen

, ,
ing others and creating still others

, .
The chief values in sociological thought are that

it constitutes the center of all worth while thought ;
it gives balance and proportion to thinking in any
field ; it defies race prej udice and social intolerance ;
i t smites selfi sh living ; it rivets attention to the
essentially human values ; it stimulates personal de
v e lo p me nt in h armony with group and societary
wel fare A t the same time it postulates group a d

.
,
vancement no t upon paternalistic o r autocratic

,
grounds but upon a constructive proj ection of per

,
s o nalit ie s that harmoniz es with unselfish group

service .
Fo r centuri es genuine social thinking was co n

fined largely to a few o f th e intellectually élite .
These few lived and did even thei r social thinking

, ,
in a more o r less i solated way I t was no t until .
the first decades o f the last centuries that social

thought began to be scienti fic in character that i s
w
, ,
became sociological S ociological thinking h o .

,
ever was isolated and uncorrelated for many years

,
.
I n the last decade of the nineteenth century so ,
cio lo gy began t o develop a considerabl e body o f
thinkers and to create a new morale There were .
many disagreemen t s that tended to break the new

sci ence asunder The opening decades however o f
.
, ,
the twentieth century witnessed a development of

sociological thought that was followed by th e estab
lish me nt o f the teaching o f sociology as a p ro f e s
sion .
With the rise o f professional sociologi sts th e ,
dissemination o f socialized thought became note

worthy Fo r a long time sociology was considered
.
only as a post graduate study I n the last few years

-
.
,
however sociology has been ma k ing its way down

,
ward in c ollege and unive r sity curricula until i t is ,
be i ng widely taugh t to college fres h m en and so p h o

mores I n th is connection there is a var i ety o f text
.
bo ok s that have been written t o m eet th e ne e ds of

be gi nning students There are some teach ers who
.
would introduce sociology through anthropological

studies beginning with the origin o f man O th ers
, .
would give a survey o r prospectus o f social ins t it u

1
tions processes and problems
, S till oth ers would
, .
deal only with social problems Then there a r e .
th ose persons who would build a text book aro u nd -
a central th eme tracing i t th rough social rela

,
t io ns h ip s Fo r advanced work in sociological

.
o f the primary groups such as the family play
w
, , ,
neighborhood and school groups A child h o is

,
.
o ld enough to learn to obey i s o ld enough to begin
elemental sociology in fact when he learns to obey

, , ,
he is already beginning t o experience the meaning

o f a social i f no t a sociological concept S imple
,
.
social studies are being prepared f o r the grades ,
even beginning with the fi rst grade .
The dissemination o f sociolo g ical th ought i s

practical question to which in the last score o f years
special attention has been given The universities .
and colleges began to establish chairs o f sociology

in the closing decade of the last century The move .
ment has acquired a remarkable momentum in the

U nited S tates N ormal schools and high schools
.
have adopted the movement Many churches are .
promulgating a socialized gospel L iterature i s .
gradually assuming an appreciation o f the socio

logical viewpoin t .
F rom the social proverbs o f primitive man to a

’
treatise such as R oss P rincip le s o f S o cio lo gy with ,
its admirable analysis o f significant societal proc

esses such as equalization domination individua
, , ,
tion socialization this is the main span o f social

,
—
thought S ocial thought began in the simplest form

.
o f O bservations about social relationships between
individual and individual between Chieftain and ,
tribal member between master and servant I t ex

, .
p e rie nc e d various stages of denunciation o f social
wrongs I t produced perspective s o f perfect socie

.
SOCIOLOGICAL TH OUG HT 49 3
ties I t moved profoundly forward in the form o f

w
.
social philosophies N o . it i s proceeding either

as the investigator o f new social facts or the p sy ,
ch o lo gical interpreter o f these facts in terms of
social processes I t is assuming a scientific p ro

.
ce d u re although a portion o f the results o f i ts

,
underta k ings finds expression in social philosophy .
I t is beginning to formulate sociological laws I t .
is inaugurating a technique f o r preventing the mal

adj ustments that produce social evils ; it is estab
lish ing a teaching technique A lthough the masses
.
of the human race are beginning t o feel blindly the

meaning o f social values they have no t yet been
,
able t o make their highest social aspirations ration

ally articulate U ntil that time comes democracy
.
,
will remain an experiment and world progress a t o y

,
o f autocratic forces .
A history of social thought is essentially a review

o f an irregu lar but positive acceptance of social
values I ndividual after individual leader after

.
,
leader pro fession after profession group after

, ,
group have felt and accepted the challenge o f the

,
sociological vi ewpoint They have changed from

.
living selfi shly to living socially They have eve n .
given up the ideal of service for sel f advancement ,
setting up in its place the ideal o f service for the

welfare of others I n so doing and living they have
.
found expansion of personality and contributed to

the advancement o f society S ince the days o f .
C omte in particular the social sciences have been

,
increasing in variety and scope until they number
a score o r more and sociological influence has been
,
widening until the related sciences are inviting S O

cio lo gy which i s the scienti fic study o f group ph e
,
momena to define their obj e ct iv e s for them I n fact

