ENVIRONMENTAL AIR POLLUTION

IIT(M) LECTURE NOTES

History of Air Pollution

1272 - King Edward I of England bans use of sea coal 1377 1399 - Richard II restricts use of coal 1413 1422 - Henry V regulates/restricts use of coal 1661 - By royal command of Charles II, John Evelyn of the Royal Society publishes Fumifugium; or the Inconvenience of the Air and Smoke dissipated; together with Some Remedies Humbly Proposed 1784Watts steam engine; boilers to burn fossil fuels (coal) to make steam to pump water and move machinery Smoke and ash from fossil fuels by power plants, trains, ships: coal (and oil) burning = smoke, ash 1907 - Formation of the predecessor to the Air & Waste Management Association 1930 - 1950s - Air Pollution Episodes 1955 First Federal Air Pollution Control Act - funds for research (USA) 1960 Motor Vehicle Exhaust Act - funds for research (USA) 1963 Clean Air Act (USA) -Three stage enforcement -Funds for state and local agencies 1965 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act (USA) -Emission regulations for cars to begin in 1968 1967 Air Quality Act (USA) -Criteria documents -Control technique documents 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments (USA) -National Ambient Air Quality Standards -New Source Performance Standards

Why study air pollution ?

Early 1900s The City of Chicago, Illinois passes an ordinance to reduce the smoke emitted by local factories. 1940s Los Angeles, California becomes one of the first cities in the U.S. to experience severe air pollution problems then called gas attacks. L.A.s location in a basin like area ringed by mountains makes it susceptible to accumulation of auto exhaust and emissions from local petroleum refineries 1948 Air pollution kills in Donora, Pennsylvania. An unusual temperature inversion lasting six days blocks dispersal of emissions from zinc smelting and blast furnaces. Out of a total population of 14,000 people, 20 die, 600 others become ill, and 1400 seek medical attention. 1950 A chemist at the California Institute of Technology proposes a theory of smog (or ozone) formation in which auto exhaust and sunlight play major roles. 1954 An early public protest against air pollution takes place in East Greenville, Pennsylvania. Homemakers march on the town council to demand that a local casket manufacturer be required to stop polluting. Their complaint is that clean laundry hung out to dry became dirtier than before it was washed because of high levels of soot (or particulates) in the air. 1962 Silent Spring is published. Rachel Carsons powerful book draws the attention of the American public to the potential consequences of the increasing ability of human activities to significantly and even permanently alters the natural world. 1966 In New York City, a three-day temperature inversion over Thanksgiving weekend is blamed for the deaths of 168 people. 1969 Millions of Americans watch via satellite, as Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the moon. The same weekend, a very different news story startles the nation. Sulfur dioxide pollution emitted by industries near Gary, Indiana and East Chicago becomes potent acid rain that burns lawns, eats away tree leaves, and causes birds to lose their feathers. 1969 A vivid color photographs of Earth from space, widely distributed, shifts human perceptions of our planet. The Earth no longer seems vast but is recognized as a small, fragile ball of life in the immense

infinitude of cold, black space. 1970 The first Earth Day becomes part of American history. Millions of students and citizens attend rallies to learn about environmental concerns and speak for environmental protection. 1972 Representatives of 113 nations, gather on 5th June at a United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm to develop plans for international action to protect the world environment. 1978 Rainfall in Wheeling, West Virginia is measured at a pH of 2, the most acidic yet recorded and 5000 times more acidic than normal rainfall. 1981 Air pollution enters international politics when the Quebec Ministry of the Environment notifies the U.S. that 60 percent of the acid rain (sulfur dioxide pollution) damaging air and waters in Quebec, Canada comes from the U.S. industrial sources in the Midwestern and Northeastern U.S. 1982 The National Center for Health Statistics releases a study indicating that four percent of all U.S. schoolchildren, including about 12 percent of all African-American preschoolers, have high levels of lead in their blood. About 675,000 children are at risk of kidney damage, brain damage, anemia, retardation, and other ills associated with lead poisoning. It is recognized that children absorb this lead by breathing air laden with lead pollution, primarily from leaded gasoline. 1985 The U.S. EPA estimates 50,000 streams in the U.S. and Canada are dead or dying because of acid rain pollution. 1986 The National Academy of Sciences reports that the burning of coal, gasoline, and other fossil fuels is definitely linked to acid rain and the death of trees, fish, and lake ecosystems in both the U.S. and Canada. 1992 The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil is the most comprehensive international conference on the environment to date. Representatives from 188 countries and 35,000 participants attend. Two treaties are signed by all except the U.S. One, on global warming recommending curbing emissions of greenhouse gases. The second, on making inventories of plants and wildlife and strategies to protect endangered species.

