China in 5000 Years

PREFACE

This book is a collection of articles on China’s history and culture.  Some articles have appeared in Chinese American Forum, a quarterly magazine to promote understanding of China.  Magazine articles were not planned for coherent and logical organization of subjects.  More than half are new articles added in this book for more coverage in history and culture, by CAF writers as well as others.  Some articles that appeared in Chinese American Forum magazine have been updated. Thanks to my daughter Helen Tsao for the design of the book cover. (See addendum for names of historical figures in the photos.)

Instead of conformity, articles will retain individual styles and variations. Different pinyin systems may be used by different authors. Chinese characters are included when necessary for names or passages not familiar to the public.

History—Articles relating to history are divided in 3 groups in chronological order:

1.  Imperial China—from Huangdi (Yellow Emperor) to Qing Dynasty, including the Opium Wars.

2.  Modern China—from establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, through Northern Expeditions, War with Japan, bombing of Japan, the Civil Wars, establishment of PRC and the Cultural Revolution; One China Polity; Taiwan; Tibet.

3.  Contemporary China—Developments since reform and opening up in 1978; outlook for the future, viewpoints n US-China relation of Western scholars like Henry Kissinger, Martin Jacques, Graham Allison and Chinese scholar and diplomat Wu Jianmin.

Civilization—Since the ancient times, China has made important contributions in science and civilization, in agriculture, Traditional Chinese Medicine and infrastructure, including the Great Wall, the Grand Canal and the Three Gorges Dam.

Culture—On cultural subjects, the book has introductory essays on these subjects: Confucius and Confucianism, Daoism (Taoism), Buddhism, Islam, Sun Zi, religions, differences with the West, education, poetry and Kung Fu…..

All the authors have contributed their time to write on various aspects of Chinese history and culture.  This book will be available on Amazon.com.  Sale of this book will benefit Chinese American Forum, a non-profit organization to promote understanding of China for better US-China relation.

This book is intended for English-language readers and American Born Chinese (ABC) for better understanding of China, a country of 1.38 billion people with increasing global influence on economy, world trade, international relations, climate change, etc. With understanding of its history and culture, readers can be assured that China is a force for peace and prosperity.

Ruby Tsao, Editor

Map of China

INTRODUCTION

In history, we had the rise and fall of the Roman Empire.  There was the glory of the British Empire.  Today, we see the dominance of America.  China is a 5000 year old new kid on the block.  Its economy grew at 10% a year for almost 30 years.  It has slowed to under 7% in recent years, but growth is still impressive compared with most developed countries. Will China become a threat to world peace?  We can look for clues in its history and culture.

GEOGRAPHY

China is located on the eastern part of the Eurasian continent, west of the Pacific Ocean, stretching 6200 kilometers (3720 miles) from east to west, 5500 kilometers (3300 miles) from north to south.  It is one of the largest countries spanning 4 time zones with 9.6 million square kilometers land area, a population of 1.381 billion.  China has 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 direct controlled municipalities of Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing, plus 2 self-governing special regions of Hong Kong and Macao, and sovereignty claims over Taiwan.

Its diverse landscapes range from forest steppes and Gobi and Taklimakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the moist south. Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from 14 countries in Central Asia and South Asia—Russia, India, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Burma or Myanmar, Afghanistan, Vietnam, Laos, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Tajikistan, North Korea and Bhutan in descending order of countries’ sizes.  Most of these countries are located in areas involved in the One Belt One Road projects.

Two major rivers--the world’s third longest, Yangtze River and the sixth longest, Yellow River run from Tibetan Plateau in the west to densely populated eastern seaboard. Lanchang 澜沧江River also originates in Qinghai Province, but runs north to south and becomes the Mekong River through the Southeast Asian countries of Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam before draining into South China Sea.  Yarlung Tsangpo River, also called Brahmaputra River, runs from Tibet to India and Bangladesh, merging with River Ganges before draining to the Bay of Bengal.  China’s coastline along Pacific Ocean runs 14500 km (8700 miles) long bounded by Bohai, Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea.  Topography ranges from elevation of over 8000 meters in the Himalaya Mountains in the west dropping to the sea level in the east.