, .
,
sociological concepts are permeating the farther

most reaches of personal living and societal co n
trol A h i s tory o f s oci a l t h o u gh t is a h i s tory of
.
the socializing o f human attitudes and interests ,
pres aging a human society in which personal

achievement and group progress are equally and
supremely sought .
S t a t e s man 1 8 I bid II 6
L aw
3 1 0 . .
, , .
s 7 73
.
,
1 9 L i c t
e I bid II oc
. . .
t a t sman
.
,
2 0 9
R ep u bl i c 4 2 2 A L w s 744 74 5 22 21 II bid
S 3 1 0 ,
.
.
, .
II 12
R ep u b l ic 4 2 bid V ; a . .
.
.
, ,
, , ,
1
I bid 5 5 0 D E L a ws 742 79 1 22 43 ILbid Vi II 1 4
1 .
.
, .
R e p u bl ic 5 5 0
; ,
. .
.
.
,
.
, ,
c t
I bid 55 55 06 C I bid V II oc
. . .
.
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. .
.
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28 II bid
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.
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.
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S t a t e sman 2 94
.
.
.
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.
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. .
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.
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.
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.
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t 32
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.
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.
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.
.
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.
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. .
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. . .
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.
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M a rk 8 ; M a tt bid p 9 5
. .
.
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bid pp 1 5 3 ff
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.
.
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. .
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. .
,
. . .
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. .
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, . .
53 Th
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135 ff
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A c ts G a l a t ians
.
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,
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I C o r in t h ians Ch 1 3 bid p 8 9
.
.
, . .
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,
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. . .
, . .
G a l a t ians A cts bid p 1 9 2 , . .
R omans 39 ; Ep h I bid pp 2 2 0 ff .
, . .
IHbid pp 2 8 7 ff
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sians
.
, . .
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R omans C o r in G W ell s A nt icip a t ions
. . .
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M an k i nd i n h M ak in and
. .
. . , ,
hi n t
M o d er n
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Ep h e sians M o d er n Ut o p i a S c r ibn er 1 9 05
ee
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I C o r i nt h ians
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; .
.
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;
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. .
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27
R e el a t ion C h 2 1
.
v
M ac h ia e ll i T h P r inc e R o u t
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d e London n d p 5 3
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, . .
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.
, .
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t ex t Pass u s V III Th bid p 7 7

. .
,
B
man u sc rip t s f P i er s P l o u h man H obb e s L e ia t h an P u t nam 1 9 04
, . e .
, . .
Ch X III
v
n u mb er o er f o r t nd f a l l in t o
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t h ree s e t s A B nd C L oc k e Tw Tre a t i e s
v y a . .
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. . .
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.
.
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.
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T h Ut op ia of S i Th omas M o re R o u ss e a u C on t r a t socia l G a r . .
.
,
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nd S ons L ondon
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a , , , , .
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assica l Lib r a r i e s 1 9 1 0 p 7 5 I bid p 2 49 o s .
, . .
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.
, .
. .
, ,
bid p 1 1 1 fr om E a r ly A m er ican Wr i t er s
.
, . .
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.
, . .
1 6 07 1 8 00 e di t b y W B C ai r ns -
,
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.
,
. . . . .
,
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pp 1 3 5 8 4
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A Tre a t i s e of H u man N a t ure

.
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bid p 9 3 ,
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. .
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.
, . . .
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1 8 9 6 I I 7 77 1 1 4 1 4 0 1 5 0
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p 92
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. . .
. .
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.
, . .
A dam S mi t h Th We a lt h of
.
, . .
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.
, . .
N a t i o ns P u t nam 1 9 04 I I 1 1 4 , e
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:
. . . .
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tl an t i s in I d e a l C ommon I
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.
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w e alt h s C o ll i er 1 9 01 p 1 2 5
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. .
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.
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.
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I bid I bid p 2 92
I bid II I l2l03 2 07
.
,
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, . .
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-
: . .
, . .
Kan t Th e o r f E t h ics t r ans b

.
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I bid p 3 00 . .
, . .
A bbo tt p 9 I bid Vol III p 32 0 y o y .

, , .
, .
H e e l P h i l oso p h of R i h t C om t e Po i t i e Po l i t London
, . .
, .
, .
t r ans b y B d e P a r t III p 1 5 0 18 71 I
g , y g , , s v y, ,
W G S u mn er Wh a t S oc i a l
.
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,
Cl a s e s Owt o E ac h O t her H
. .
,
p er 1 92 0 p 12
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P u b l icat ions f h A m er ican 1 P r o u dh on Wh a t I P r op er t !

,
. . .
TRw
t
S ocio l o ica l S oci e t
o e
Vol XV edbn t i e th CeOn t ur P re ss 1 908 s y
.
,
g y,
er p r od u c t i on
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. .
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nd e rt u s ,
Cr e S c r ibn er 1 9 06
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C H A P T E R X II i s s
L sa l le S ci e nc e nd t he W r k
.
,
n m n Kerr
as , a o
A dam S mi t h We a lt h f N a t ions
1 9 03
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. .
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.
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Pop u l a t ion e i h t h e di t R ee e s y o e r Ci e
Kerr 1 9 09 I 6 7 3
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8 3 4 if
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.
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.
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i n M a l t h u sian ism C o lu mbia U ni