Air Pollution Episodes

Period of poor air qulaity, upto several days, often extending over large geograpical area. Winter: cold, stable weather conditions trap pollutants close to sources and prevent dispersion. Elavated concentrations of range of pollutants build up over several days Summer: hot and sunny weather. Pollutants emitted within the U.K. or Europe transported long distances, reacting with each other in sunlight to produce high levels of ozone, & other photochemical pollutants.

Meuse Valley-Belgium, 1930

63 died (mostly elderly) Sore throats, shortness of breath, cough, phlegm, nausea, vomiting SO2, sulfur dioxide H2O SO4 sulfuric acid mist Cattle, birds and rats died Got little news coverage

Fumigation of a valley floor caused by an inversion layer that restricts diffusion from a stack

Donora, PennsylvaniaOct. 1948

Monongahela River Valley Industrial townsteel mill, sulfuric acid plant, freight yard, etc. Population14,000 Steep hills surrounding the valley Oct 26temperature inversion (warm air trapping cold air near the ground) Stable air, fog, lasted 4.5 days

Environs of Donora, Pennsylvania. Horseshoe curve of Monongahela River is surrounded by mountains. Railroad tracks are located on both sides of the river. Low-lying stretch of Monongahela valley between railroad and river is natural trap for pollutants.

Poza Rico, Mexico 1950

Single source high sulfur crude oil Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Flare went out Inversion in valley 22 sudden deaths, 320 hospitalized All ages Forerunner of Bhopal

December 1952 Great London Smog

Cold front, Londoners burned soft coal Factories, power plants Temperature inversion 5 days of worst smog city had ever seen Public transportation stopped Indoor concerts had to be cancelled because no one could see the stage, etc.

Weekly death registered from diseases of the lungs and heart in the London Administrative County around the time of the severe fog in December, 1952.

Total death in Greater London and air pollutants levels measured during the fog of December 1952

Seveso, Italy --Dioxin

July 10, 1976, north of Milan A valve broke at the Industrie Chimiche Meda Societa Azionaria chemical plant Cloud of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin (TCDD) traveled southwest through Seveso toward Milan Contaminant of herbicide

Bhopal, India Dec. 3, 1984

Union Carbide pesticide plant leak kills up to 2,000 with up to 350,000 injured and 100,000 with permanent disabilities Methyl isocyanate (MIC) used as an intermediary in manufacture of Sevin (Carbaryl) CO + Cl = phosgene Phosgene + methylamine = MIC MICirritant to the lungs--edema, fluid (cause of death, bronchospasms, corneal opacity

Hydrogen cyanide? Sabotage or industrial accident?

World-wide Air Pollution Episode

November 27-December 10, 1962 Thousands of excess deaths in many cities including NYC, London, Boston, Paris New Orleans Oct-Nov 1958 asthma deaths.

Hundreds Troubled by 'World Trade Center Cough NYC fire fighters, school workers have 9/11 breathing problems, new studies say

Air Pollution
Transfer of harmful and/or of Natural/Synthetic materials into the atmosphere as a direct/indirect consequences of human activity (OECD).