THE GRAND CANAL

The Yellow River, the Yangtze River and their tributaries flow from the high plateaus in the west to the sea level in the east. The Grand Canal was built in the Sui Dynasty (589—618) running north to south to connect these rivers to form a network of waterways.  It greatly facilitated communication and cultural exchange in China for the last 1500 years.  The Grand Canal runs through 5 administration districts: Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces, connecting the capital city Beijing in the north along a string of important cities of Tianjin, Jining 济寧, Yangzhou, Wuxi, Suzhou and Hangzhou in the south for transportation of people and goods; for trade and exchange of ideas. It is still in use today for shipping of bulk goods and building materials.  In history, it has contributed to communication of people, and cultural integration of the north and south.

While the Great Wall was built to keep out invaders, the Grand Canal was built to bring people together through communication and exchanges.  The two grand building projects in ancient China forged a united country sharing the same culture.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

Agriculture, rice cultivation, pottery making, silk fabrics, herbal medicine, etc. were discovered in ancient China.  The four great Chinese inventions including the compass, gunpowder, moveable type printing and paper-making have contributed greatly to the advances of the world.  British historian Joseph Needham spent a lifetime to document inventions of China.  Needham’s work was not finished when he died in 1995.  With 27 volumes compiled, the work is still continuing at Cambridge University.

CHINESE LANGUAGE 

China is a mountainous country making travel and communication very difficult. In imperial times, people used to speak all kinds of dialects.  Fortunately, they all understood the same written language. Since unification of China in 221BCE, the first emperor Qin Shi Huang unified the written script of Chinese language, weights and measurements, etc.  It became easy for the Chinese to share a common culture regardless of their different dialects.  Unlike the phonetic nature of alphabetical languages, Chinese characters are visual, recognized not only by the Chinese, but also by Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese and other Asians in spite of different spoken languages used.  And in the 20th Century since Sun Yat-sen established the republic in 1912, Mandarin or Putonghua (common language) has been adopted as the national spoken language, the language taught in schools.  Even in imperial times, emperors required government officials to learn the official language 官话, similar to Putonghua, to conduct government business. The use of the same language has been a great unifying force in China.

In the West, alphabetical languages are phonetic in nature, spelled according to the sound in each spoken language. Even slight variations in spelling make communication difficult.  Many European languages are similar in spelling, but none is universally understood by all Europeans.    This may be the reason why Europe has not been a united country.  With English in most school curriculum today, it has become the world’s common language for basic communication.  For deeper understanding on a cultural level requires a higher proficiency in the written language. Learning English as a second language for everyday use, most people do not have the proficiency at a deeper level.

CONFUCIUS

Confucius was born in 551 BCE.  He was a great influence in China in people’s lives for 2500 years. Books of Confucianism were the subjects of civil service examinations (Keju) to compete for government positions since Keju examinations were established in the Sui Dynasty (589-618).  People started to learn his teachings and memorize his words since childhood.  Chinese culture was so steeped in Confucianism that it has become a deep-rooted consciousness in people’s lives.  Other Asian countries were influenced by Confucianism, especially after the Tang Dynasty. The use of chopsticks and variations of Chinese cuisine were also widespread in Asia.  Invaders such as the Mongols and the Manchu’s embraced Chinese culture and became peaceful people.  Soon, they settled down to establish the Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368) and the Qing Dynasty (1644—1911). China became a bigger country each time from their expeditions.

UNIVERSALISM

China is bounded by high mountains in the west, deserts in the north and the sea in the east. In an isolated location without communication with the outside world in ancient times, people viewed China as the center of the world which gave rise to the name Middle Kingdom.  Confucius developed his philosophy to apply to all human beings in the known world which to him meant everybody under the sun.  Thus Chinese culture has not been nationalism; it has been universalism since Confucius’ time 2500 years ago.

BUDDHISM AND DAOISM

Buddhism and Daoism (Taoism) also have peace and kindness in the center of their core values.  With Confucianism, they are three mainstream thoughts representing the peaceful culture of China.

SIMA QIAN

China was one of four ancient civilizations with ancient Egypt, Babylon and India.  But it is the only civilization lasting to this day with continuous history.  Amazingly, we can actually find written records of 5000 years thanks to the great historian Sima Qian (145 BCE—86 BCE) of the Han Dynasty.  He was castrated as punishment when his writing displeased Emperor Han Wudi. He endured the shame and suffering but still insisted on objective recording of history. He set the standards of objectivity, independence, scholarship and literary style.  His Shiji (Historical Records) started a tradition of objective recording of history covering nearly 3000 years from Huangdi to his time in the Han Dynasty.  Under the watchful eye of historians, emperors ever since needed to be mindful of their records in history.  His Shiji was the most respected book of history in China.  It was also a literary masterpiece serving as the basis of many later literary works, poetry, Peking opera…. for 2000 years.  He was the inspiration and aspiration for generations of historians to come.  Many outstanding historians have followed his footsteps in the last 2000 years.