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v y, 1 9 02
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.
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p 4
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. .
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.
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8
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. .
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.
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. .
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.
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.
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3 42
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.
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. . .
.
.
, .
I bid p 48 1 .
, . .
TI u Ns t i Cc a r erHa rEssa
,
s i n S ocia l
. . .
. .
a r d U ni i
v
C HA P T ER XV , y
P ress 1 9 1 5 C h ! I V
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W S Th ompson P p u l
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. .
a t t ans ,
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t ion A S t u d n M a lt hu sianism
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. . .
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.
, .
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C o lu mbia U ni ersi t S t u di e s y i
H T B u c k l e H is t o ry of C i i l i
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, .
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a t ion i n E n l and A pp le t on
.
. .
, v
1915
ols I 14
.
s g , ,
1 8 74 2
C HA P T ER X III I bid p 29
, v .
,
I bid p 3 1 .
, . .
A g u s t e C om t e P osi t i e P h l
I bid p 32
.
, . .
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t r ans b M a r t in e a u V l I bid p 33 v i oso .
.
, . .
I
,
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. . .
ph
I pp x x i
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.
pp
36 y , o
, . .
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. .
, .
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. . .
I bid p I 52
.
, . .
bid p
.
.
, .
xv
I bid Vol III p 1 3 ,
I 85
. . .
bid p ,
. . .
II bid Vol I p 2 6 I 95
.
, . .
bid p
.
.
, .
96
bid p 2 7 ,
I
. .
, . .
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. . .
I bid p 3 4 , 99
E lle n S e mp l e I n fl ue nc e s f G
. . .
.
, . .
I bid p 3 5 r p h ic E n i r onm e n t H o l t 1 9 1 1
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.
, . .
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I bid p 3 6 .
, .
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g v
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I bid p 4 1 p 635
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.
, . .
o t
. .
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i n nd C l ima t e Y a l e U ni
t v
. . .
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i i z at o
.
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. .
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19 15
W Z R ip le R ac e s i n E ur op e
. .
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.
.
,
II bid Vol II p 3 0
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A pp le t on 1 8 9 9 p 5 7 1
. .
,
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.
. .
,
bid p 2 1 9
.
, .
, . .
.
, , .
II bid bid p 1 7 5 ,
. . .
p 1 76,
C HA P T ER XV I
. . .
II bid .
p 18 0
, . .
bid p 1 9 3 Ch rle D r w Th De sc e n t of
.
, .
a s a in
.
I bid p 2 3 4 1
M n A pp le t on 1 904 pp 2 2 9 f f
e
. .
, .
.
,
.
, . .
a , , , . .
5 00 H I STO RY
OF SO C IA L T H O UGH T
I bid p 4 78 S N P a tt e n A The o r f S
I bid p 5 114 l F o r c e s 1 8 9 6 Ch I V
.
, . . .
, y o o
II bid T N C a r er E ssa s i n S oc i a l
Ci a
p 5 5 , .
.
, . .
, .
J u s t ic e Ha r a r d U ni er si t
v y
bid p 5 1 6
. .
.
, . .
,
Fr an z B oas Th M ind of P r imi P re ss 1 9 1 5 pp 3 0 3 4

.
, . . , v v y
t i e M n M acmi ll an 1 9 1 1 p I bid p 46
, e , , .
, .
v a
I bid pp 49 5 0
. .
, , , .
, .
1 02
H ob h o u s e S ocia l E o lu t ion nd
.
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, .
I v a
Po l i t i ca l Th bid p 7 7
. .
, , .
39
W I Th omas S o ur c e B oo k f
e o ry , p . .
, . .
Op it
S ocia l O r i i ns U ni er si t
or
Ch
. .
ica o P re ss 1 909 p 1 8
f T N C a r er P r incip le s f Po l i t
, . c .
ica l E conom y G inn 1 9 1 9 pp 3 7

g , v y o . . v , o
I bid p 2 0 g
A l so s ee E ssa s
, . .
, , , , .
if n S ml
IThbidomasp J us t i ce p 8 6
y i oc
.
.
, . .
nd S oc i e t p 51 E ssa s n S l J u s t ic e p 8 6
. .
, , . .
S ex
Th omas and ZEnani e ck i nThA Po l I bid p 1 08
a y, y i o cz a
. .
, , . .
i h P e asan t i ur op e d m er of P o l i t ica l E conom y , e .

, . .
p Z
P n pl
U ni er si t y f Ch ica o P re ss
s a ri i a es ,
i
J N i wW nd i t s A ll e e d
c a, v s o g , .
1918
t r ans b S el t zer H o l t
, . o v co , ar a g
B fi e ne ts , y
C HA P T ER X I X
.
, ,
1 gl l
E A R oss P n pl f S
Ce ur
ri Ci es o o~
n t 1 92 0 p 1 6 7
. .
,
Fr ancis G a l t on 1H9 1ere d i t a r G n I bid

l
p y e
c i o o gy , y, , . .
M acmi ll an 18 3 ,
i 4
I bid pp ,
. . .
I n q u i r ies i n t o H u man F
u s,
2 07 2 06
.
,
h t , ,
. .
Du tt on 1 9 08 Th
e ac
l ty,
C W S a lee b Pro
u
C HA P T E R XX I
.
,
S
renassll s of1 E u e n i cs Fu nk and W
ee g
. .
y, e
H Sw
g ag
inn
,
Gi mb i
“
V ico S ocio l o ical R e i e wJan