Air Pollution Definition Based on System Approach

Types of Air Pollution

Personal air exposure

-It refers to exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an individual exposes himself when he indulge himself in smoking

Occupational air exposure

-It represents the type of exposure of individuals to potentially harmful concentration of aerosols, vapors, and gases in their working environment.

Community air exposure

-This is most serious, complex, consists of varieties of assortment of pollution sources, meteorological factors, and wide variety of adverse social, economical, and health effects.

The Earths Great Spheres

Lithosphere- The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust
(surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet

Hydrosphere- The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the plane

Biosphere- The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals of Ear

Atmosphere- The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system

Atmosphere

It is a mixture of gases that forms a layer of about 250 miles thick around the earth. - Bottom 10-12 miles (Troposphere) is most important part in terms of

o o

Weather Other aspects of Biogeochemical cycle

Source of Air Pollution

Natural Sources Volcano, forest fire, dust storms, oceans, plants and trees Anthropogenic Sources - created by human beings

Air- Pollutantsmeters of Troposphere: Air Quality Studies The lowest 600

Any substance occurring in the78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% carbon dioxide, water, other gases Air pollutants have known or Composition of Air atmosphere that may have suspected harmful effects adverse effects on humans, on human health and Divided into four zones: animals, plant life, and/or tironment. - Troposphere inanimate materials. - Stratosphere - Mesosphere - ThermosphereStationary sources

o Point sources (Industrial plants, fuels combustion etc.) Criteria Air Pollutants processing, power oil, on site incineration, open burning etc.) o Area sources (Residential heating coal gas
Based on sources - Mobile health effects with measured air quality levels that violate the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (NAAQS) Line sources (Highway vehicles, railroad locomotives, channel vessels etc.) o -CO -NOx -SOx -VOCs -Particulates -Pb

Hazardous Air Pollutants

Predecessor: National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 directed EPA to establish emission controls for 189 chemicals listed in the Act. -NOT based on health criteria -Based on Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT)

Non-Criteria Pollutants

In essence, all pollutants not included in the NAAQS and HAP lists Examples: -CO -NaCl

Air Pollutants

Primary air pollutants - Materials that when released pose health risks in their unmodified forms or those emitted directly from identifiable sources. Secondary air pollutants - Primary pollutants interact with one another, sunlight, or natural gases to produce new, harmful compounds

Primary Air Pollutants

Five major materials released directly into the atmosphere in unmodified forms. -Carbon monoxide -Sulfur dioxide -Nitrogen oxides -Hydrocarbons -Particulate matter

Carbon Monoxide

Produced by burning of organic material (coal, gas, wood, trash, etc.)

Automobiles biggest source (80%)

Cigarette smoke another major source

Toxic because binds to hemoglobin, reduces oxygen in blood

Not a persistent pollutant, combines with oxygen to form CO2

Most communities now meet EPA standards, but

Assignments
1. Can you explain the word episode used in air pollution? 2. Can you think why mountains in a basin like area make the pollutants susceptible to accumulation? 3. Can you tell two words making the word smog? 4. Do you know that soot is unburnt/burnt carbon particle? 5. Why Earth Day is celebrated? Explain. 6. Can you explain the significance of World Environment Day? 7. What does Earth Summit's means? 8. Are CO and NOx indicators or pollutants? 9. Can you list direct/indirect consequences of human activity causing air pollution? 10. Differentiate among personal/occupational/community air exposure. 11. Is environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) personal/occupational / community exposures? 12. Explain various spheres of the Earth. 13. Explain various sources of air pollution. 14. Differentiate between troposphere/stratosphere/mesosphere. Which one is ideal for air pollution studies effecting living beings? 15. Differentiate between criteria/non-criteria/hazardous pollutants . Why O3 is not taken as criteria pollutants?

Ambient Air Pollution Monitoring

Introduction
Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment are particulate matters (suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and respirable suspended particulate matter i.e. RSPM), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and photochemical oxidants.