There is a wealth of cultural and historical resources in China’s 5000 years.  A small sampling on aspects of China’s history and culture in this book may give readers an overview for better understanding of China.

HISTORY

China—Outline of History

Ruby Tsao

China was one of the four ancient civilizations in the world with ancient Egypt, Babylon and India. It is not only one of the oldest civilizations; it is the only civilization that has a continuous record to this day.  For millions of years, human ancestors existed in Chinese territories. Fossils of Shu Ape, an early primate were discovered in China in 1994. It was designated the First Anthropoid who lived in China 45 million years ago. Homo erectus 直立人existed about 1.7 million years ago.  Remains of Peking Man dating back 600,000 years were discovered in Zhoukoudian near Beijing.  Use of fire was evident in the cave. The bones were under study in Xiehe Medical College when War with Japan broke out.  With imminent Japanese attack on Beijing, an attempt was made to transfer the scalp and bones to the United States for safe-keeping in 1941.  In the turmoil of war, the scalp and bones disappeared and have never been found to this day.  In 1958, renewed excavations at Zhoukoudian yielded some bones and tools.

Excavations at Yuanmou in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and Hemudu in the Yangtze River area showed early civilization about 8000 years ago in China.  Hemudu culture in eastern Zhejiang Province revealed ancient civilization of rice production and pottery of cups, bowls, and pots with floral or geometric designs. Carvings of Jade and ivory were also found.  Domestication of pigs and dogs likely began.  Animal bones were used as tools. Banpo Museum near Xi’an revealed evidence of rice cultivation and pottery 7000 to 8000 years ago.  Further research dated rice cultivation in China back 12,000 years.

Written history began with Huangdi as recorded by Sima Qian in the Han Dynasty.  His Shiji (Historical Records), covered nearly 3000 years of history from Huangdi to his time. There have been many great historians after him for objective evaluation of historical events.  China is the only country with unbroken record of history for nearly 5000 years not found in any other ancient civilizations.  India had one of the ancient civilizations, but without a written language, Indian scholars had to look in Chinese books for history of India.  This article presents an outline of 5000 years of Chinese recorded history.

Five thousand years is a long time in human history.  To cover 5000 years of history in a few pages is no easy task.  We can only briefly list the most important events in a period and contributions of influential people in chronological order of the dynasties.  Instead of citing tedious dates, we get the big picture by citing the outstanding developments in each period and achievements of historical figures most influential in China’s history.

Huangdi (Huang—Yellow, the color of earth, Di—Emperor, 2698 BCE—2598BCE) Common ancestor of all Chinese, credited for many inventions—the calendar, the battle chariot, the compass, etc. His wife, Lei Zhu, was credited for making fabric from silk.  His half brother Yandi (Shengnong) originated agriculture and herbal medicine.  All Chinese refer themselves as Yan-Huang descendants.

Yao, Shun, Yu (Three Sage Kings 2356 BCE—2205 BCE)  Ideal models of rulers -- leaving the throne not to blood descendants, but to successors voted by tribal leaders according to merits.  It was an early form of democratic meritocracy. 

Xia (2205 BCE—1766 BCE) Shun’s successor Yu was called the Great Yu because of his contribution in controlling the great floods.  His son Chi also made contribution in fighting the floods alongside Yu.  He ousted Yu’s successor and started the tradition of hereditary dynasties.

Shang (1766 BCE –1122 BCE) Chinese written script known as Jiaguwen (script on oracle bones) first appeared in the Shang Dynasty.  Although calligraphy and style have changed over the last 4000 years in the general trend of simplification, the characters have retained the same meanings throughout the ages regardless of different oral dialects contributing to a unified culture in China.  Unlike oral variations of alphabetical languages, the visual characters have the same meaning even to people in Korea or Japan.  Shang Dynasty was also famous for producing the most advanced bronzes of the time.  The dynasty ended with a corrupt king, replaced by a series of benevolent kings of the Zhou Dynasty.

Zhou (1122BCE—770 BCE) was a long period of peace and prosperity under benevolent rulers, notably Zhou Wu Wang and Zhou Wen Wang.