914 1 fl 1 Cf S
Ka rl P e a r son Th G r amma r f at s t a
, , . .
. . . .
y, a
"
S c i nc e B l ac k 1 9 1 1 p 1
e o v
g
1 9 1 4 pp 5 0 5 7
, , ,
.
I bid p 6
e
e t er K r opo t k in M u t u a l A d a
-
P
. .
, , , , . .
2
S a lee b P r o re ss of F t o r i n E o lu t i on D o u b le day
i ;
ac
. .
, .
. ,
S Th
E u e nics C h II
ee y, e g
e
v
g
C D a e npo rt Here d i t Pa 1 9 02 p 3
, ,
I b i d p V II K r opo t k in
g
. .
, , , . .
S B 3 f
i n R el a t i on t o E u e nics Ho l t
ee v y
F i e l ds F ac t o r i e s nd Wo r k s h o p s
. .
, . .
; c . ,
g
u
a
P t n m 1 9 01 C h 1
, , , ,
1911
and Jo h nson A p S tate I H s t o r ic R o le
a
.
.
, ,
S P p n 4 Th
“
p l i e d E u e n i cs M acmi ll an 1 9 1 8
ee o e oe ts
re r u e e ; i
L ondon p od c d in
, . ,
II bid p 2 13 g
M n or
1 8 98
h
,
S tate b W R
, .
,
Brow
t
bid pp 2 1 8 2 3 1 n e Hue bsc h 1 9 1 9 p 2 1
a e y
. .
.
, . .
II bid
bid Ch ! V I , .
5 G u s t a R nh er D
, .
l
,
atz e
, .
e L ip z i
s o ci o o
p 38 1 is
v o ie
. .
. ,
k E k nn ni 1 8 98
I bid p 3 8 0 .
, .
S e c t 2 2 ; s ee A W S ma ll
.
G
g e r e t s s, e g, ,
S a lee b y P r o re ss of E n
er l S ocio l o g U ni er si t y
e
a
. .
, .
. . . .
Th e g f u
p 65 C h ica o P re ss C h X III
, y, v o
n
ge
and Jo h nson 1 9 05
i cs ,
Le ip z i g 1 9 07 pp 1 3
g
. .
.
, , .
P p no e oe i S i l gi o p c t
p 38 7 1g
e o o e,
.
, .
, , , .
H ob h o u s e S ocia l E o l u t i on D
.
p
.
Po li t i cal The o r Le mck e 1 9 1 1

d i i l gi h E k nn v an soc o o sc e r e t ni s s ,
2 3!
, .
y,
p 45 A l bion W S ma ll Ge n er a l S o i
, ,
f
and Jo h nson
. .
o l o ibid p
.
,
P o n
pe oe i 1 96 o p c t
p 2 92 II bid
,
gy,
.
,
bid pp 4 33 Ff ,
. . .
. .
pp 2 01 ff
. .
,
C HA P T ER XX II bid
bid p 3 2 5
p 2 17
.
.
,
, .
.
.
.
L u dw i G mp l w I bid pp 3 8 9 3 9 0
. .
, .
B e tw
1 i D R n
.
k am pf I nnsb ru c k 1 8 8 3
g u
ee n E r as Fr om C ap it al ism
o cz , er as s e , .
, .
G m l w
64
2 i G ru nd r iss d S
,
t o De moc r ac I n C ll i , , p ,
t e r~ e g at e
t r b M oo re 1 8 8 5 p P re ss 1 9 1 3 C h XX III
. u p o cz , er o y, o
l
R ss P r i nci p l e s of S m
ci o o gi e, .
y , , .
, , .
G mp l w
1 34 E A
S ocio l o g i e nd Po l o l o Ce n t ury 1 92 0 p 1 2 1
. . . o ,
o
i
I
u o cz u gy ,
i t ik p 9 4 bid p 1 3 5
.
, , , .
Fr i eMd r ic h Ni e tz sch e Ge n e a l o Fu nc t ion f S ocial iz a t i on h ni

.
, . .
, . .
o r a ls N wY o rk 1 8 9 7 p
Th i
S ocia l E o lu t i on U ni
, gy e o
1 f C
46 cago P re ss 1 9 1 6
, e , , v , v. o
Ni e tz sch e T h Wi ll t o Po w er R oss pp 2 5 7 ff
.
,
5 i t
I bid p 3 9 5 p e o c
1 8 8 9 pp 9 0 2 6 9 6 6 0 ff
.
, , , . .
, . .
, .
, , . .
, . .
FOO T NO TE S 5 01
I bid p 405 P r incip le s of S i l p
L T H ob h o u s e S ocia l E o lu t ion I 138 o c o o gy
bid pp 1 4 1 E
.
, . .
.
The o ry Le mc k e I
v
nd Po l i t ica l bid pp 1 4 7 E
.
.
, .
, . .
a
19 1 1 p 12 7 De sc r ip t i e nd H i t o r ica l S oci
, , , . .
Cc r ibn
H C oo le
,
S ocia l P r oc e ss o l o p 5 4 1 C f G iddin s I n
v a s
. .
er s 1 9 1 8 p 3 8 S oc i o l o
y,
M acm i l l an
gy , g
.
, . . .
,
S d i u ct v e
1 9 1 4 Pa r t II I
, , . .
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A m er i can J o ur na l S oc i o l o
, .
C HA P T ER XX II V l XXV p 3 8 7
f o gy ,
D a nid Hu m e A Tre a t is e of H I bid p