The recommended criteria for siting the monitoring stations

The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of the monitoring programs. The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of compliance of air quality standards. Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing air pollution sources. Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due to accidental release of chemicals. Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.

Type of ambient monitoring stations

Station type
Type A

Description
Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in congested areas, surrounding by buildings, many pedestrians, average traffic flow > 10000 vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground. Downtown neighbor hood exposure stations- In central business districts but not congested areas, less high rise buildings, average vehicles < 500 vehicles per day. Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas etc. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground. Residential population exposure station In the midst of the residential areas or sub-urban areas but not in central business districts. The station should be more than 100 m away from any street. Mesoscale stations At appropriate height to collect meteorological and air quality data at upper elevation; main purpose to collect the trend of data

Type B

Type C Type D

Type E

Type F

variations not human exposure. Non-urban stations In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no industrial activity. Main purpose to monitor trend analysis. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground. Specialized source survey stations to determine the impact on air quality at specified location by an air pollution source under scrutiny. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Frequency of data collection

Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring Particulates: once every three days

Number of stations

Minimum number is three. The location is dependent upon the wind rose diagram that gives predominant wind directions and speed. One station must be at upstream of predominant wind direction and other two must at downstream pre dominant wind direction. More than three stations can also be established depending upon the area of coverage.

Components of ambient air sampling systems

Four main components are:

Inlet manifold Air mover collection medium flow measurement device

Inlet manifold transports sampled pollutants from ambient air to collection medium or analytical device in an unaltered condition. The manifold should not be very long. Air mover provides force to create vacuum or lower pressure at the end of sampling systems. They are pumps. The collection mediums are liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters or chamber for air analysis (automatic instruments). The flow device like rotameters measure the volume of air sampled.

Characteristics for ambient air sampling systems

Five main characteristicss are:

collection efficiency sample stability recovery minimal interference understanding the mechanism of collection

The first three must be 100% efficient. For e.g. for SO2, the sorbent should be such that at ambient temperature it may remove the SO2 from ambient atmosphere 100%. Sample must be stabled during the time between sampling and analysis. Recovery i.e. the analysis of particular pollutant must be 100% correct.

Basic considerations for sampling

Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and conditions to be studied. Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection. Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in pollution levels i.e. whether 1hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling. Continuous sampling is preferred. Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.

Errors in sampling by HVS

Particulates may be lost in sampling manifold so not too long or too twisted manifold must be used. If isokinetic conditioned are not maintained, biased results may be obtained for particulate matters.

Advantages of HVS

High flow rate at low pressure drop High particulate storage capacity No moisture regain high collection efficiency Low coast Not appreciable increase in air flow resistance Filter is 99% efficient and can collect the particles as fine as 0.3 m Absorption principle is 99% efficient in collecting the gases

Stack Monitoring: techniques & instrumentation

Sampling
The sample collected must be representative in terms of time and location. The sample volume should be large enough to permit accurate analysis. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection. The contaminants must not be modified or altered in the process of collection.

Diagrammatic view of stack sampling

Impingers are glass bubble tubes designed for the collection of airborne particles into a liquid medium
(Figure 1). When using an air sampler, a known volume of air bubbles is pumped through the glass tube that contains a

liquid specified in the method. The liquid is then analyzed to determine airborne concentrations.

Figure 1: Glass Impinger

Selection of sampling location

The sampling point should be as far as possible from any disturbing influence, such as elbows, bends, transition pieces, baffles. The sampling point, wherever possible should be at a distance of 5-10 diameters down-stream from any obstruction and 3-5 diameters up-stream from similar disturbance.

Size of sampling point

The size of the sampling point may be made in the range of 7-10 cm, in diameter.

Traverse points

For the sample become representative, it should be collected at various points across the stack. The number of traverse points may be selected with reference to Table 1.