Spring and Autumn Annals (770 BCE—476 BCE) was a period of great thinkers: Confucius, Laozi and Sunzi.  They ushered in the One Hundred Schools of Thought 诸子百家（孟子，荀子，韩非子，莊子，墨子….） in the following Warring States period until establishment of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE.  Confucius, Laozi, Sunzi were the most outstanding.  They left long-lasting influence in China for 2500 years: 

Confucius (551 BCE - 476 BCE)—Originator of Confucianism with Ren (benevolence) as its central theme for human behavior.  It has profound influence not only in China, but in other Asian countries as well.

Laozi (? Contemporary of Confucius)—His philosophy of Yin and Yang, with Harmony with Nature became the main theme of Daoism (Taoism).

Sunzi (544 BCE—496 BCE) – His Art of War has been studied as a military textbook in China for 2500 years. It has been translated into many international languages for studies in military and business strategies.  It is even in the curriculum of the West Point Military Academy in the US.

The Warring States (476 BCE—221 BCE) was a period of war among seven states.  Qin conquered six states one after another to establish a unified China.

Qin Dynasty (221 BCE--206 BCE) The greatest contributions of Qin Shi Huang (Qin’s first emperor) were to standardize written language, weights and measurements, and carriage width to establish a foundation for a united China.  His dynasty lasted a mere 15 years followed by the benevolent rule of Han emperors.  This pattern repeated in subsequent historical cycles of tyranny overturned by benevolent rulers.

Han Dynasty (206 BCE—220 AD) Early Han emperors learned from Qin’s example how quickly an empire can disintegrate under tyranny.  Emperors Han Wendi and Han Jindi started a period of rest and restoration from the devastation of Qin’s rule.  They lowered taxes and government requirements for a period of peace and productivity.  The most notable emperor Han Wu Di, adopted Confucianism as state doctrine exerting a lasting influence in society.  His generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing were quite successful to drive the fierce Xiongnu tribes out of China.  He sent Zhang Qian on expeditions to the West establishing trade routes along Central Asia and Europe from today’s Xi’an all the way to Rome, known later as the Silk Road.  The peaceful expeditions promoted communication, trade and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.

Buddhism entered China during the 1st Century in the Han Dynasty from India where it entered into a long decline. It spread to Korea and Japan from China.  Its influence on people grew in subsequent dynasties.  The three dominant philosophies of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism were compatible in promoting benevolence, peace and harmony.

The 426 years of Han Dynasty was a long period of assimilation of people and integration of culture, a melting pot of all tribes identified as Han Chinese. Actually, Han was not a race in the genetic sense.  Han Chinese population was defined, not by ethnicity, but by Han culture.  Ethnic groups adopted Han language and Confucian philosophy to become Han people.  After 2000 years of integration and inter-marriage, Han Chinese has remained the dominant group with 95% of population in China.

China’s Han Dynasty was contemporary with the Roman Empire, both with high technical, military and political achievements.  The difference is: the Roman Empire disintegrated into individual nations in Europe while China has remained a united country since the Han Dynasty.  In spite of brief periods of disunion, the Han Chinese as one people, have a tendency of gravitating towards a united nation.

Three Kingdoms (220—265 AD) This period was made famous by a book Romance of Three Kingdoms, a historical novel written by Luo Guanzhong in the 16th Century. The main character Zhuge Liang was the most respected politician in history with consummate Confucian qualities.  He became a symbol of wisdom in Chinese history.  Stories of Romance of Three Kingdoms, written largely based on history, became popular folklore with its literary embellishments.

Jin (265-420) China entered a period of disunion and unrest among Han Chinese and northern minority tribes. 

Southern and Northern Dynasties Northern Wei (386-535) was established by Xianbei (Siberia) tribes who invaded from the north. A complete assimilation in Han culture with names changed to Han surnames left no traces of foreign origin.

Sui Dynasty (581 - 618)  Xianbei descendents united China; extended and repaired the Great Wall. Two events had long-lasting influence: the building of the Grand Canal still in use today and establishment of Keju (civil service examination — a democratic merit system used since the 6th Century in imperial China to compete for government positions until replaced by modern schools in the 20th Century). With lifetime study on Confucian classics, winners achieved high moral standards.  Keju required the use of Han written language which had a unifying effect in sharing the same culture.  Minorities were largely assimilated in Han culture. 