M B al d w
38 8
o .
, . .
J in nd Et h i
, .
m N a t ure e di t b S e l b B i e
v u
S nd
,
l I n t er p re t a t i ons
a a
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. .
- ,
Ox f o r d 1 8 9 6 p 3 6 3
a y y gg
,
M
.
,
ca
1 9 06 p
I bid p 3 6 2
, ,
,
15 , . .
II bid pp 4 9 9 5 00
.
, .
I bid p 18
.
, . .
bid p 5 2 1
.
, .
I bid pp 529 E , .
.
,
,
.
.
.
II bid
bid pp 5 7 5 E
.
, . .
p 5 35 ,
C HA P T ER XX III
. . .
G ab r i el T a r d e Th L aw
,
s f I mi
. .
n tr b Pa r sons Ho l t 1 903
e o
t at i o
p XV II C H C oo le S ocia l O r an i z a
,
t i on S c r ibn er 1 909
, .
y , , , .
y, g
S
.
I bid p 5 9 .
C H C oo le H u man N a t ure
, , , .
II bid p 146 S ocia l O r d er S c r ibn er

y,
. .
, .
. .
nd h a t e
bid p 74 1 9 02 p 3
.
, . .
, ,
I bid p 78 .
, .
I bid p 5
.
, . .
I bid p 8 7 .
, .
I bid pp 1 5 2 E
. .
, . .
I bid p 1 1 4 .
, .
S oc i a l O r ani z a t ion ibid

.
p
.
, . .
I bid p 3 9 ,
I bid p 1 2
11 g
. . .
, .
, . .
I bid p 1 4 11 E .
I bid p 2 6
. .
, . .
I bid p 2 3 ; f T a r d e S oci a l
,
I bid p 2 8
. . .
, . .
L aw s t r ans b W a rre n M
c
I bid p 3 7
.
, . .
, .
, . .
mi l l an 1 9 07 p 6 5 I y ac
,
bi d p 6 1
.
, .
, . .
Th L aw s of I m i t a t ion p 2 2 5 I bid p 6 3
, , . . .
, . .
I bid p 1 1 1e
I bid p 8 0 , . . .
, . .
I bid p 1 4 I bid p 1 03
. .
, . .
, . .
I bid p 2 8 8 .
, .
I bid p 1 2 1
. .
, . .
I bid pp 3 4 1 E ,
C oo l e S ocia l P r oc e ss S c r ibn er
. . . .
, . .
I bid p 3 6 9 .
, .
19 18 pp 6 8 E
.
y, , ,
IS bid p 30 ,
S ocia l O r ani z a t ion ibid Ch

. . . . .
,
oc i a l L aw XVIII XXV XXVII g s

s p 1 32
. .
, .
, .
, .
L aw
-
s of I mi t a t i on p 1 6 9 I bid p 3 2 0 f S ocial P r oc e ss
. .
, , .
S ocia l L a w
; c
s p 195 ,
. . . .
, , .
297 E
II bid p 2 04
bid p 1 7 1 f T a r d e L
I n t r o d u c t ion
,
t o S ocia l P y
. .
h l gy L u c e 1 9 1 4 pp 2 3 E
.
, . s
soci a l e P a r is 1 8 9 8 Ch I bid pp 2 6 8 3 2 n2 2 79l

, .
; c .
,
a c o o , , , . .
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R oss P of S oci
. .
, , , , .
, ,
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Ce n t ur f 1R92 0 S Ch l ri Ci es
s f I mi t a t ion p 8 7 olo ,
. .
I bid p 1 3 8 XXX I V XXXV C oss

o , . .
gy , y, , s .
I bid p 3 44 C on t r o l M acmi ll an 1 9 1 0 Ch
, . . . . , o cz a
II bid V II V III
. . , , , s .
bid p 3 8 7 S oc i a l C on t r o l ibid pp 49 E
.
,
E A R oss S o ma l P s y c h o l o I bid Ch X E
. .
, .
. . .
, ,
M acmi l l an 1 9 08 p II bid gy , s
iii pp 2 5 7 E
. . .
, ,
. .
M M D a is J Ps c h o l o i ca l
v
bid pp 4 1 1 E
. . .
, , .
, .
I n t erp re t a t ions f S oci e ty L on I bid C h XXX I

y g
. . v , r .
, .
, .
mans G ree n 1 9 09 S ocia l Ps c h o l o

o g
R oss
. .
, ,
M ac
T a r d e L p ni l a fo il e mill n 1 9 08 C h II
, , .
, y gy ,
’
n et
Pa r is 1 9 01 pp 1 7 7 E C f S I bid pi n70t o C f o Ma l DPs c hllo l oI n
, o i o u , a , ,
. .
he l e Ps c h o l o i d s e c t es
, , . . .
g .
, p . c o u ga ,
d S m tro u ct o gy ,
Pa r is 1 8 9 8 pp 4 5 E ibid C h I V y
, y g e es ,
G iddin s P r i nc ip l e s f S R oss S ocia l P sy c h o l ogy Ch

. .
, , . .
0
.
,
XV III g o o
i l y M acmi ll an 1 8 9 6 p 1 7
.
, , ,
I bid pp 7 1 1 2 6 E
c o og ,
S Ch ap t er XV III f St h is boo k , , . .
IDebidsc r ppt i e 1 01 E Cisf t o rGicaiddin P r incip l e s of oc i o l og