Table 1: Traverse Points Cross-section area of stack sq. m

0.2 0.2 to 2.5 2.5 and above

No. of Points
4 12 20

In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal annular areas across two perpendicular diameters as shown in Figure 2

Figure 2 In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided in to 12 to 25 equal areas and the centers for each area are fixed. (Figure 3)

Figure 3

Isokinetic conditions

Isokinetic conditions exist when the velocity in the stack Vs equals the velocity at the top of the probe nozzle Vn at the sample point (Figure 4).

Figure 4

Ambient Air Pollution Monitoring

Introduction
Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment are particulate matters (suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and respirable suspended particulate matter i.e. RSPM), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and photochemical oxidants.

The recommended criteria for siting the monitoring stations

The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of the monitoring programs. The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of compliance of air quality standards. Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing air pollution sources. Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due to accidental release of chemicals. Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.

Type of ambient monitoring stations

Station type
Type A

Description
Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in congested areas, surrounding by buildings, many pedestrians, average traffic flow > 10000 vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground. Downtown neighbor hood exposure stations- In central business districts but not congested areas, less high rise buildings, average vehicles < 500 vehicles per day. Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas etc. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground. Residential population exposure station In the midst of the residential areas or sub-urban areas but not in central business districts. The station should be more than 100 m away from any street. Mesoscale stations At appropriate height to collect meteorological and air quality data at upper elevation; main purpose to collect the trend of data variations not human exposure. Non-urban stations In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no industrial activity. Main purpose to monitor trend analysis. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground. Specialized source survey stations to determine the impact on air quality at specified location by an air pollution source under scrutiny. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Type B

Type C

Type D Type E

Type F

Frequency of data collection

Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring Particulates: once every three days

Number of stations

Minimum number is three. The location is dependent upon the wind rose diagram that gives predominant wind directions and speed. One station must be at upstream of predominant wind direction and other two must at downstream pre dominant wind direction. More than three stations can also be established depending upon the area of coverage.

Components of ambient air sampling systems

Four main components are:

Inlet manifold Air mover collection medium flow measurement device

Inlet manifold transports sampled pollutants from ambient air to collection medium or analytical device in an unaltered condition. The manifold should not be very long. Air mover provides force to create vacuum or lower pressure at the end of sampling systems. They are pumps. The collection mediums are liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters or chamber for air analysis (automatic instruments). The flow device like rotameters measure the volume of air sampled.

Characteristics for ambient air sampling systems

Five main characteristicss are:

collection efficiency sample stability recovery minimal interference understanding the mechanism of collection

The first three must be 100% efficient. For e.g. for SO2, the sorbent should be such that at ambient temperature it may remove the SO2 from ambient atmosphere 100%. Sample must be stabled during the time between sampling and analysis. Recovery i.e. the analysis of particular pollutant must be 100% correct.

Basic considerations for sampling

Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and conditions to be studied. Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection. Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in pollution levels i.e. whether 1hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling. Continuous sampling is preferred. Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.

Errors in sampling by HVS

Particulates may be lost in sampling manifold so not too long or too twisted manifold must be used. If isokinetic conditioned are not maintained, biased results may be obtained for particulate matters.

Advantages of HVS

High flow rate at low pressure drop High particulate storage capacity No moisture regain high collection efficiency Low coast Not appreciable increase in air flow resistance Filter is 99% efficient and can collect the particles as fine as 0.3 m Absorption principle is 99% efficient in collecting the gases

Stack Monitoring: techniques & instrumentation

Sampling

The sample collected must be representative in terms of time and location. The sample volume should be large enough to permit accurate analysis. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection. The contaminants must not be modified or altered in the process of collection.

Diagrammatic view of stacksampling

Impingers are glass bubble tubes designed for the collection of airborne particles into a liquid medium
(Figure 1). When using an air sampler, a known volume of air bubbles is pumped through the glass tube that contains a liquid specified in the method. The liquid is then analyzed to determine airborne concentrations.

Figure 1: Glass Impinger

Selection of sampling location

The sampling point should be as far as possible from any disturbing influence, such as elbows, bends, transition pieces, baffles. The sampling point, wherever possible should be at a distance of 5-10 diameters down-stream from any

obstruction and 3-5 diameters up-stream from similar disturbance.