Tang Dynasty (618 - 907)  Li Yuan who was related to Sui royal family, founded the Tang Dynasty. Tang Taizhong was an exemplary ruler, a model for later emperors. Succeeding her husband Tang Gaozhong, Wu Zetian (624-705) became the only female empress (not only wife of emperor, but ruler of country in her own right) in Chinese history.

During Tang Taizhong’s reign, Xuanzang traveled to India to bring Buddhist scriptures to China.  A history book Great Tang Records of the Western Regions recorded history and conditions of countries he traveled, including India.  This was the inspiration for a Ming novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng’en that became popular folklore.

Buddhism flourished in China before its spread to Korea and Japan.  Scholars embraced Han culture and brought it to new literary and cultural heights, especially in poetry, producing such great poets as Li Bai and Dufu. During the Tang Dynasty, the magnificent capital Chang-an (today’s Xi’an) was the most cosmopolitan city in the world attracting hordes of foreign visitors and scholars from Japan, Persia, etc. It was a period of cultural exchange with the outside world.

Song Dynasty (960 - 1279)  In spite of material abundance and cultural advances in this period, the Song Dynasty was lax in military defense which allowed Liao and Jin to take over vast areas of territory in the north. Song Huizhong was a great artist, but a poor ruler who died as a captive of Jin. The Southern Song retreated to the south and established the capital in today’s Hangzhou. 

Yuan Dynasty (1280 - 1368) Genghis Khan created the greatest empire covering the continents of Europe and Asia. The Great Wall was no barrier to his conquest. He came from the west after his conquests in Europe.  After he settled down, he began to admire the refined lifestyle of Han people. His Han counselor advised him to adopt the benevolent rule to manage the overwhelming majority of Han population with these words: You can conquer the world on horseback, but you cannot rule the world on horseback. 

His grandson Kublai Khan received a Confucian education with other royal members.  He was influenced by Han culture and with the help of Han officials, established the Yuan Dynasty with the capital in Beijing. Han culture transformed fierce Mongol warriors to become peaceful people. In the end, China gained territory the invaders brought with them to become part of China. 

Italian explorer Marco Polo came to China through the Silk Road on land, and after 17 years, he returned to Italy by way of the Maritime Silk Road. Reportedly, he held a position in Kublai Khan’s court.  Europeans were fascinated by his book Travels of Marco Polo that told of the fabulous riches in China and the beautiful cities of Suzhou and Hangzhou.

Yuan Dynasty was short-lived.  However, this period was important in cultural exchange and the spread of Islam in the empire spanning vast areas of Europe and Asia. 

Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) Yuan Dynasty was overthrown in uprisings. Mongols were driven back to the north, but periodic raids continued. Ming Emperor Yongle embarked on grand building projects of the Great Wall that continued throughout the Ming Dynasty and the building of the Forbidden City at the new capital in Beijing. In 1405, he sent Admiral Zheng He on the first of seven naval expeditions to South China Seas and Indian Ocean to reach as far as Africa for peaceful trade and cultural exchanges, not colonizing activities. China had the most advanced naval technology when Zheng He mapped and named over 300 islands including South China Sea Islands to claim as Chinese territories.  Another achievement was the making of Yongle Grand Encyclopedia—the first comprehensive encyclopedia in the world. Subsequent emperors were ill-prepared without a solid education in Confucian classics. They were not attentive to state affairs and soon, the Ming Dynasty entered into decline. Effortlessly, the Manchu tribe broke through the Great Wall led by traitors of Ming and established the Qing Dynasty.

Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911)  Early Qing emperors were great leaders with solid Confucian education. Emperor Kangxi and his grandson Emperor Qianlong each had reigns of over 60 years. Once more, China gained territory from Kangxi and Qianlong’s expeditions. Xinjiang, meaning New Territory, was the result of Qianlong’s expedition.  China became bigger from foreign invaders.  The empire entered into a long decline in the last hundred years of the Dynasty.  Opium Wars (1839-60) broke out a mere 40 years after Qianlong’s death resulting in the loss of Hong Kong and other concessions. China was further weakened under the mismanagement of the corrupt Empress Dowager Cixi.  Other Western powers and Japan joined forces to descend on China in subsequent years.    In 1895, China suffered a humiliating defeat and was required to pay huge sums for war indemnity. Japan occupied Taiwan from 1895 until 1945 when Japan surrendered at the end of WWII.