ee o
s R oss
.
.
, .
,
y,
C h X LII
g
l S
, . . .
, ,
ip d H an
M acmi ll an 1 9 1 1 C h I I I I bid Chh XXXVI
v o . .
i l
P r inc ip l e s of S ocio l o p 1 09
c o o gy ,
II bid
bid C XXXV III
. .
, , . .
,
De sc r ip t i e nd H is t o r ical S oc i pp 5 49 E gy , . . .
o l o pp 1 5 7 E
v
I bid p 5 6 4 a . .
.
,
gy , . . .
, . .
5 02 H I STORY
OF SO C IA L T H OUGH T
I bid p 5 9 0 2 S W e bb Th P re e n t ion of
I bid p 6 2 6 De s t i t u t ion L n m n G ree n
.
, . . . ee , e v
II bid
o g a s,
bid
. .
.
, , ,
19 12
p 6 32 D e in e M i er y its
. .
3 S nd
I bid p 6 5 23 .
, .
C a u s e s M acmi l l an 1 9 1 3 a l so De
. . ee v , s a
II bid p 65
.
, .
in e Th P ri nc ipl e s f R e l i ef
.
, , ;
M acmi ll n 1 9 04
v e o
bid p 6 93
. .
, , ,
G r ah am W a ll as Th Gre a t S s ee A mos G W a r n er
a
A l so
.
, . .
, .
4
M acmi l l an 1 9 1 4 p 1 1 a r it i e s Cr o w
o
A m er i can Ch e
e
ll
, .
, .
,
ci e t y ,
II bid p 2 76 1 9 1 9 3 d e di t
.
, , .
, ,
P r og re ss nd P
r
bid p 3 1 9 ,
. . .
, . .
H n G
ICbid pEll3w y ¥) Pa e
e r e o rg e , a ov
. . .
,
68 bl d 19 16 e rt
L omb r oso Cr im e I C a u s e s nd
ou e ay , g
ood S ocio l o i i t s
. .
.
, , , .
A n
Ps c h o l o ical A sp e c t s A pp l e t on L i ttl e B r o w
gy ts
R e m e di e
a
n 19 1 1
.
.
, , ,
1 9 1 2 Ch I X W in e s and Lan e P u n i s h m e n t
y g , , s, , , .
II bid
bid p 1 00 nd R ef o r ma t ion Cr o w el l 1919
. .
, ,
a
p 117 Ch X
.
.
, .
, , ,
G H M e ad S ocia l C onscio u s T O sbo r n e S oci e t y

. .
.
, . .
“
8 M nd
n e ss and” h C onscio u sn e ss f ,
Y a le U ni er si t y P re ss
a
. . . . .
,
’
'
I n
M e anin Ps c h o l o i cal B ul l e
t e o r s0
l gi6
s, v ,
i n V II
g, y g
t
E ll w
,
405
ood S ocio l og in i P
: B
m
urle
e n
i gh and B i er s t ad t
t Ho lt 1 9 1 6
.
P u nis h ts
,
h l i l A sp e c t s
y sy
p 15 3 Cf G B M an o l d P r o b le ms of
, , , .
S
I n t r od u c t i on t o S oc i a l Ps y c h o l
c o o g ca
Ch l We lfa re M acmi ll an 1 9 1 4
, . .
ee g
d
. .
,
p 1 49 W S ma ll B e t w ee E r as
i
El l w
o gy , ,
ood S ocio l o in i ts P A n , ,
Fr om C a p i t al ism t o D e moc r ac
. .
. .
, ,
i l A sp e c t s p 1 3 8
gy sy
I n t er C o lle gia t e P re s
y,
,
h l
Ell wod I n t r od u c t ion t o S ocia l
c o o g ca 19 13 -
W H B e er idg e Un e m
, . .
s, .
P c h o l ogy p 1 49 S
o
pl o m e n t ree
ee v
n
,
G
. .
,
L n m n
I bid p 1 4 7
sy , . .
y , o g a s, ,
II bid Ell io tt H o w
19 12
bid p 1 5 1 e r e r
. .
,
o a d
.
G
.
A Hi
p 1 70 r f M a t r imonia l I n i
g s
.
t
.
,
o
.
,
E ll w ood Th S ocia l P r o bl e m n s t tu ti o
U ni er si t y Ch re
. .
y o s,
.
,
M acmi ll an 1 9 1 9 p 2
, e f ica go P ss , v o ,
I bidC p a4 e s n t r o d u c t ion t o h Ed w
1 904
r W e s t er ma r c k Hi t o r of
. .
, ,
a d
.
H u man M a rr i ag e M acmi l l an
.
s y
.
,
E H I t e
S t u dy of S ocio l o A pp le t on
. . y ,
, ,
1 9 02 gy ,
19 15 p 5 8 6 W C a l h o u n A S ocia l Hi
, .
A
II bid r A mer ican F am i ly
s
.
t
,
o y of
.
. .
,
h t
bid pp 5 8 6 E Cl a r e
.
.
I bid pp 6 6 4 E .
, .
k 19 17 19 19
H e l e n B osan ue t Th
.
F ami l
,
- .
I bid p 6 6 9 h M acmi ll an 1 9 1 5
q e y,
.
.
, .
,
T V e b le n T The o r f1 9 1h2 .
W ill in G oods ell A H i t o r

.
t
, .
Cl
e y o e
ys t
ss M acmi ll an he F l e s y
.
,
of t ami y as a S oc i al
,
L i ii re a d
p gl
e an
E d u ca t iona l I ns t i t u t ion M
, , ,
mil
I bid p 1 6 9
.
l an , ac
II bid bid p 3 8
p 68
.
, .
19 15
B oo k er T W as h in t on Up f r om
.
, .
S l a er y D o u b le da e g
. . .
,
Pa
.
,
V e b le n Th I ns t inc t of Wo rk D kw
1 901 v y, g
. .
W E B D B i
.
, ,
mans h ip M acmi l l an 1 9 1 4 p 3 4 9 H a r co ur t B r ac e nd H o w
e a t e r,
e u
, . . . o s ar
L e is ure C l a s
1 92 0
y of h e er R ob er t r b l e m of
, , , . .
a
P t P o , ,
Th Th eor t
Th s
p fS
e
A m er ican i z a t i on M acmi ll an 1 9 2 0
, s, e
I bid p 1 7
.
J K Ha r t C omm u ni ty O rg ani z a
, , .
P u b l ica t ions f h A m er ica n M acmi ll an 1 92 0

. . .
,
t i on
.
,
t
i l i l S oci e t y V l X II p
o e
M C El m er Te c h n i ue of S
, .
g
o c o o g ca o
l S ur e y s W o rl d C L w
, .
, .
. .
, q o
II bbidid pp 2 7 .
, .
re nc .
e Kansas 1917
ci a
,
v ,
, .
o , a
59
p 68
. . .
,
Iiii ii p 3 ’
C HA P T ER XXV
. .
I bid 6 . .
I b d” p 1 0
i
.
, p ,
1
.
De moc r ac nd E d u ca t ion M
°
mi l l an 1 9 1 6 p 6
.
y a ,
ac .
C HA P T ER XX I V 2 IIbid
bid
p 16
p
. .
,
,
. .
, . .
3 19
1 F o r ex amp le C R He nd er
n M o d er n M e t h o d s of Ch a r i t
4 I bid pp 2 6 2 7
. .
, . .
I
se e
bid p 4 1
.
, . . . .
, .
, .
so 5 y,
C f ibid p 4 1 6
, . .
, . .
M m ll n 1 9 04
ac 1 a 6 , . . . .
, . .
I N D E!
A B ell a m y Ed wa r d 169
B e nth a m 194
, .
b st r act th in k ing B e r keley G o r ge 368

.
,
A 14 e
A c h i e v e m e nt 299
. .
Bio lo gy 2 19
, ,
.
c qu isitive n e ss
.
,
Bi r th cont ro l 207
,
.
A 286
da tation
.
,
Bi rt h r at e 2 5 0 330
.
,
A p 377
dda m s Jan e
.
,
B l ack m a r and G i ll in 5 03
.
, ,
A 424, 429
e schylu s
.
, ,
B l ackston e 9 1
, .
A 76
r ican socia l rov e rb s
.
, .
,
Af p 2 3E Bl n 22 8
a e,
gg re gation
.
,
Boas F r an z 32 1
.
A 38 3
l coh o l is m
.
,
Bodi 46 368
.
, ,
A 333
is l and
.
,
Bo l s i m 238 403 434 469

,
.
Amau ro t e , o f , 16 0 ev s
m e r ican Socio l ogica l Soci e ty
.
Bosan que t 436

.
, , , ,
A 4 19
m e r icani z ation
.
,
B r inton D G 35 3
,
A 438
m os
.
,
B ritis h L a b o r P a rty 469

. .
,
A 5 9 , 6 8 7 1 , 72
mu s e m e nts
.
, ,
B rockw ay 428
, .
A 439
na rch is m
.
,
B roth e rh ood f m an 122

.
,
A 240 o
nthro o lo gy
.
,
, .
A p 301 Bii h
c e r, 48 2
ntici ation r inci le
.
,
B u ck le 246 E
.
A p p p o f , 404
qu inas h o m as
.
,
T B u dd h is m 42
.
,
A 150
l i e d socio l ogy
.
, ,
B ul ga r ian socia l p rove rb s 30

.
,
Ap p 423 E
r a b ian socia l rov e rb s
.
,
B u r ge ss E W 363
.
,
A p 31
r isto h an e s
.
,
B u r k e Ed m u nd 19 1
. .
, , .
, 78
A p
r istot le and socia l t h ou gh t
.
B u sin e ss th e o ry f 16 9
.
, ,
A ,
74, o .
, ,
l Ol E , 203, 476
ssociation l aw s
. .
A o f , 2 19, 338 , 38 3 C
ssociations rodu ctive
.
,
A p
ss y r ian socia l th ou gh t
, ,
2 33 .
C a e sa r J ul iu s 11 5
42 E
a l culu s
.
, ,
A
C 2 17
st ronom y
.
,
a l h ou n
.
,
A 2 18
C A W , 436
u gu stin e Saint
.
,
146
. . .
,
A
C allicle s 78
u rel iu s Ma r cu s
.
, ,
A 116
a m e r a l is m
.
,
C 18 8 E
u st r a l ian socia l rove rb s
.
, ,
A 27
a m an ell a
.
,
p ,
.
C 16 8
p
anons socia l
.
,
C 4 1 5 I T
B
“
a ita l u nis hm e nt
.
, ,
C p p 94
Ba b eu f 229 a ita l is m
.
,
C p 23 6, 4 3 3 4 3 5,
Ba b yl onian socia l th ou gh t 29 E
, .
, ,
457, 45 1
Bacon F r an is 16 7 174 175 E a rlyle
. .
,
c C 42 5
Bageh ot 38 0 a rv e r
, , , , .
,
.
C T N 207, 345
Baku nin 2 39 a u casian
. . .
, ,
.
,
C 2 35
Ba l anc e p r incip le f 405 ath o l ic Wa r ou nci l
, .
, .
o C C 462
Ba l dw in J M 38 6 e nso r s h i
. .
, , ,
C p , 93
B e cca r ia 427 h a in
. .
, , . .
C p , F S , 4 19
B e h avio r p lu r a l istic 38 6 h e m ist ry
.
, . . .
,
. C ,
2 18 .
IN DE ! 5 05
C h in e s e socia l th ou gh t 45 E D e c e p tion 2 8 6
h in e s e socia l p r ov e rb s 49 E D e finition f socia l th ou ght
.
, .
,
C o 13
h iva l ry 149 D e G r e c i 48 4
.
, , .
C
hr istianity socia l 12 1 E 2 32 D el in que nc y 26 430
.
, .
,
C
D elu g e accou nt f 42
,
.
, , , , , .
42 3, 441 o
u c at e s t e D e m oc r ac y 69 70 99 198
.
, , .
C h r h f h r , h , 146 375 ,
ic e o
, , , , ,
C r , 1 14, 1 15 420, 46 7
inga le s e socia l ove s w socia l th ou gh t
. .
C p r rb 3 2 De r crat iz at io n o f
i
.
iti e s e u g e
, ,
C of r f 69 l
itize ns i D e si r e
.
,
C h p, 28 4
ity l anning D e t e rm inis m
.
,
C p 1 6 0 346
ivi l iz ation D eu te rono m ic od e
.
, , .
C 248 , 2 8 7, 3 10, 38 5 C 64, 65