Republic of China (ROC, 1912--) Sun Yat-sen overthrew the Qing empire to establish the Republic of China, the first republic in Asia. He attended the same High School in Hawaii that President Obama attended. His Three Principles of People for the new republic drew inspiration from Lincoln’s government of the people, by the people, for the people. There was much left to do when he died in 1925. His successor Chiang Kai-shek led the northern expeditions to defeat the warlords before Japanese invasion started. Chiang and the Nationalist army bore the brunt of the War with Japan from 1931 until 1945 when Japan surrendered. There was hardly a time of peace for reconstruction of war-torn China when civil war broke out with the Communists.  

People’s Republic of China (PRC, 1949--) Mao Zedong was credited with the victory against the Nationalists. There was a brief period of reconstruction after involvement in the Korean War (1950-53).  The early 1960’s was a difficult period of widespread drought.  Between 1966 and 1976, the country fell into chaos in ten years of the Cultural Revolution.  In 1978, Deng Xiaoping started the reform and opening up of China that set the country on the road to recovery. 

Ruby Tsao--received BA from National Taiwan University; awarded full scholarship from an international education foundation to study in the US; received MS from the University of Michigan; she contributed to family finance from real estate through depreciation and appreciation. She has served as President of General Resource Technology, Inc. and treasurer of Tsao Foundation -both organizations to promote utilization and research of renewable resources technology developed by her husband Professor George Tsao. Her interests include writing and travel. 

Renaissance of China

Hong-Yee Chiu

From Desperation to Aspiration

The year was 1991 when I traveled to China and found myself dismayed by the quality of the roads near Xian, an ancient capital noted for its terracotta statues dating back to 206 BCE. As we bumped along the weather-beaten path, I sarcastically asked my guide Is there a superhighway at all in China? The guide tossed a blank look at me, as if in shock that I would betray my Chinese heritage by speaking such an insult. A quick-witted local Chinese answered promptly for her: Of course we have – in Taiwan.

A little more than a decade later, when I returned to Xian in February of 2005, the cityscape had completely changed. This time, as I was driven into the city, skyscrapers stretched up into the sky, and new buildings dotted the streets as well as the countryside. In answer to my question so many years earlier, the airport is now connected to the famed city via a well-constructed and maintained superhighway, which directly connects to Beijing.

In fact, a superhighway system is already in existence, a system that connects countless cities, including those in remote border provinces. During my fourteen-year absence between 1991 and 2005, China had undergone vast changes. The construction of superhighways is but one of them. Today, China boasts of over 50,000 kilometers (31,250 miles) of four-or-more lane modern superhighways, a system that was only completed in the recent decade. (Incidentally, the total mileage of Taiwan’s superhighway is less than 250 miles.) Plans call for the completion of an additional 35,000 kilometers (21,875 miles) of superhighways by 2015, making the total mileage 53,125 miles. This achievement would put the mileage of China’s superhighways beyond that of the U.S. Eisenhower Interstate Highway System (46,726 miles, as of October 31, 2002; and not too many miles were added after 2002). As I considered these impressive facts, I was led to wonder, how China could have achieved so much in such a short time, during which China also rose to become an economic power? Yet the highway system was only the tip of the iceberg of progress when it came to China’s advances.  This led me to ask even more questions and discover more answers. I would soon discover that this rapid renaissance was almost a natural consequence, a repetition of recoveries from similar calamities in the past two millennia.

One Question Leads to Another

Soon after I began my search for information, I found out the hard way that this quest would take me further than I thought I would ever go. Each time I thought I found an answer to a question, another one arose. For example, how and why did China fall from a world power in the eastern hemisphere during the early reign of Qing before 1800, into a state of despair, which lasted almost one hundred and fifty years, during which China faced near extinction? During another period – from 1950 to 1980 – China became one of the most impoverished countries in the world. Then from 1980 on, China began her meteoric rise from the ashes, becoming a country that was referred to by a recent president of the United States as a future strategic enemy. To push a vast country with the world’s largest population into such a rapid and vast transformation within a human generation is hard to imagine conceptually. Yet China seemed to have achieved this Herculean task effortlessly (at least from a superficial observation).

The answers I found to these perplexing queries involved many historical factors. Since the legendary King Huangdi conquered his neighboring tribes to establish a tribal union nearly five thousand years ago (ca. 2700 BCE, to be more exact), the development of the Chinese civilization largely took place within China proper. The growth of Chinese civilization betrayed yet another unique characteristic, that is, even during the incessant and continual invasions by nomad tribes – largely from the north, notably from the third to the sixth centuries – the development never stopped. Almost everything that happened or is happening now could be traced to precepts established centuries or even millennia back. Among these questions, let me list a few.