l ass e s
.
D evin e
, ,
.
C 2 8 7 3 1 1 3 70 ,
3 8 1 ,
40 5 , E T , 42 5
D ewe y Joh n
, , , ,
. . .
457 444, 446

l ass con ict D ick e ns
. .
, ,
C fl , 2 5 1 , 45 7 424
l assi cation t e sci e nce s
.
D isc u ssion
.
,
C fi of h ,
2 16 .
400
le st e n e s W
.
,
C i h 76 Du Bo is , E B , 438
l i ate D u r at
. . .
, . .
C m 2 48 p G L , 38 1
od e a ua i
. . . .
, ,
C of H mm r p , 40 E
oe a r li e st socia l th ou gh t
.
C , G A , 472 E 20 E
ol e t a r ly hr istian socia l h ou g h t
. .
,
. .
C b r , 18 7 E C t
o e cia l iz t on
.
,
C mm r a i 401 12 1 E
o e cia l ize d el igio du cation
.
, .
C mm r r n 129 E 7 3 9 3 E 1 1 0 1 6 3 2 2 4
o u nication
.
, , , , , , ,
C mm 39 1 , 409 299, 393, 4 15 , 42 1

du cationa l socio logy
.
o u nis
.
,
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t h nol o gy
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u ge nics
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C r is e s 32 3 342
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OF SO C IA L T H OUGH T
46 1 H e siod 75
H i gh sc h oo l socio l o gy 49
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5 08 H I STO RY OF SO C IA L T H OUGH T
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S elf 38 7 38 9 Socia l r evo lu tion 108

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S elf inte e st 340 Socia l sa l vation 73

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A HI S T O R Y O F

Prof en o r a nd Hea d of Dep a rt me nt of S o cio logy a nd S o cia l Wo rk

This boo k is written for the o rld o f s t u d e nt s w .

I n it any seriously minded person should ﬁnd a

fundamental background f o r understanding the

basis for attack ing t h e mo s t impo rtant problems o f

the day and a call t o renew hi s faith in the sound

ness of human aspirations .

I nasmuch as this treatise is written f o r students ,

it is not intended to be the last word o n the subj ect ,

but simply a ﬁrst word The t h eme O f eac h c h ap

ter i s in itself a subj ect f o r further investigati on .

I n fact the student w i th an al ert m ind w i ll ﬁnd in

eac h ch apt e r m any subj ects c o ncern i ng w h ich he

boo k st i mulate t h e student t o make in q uir i es on h is

th an th e author could have expected .

Unive rs ity o f S o u t h e rn Ca lif o rnia .

Man faces a world o f social problems A s a re .

sult he i s perplexed beyond description ; his thinking

beginning to attack social problems he i s entitled ,

to all the aid tha t can be made available Upon the .

success o f th e average person in mastering the in

A large proportion O f t h e analyses Of social

have O ften terminated in quibbles o r erudite gen

correct they have un fortunately been reserved for

no t understood the nature o f social thought ; they

thought in contemp t S ound social though t needs

to be democra t ized that is t o be made available for

practical person has proceeded in his o n way He .

has had personal experience and that t o him has —

been su fﬁ cient He has been motivated by a sense

O f inj ustice and stung into fervid thought by ci r

cu ms t a nce s which seemed to him unfair ; he has

concocted a make shi ft remedy or impulsively a c

ce p t e d a ready made program

urged a single cause f o r all social ills and pre

U sually he has been very limited in his observ a

tions untraine d in making proper inductions and

hence narrow and intolerant in hi s conclusions

He has been entirely ba fﬂed o r else he has felt ,

The practicalist is often a poor theorist H e .

may be ev en the most dangerous type O f theori st .

He has sco ff ed at theory and then fallen into th e

example that a good bridge does no t proj ec t i tsel f

across a chasm but that a correct bridge building

theory is essential With social practicalists and

theorists calling each other names instead o f co ,

operating and u ns e lﬁsh ly giving th e world o f people

world has ﬂ o u nde re d and its social problems have

A nother di f ﬁculty in the path way of sound social

social questions without ﬁrst equipping themselves

over they are O ften unwilling to acquaint them

selves with these necessary factors I t i s only by .

accident however that current social movements

can be understood unless the historical sequences

O f social cause and effect are perceived N early all .

social problems are essentially the outcroppings O f

A current social maladjustment is generally indica

edge O f societary fundamentals i s essential t o sound

social thought furni shes a minimum social back

and O f groups I t may be very simple merely Ob

s e rva t io nal the result o f daily experience or it may

be a scientiﬁc study O f social processes S ociology .