China had been invaded, conquered and ruled by foreign tribes many times over since the third century. However, at the end of the day, the invaders willingly assimilated into ethnic Chinese culture and, as a result, their territories became parts of China. Chinese territory and civilization grew further. How and why?

There is a historical parallel between China and Europe. After the Zhou Dynasty began its decline around the eighth century BCE, China was fractionalized into many independent countries (known as the Warring States Period). Qin Shi Huang Di reunited China and established the Qin Dynasty, a powerful centralized government, in 221 BCE. This dynasty did not last long, but the tradition of a strong centralized government persists to this very day. After the demise of the Roman Empire, Europe was fractionalized, but in 800, Charlemagne reunited Europe into a powerful empire. However, after his death, Europe was again fractionalized into a number of warring states. This scenario lasted until the end of WWII, on the eve of the so-called nuclear age. Only recently is there any sign of unification. Why is there such a difference between European and Chinese histories?

Throughout her history, China accepted various religions from all over the world and even established one of her own. Despite efforts to implement a national religion, none succeeded. More strikingly, there had never been any discrimination based on religion (or even race, for that matter). In addition, although internal strife and conflicts persisted, no wars had ever been fought over differences in theological principles. Insurgencies were often inspired by religion, but their true nature was still peasant revolts. In European history, countless wars have been fought in the name of religion. Why is there such a difference between China and European countries? What are the standing of religion and the current attitudes towards religions in China?

China and the West also differed in terms of the longevity of the landownership-based feudal system. Although China had developed a well-regimented land-based hereditary feudal system in 1000 BCE, by 500 BCE it collapsed and never revived. On the other hand, in Europe a hereditary feudal system was essentially established after the death of Charlemagne in 814 AD. This system lasted well into the nineteenth century, and remnants are still seen today. Why is there such a difference?

In China, beginning around the fifth century BCE, knowledge had become popularized, i.e. spread into the general populace, and the popularization of knowledge resulted in a golden period of scholarship; most Chinese philosophies were developed between the 5th and 2nd centuries BCE, rivaling the golden age of Greece. However, Greek philosophies gave birth to science, but the Chinese philosophies did not. Why?

Between 1966 and 1978, virtually all Chinese learning institutions were shut down. Yet within three decades scholarship not only flourished, but also vastly expanded. Since then, higher educational institutions have mushroomed. Starting with virtually nothing, industrialization has reached unprecedented levels in Chinese history, and China has become a chief supplier of manufactured consumer goods for the world. How did the Chinese economy recover so fast? Were there any problems? What are the future prospects of the Chinese economy?

China has been attacked for being undemocratic and for having no popular elections. However, recent Pew studies showed that an overwhelming majority of Chinese are satisfied with the way things are and the direction China is heading. Why? Is China as undemocratic as depicted by Western media and liberals?

What is the truth about the nature of the current Chinese political system?

Countless experts and scholars have studied similar probing questions. However, in the West, probably because of the language barrier and the lack of understanding of the nature of Chinese civilization, many opinions and analyses tended to be either incomplete or tainted with Western biases. Many analyses were also based on previous work presented in Western languages. There is thus a tendency to lead to what the military calls incestuous amplification. Even in China, the analyses before 1980 were also often biased. Yet the economic reform, brought forth after 1980, also took root in the thinking of modern Chinese scholars, freed from ideological bondages. Since then they have been able to reexamine and to reanalyze the Chinese civilization with new perspectives. They have applied the more scientific Western methodology in their studies without conforming to ideological biases. Their findings may still need adjustments in the future, but their methodologies and attitudes seem in the right direction. During the writing of this book, I have greatly benefited from their findings. However, I did not accept their findings per se. I thoroughly examined the ultimate sources before establishing my own opinions.

The Great Cultural Divide between the Chinese and the Western Civilizations

There is yet another motive for me to write this book. I have spent a good part of my life living in the United States, and I found extreme disparities between Chinese and American (as well as European) cultures, some of which even run in opposite directions. Many Chinese friends share the same view. In fact, many Americans are ignorant of Chinese civilization. Even the knowledge of the so-called Chinese experts tends to be partial, superficial or even distorted. Few have recognized that there have been many historical parallels in both civilizations, but the outcomes are