Size of sampling point

The size of the sampling point may be made in the range of 7-10 cm, in diameter.

Traverse points

For the sample become representative, it should be collected at various points across the stack. The number of traverse points may be selected with reference to Table 1.

Table 1: Traverse Points Cross-section area of stack sq. m

0.2 0.2 to 2.5 2.5 and above

No. of Points
4 12 20

In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal annular areas across two perpendicular diameters as shown in Figure 2

Figure 2 In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided in to 12 to 25 equal areas and the centers for each area are fixed. (Figure 3)

Figure 3

Isokinetic conditions

Isokinetic conditions exist when the velocity in the stack Vs equals the velocity at the top of the probe nozzle Vn at the sample point (Figure 4).

Figure 4

Experimental analysis: Gaseous & particulates; standards & limits

Principles of Sampling and Analysis

The components of an air pollution monitoring system include the -collection or sampling of pollutants both from the ambient air and from specific sources, -the analysis or measurement of the pollutant concentrations, and -the reporting and use of the information collected. Emissions data collected from point sources are used to determine compliance with air pollution regulations, determine the effectiveness of air pollution control technology, evaluate production efficiencies, and support scientific research. The EPA has established ambient air monitoring methods for the criteria pollutants, as well as for toxic organic (TO) compounds and inorganic (IO) compounds. The methods specify precise procedures that must be followed for any monitoring activity related to the compliance provisions of the Clean Air Act. These procedures regulate sampling, analysis, calibration of instruments, and calculation of emissions. The concentration is expressed in terms of mass per unit volume, usually micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3).

Particulate Monitoring

Particulate monitoring is usually accomplished with manual measurements and subsequent laboratory analysis. A particulate matter measurement uses gravimetric principles. Gravimetric analysis refers to the quantitative chemical analysis of weighing a sample, usually of a separated and dried precipitate. In this method, a filter-based high-volume sampler (a vacuum- type device that draws air through a filter or absorbing substrate) retains atmospheric pollutants for future laboratory weighing and chemical analysis. Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters are weighed to determine the volume of the pollutant. The weight of the filter with collected pollutants minus the weight of a clean filter gives the amount of particulate matter in a given volume of air. Chemical analysis can be done by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), inductively couple plasma (ICP) spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy.

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)

AAS is a sensitive means for the quantitative determination of more than 60 metals or metalloid elements. Principle: This technique operates by measuring energy changes in the atomic state of the analyte. For example, AAS is used to measure lead in particulate monitoring.

Figure: Atomic absorption spectrometry

Particles are collected by gravimetric methods in a Teflon (PTFE) filter, lead is acid-extracted from the filter. The aqueous sample is vaporized and dissociates into its elements in the gaseous state. The element being measured, in this case lead, is aspirated into a flame or injected into a graphite furnace and atomized. A hollow cathode or electrode less discharge lamp for the element being determined provides a source of

that metal's particular absorption wavelength. The atoms in the unionized or "ground" state absorb energy, become excited, and advance to a higher energy level. A detector measures the amount of light absorbed by the element, hence the number of atoms in the ground state in the flame or furnace. The data output from the spectrometer can be recorded on a strip chart recorder or processed by computer. Determination of metal concentrations is performed from prepared calibration curves or read directly from the instrument.

Gaseous pollutant monitoring

Gaseous pollutant monitoring can be accomplished using various measurement principles. Some of the most common techniques to analyze gaseous pollutants include -Spectrophotometry, -Chemi-luminescence, -Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID), - Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and - Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). With all sampling and analysis procedures, the end result is quantitative data. The validity of the data depends on the accuracy and precision of the methods used in generating the data. The primary quality control measure is calibration. Calibration checks the accuracy of a measurement by establishing the relationship between the output of a measurement process and a known input.

Table 1. Methods of Measuring and Analyzing Air Pollutants

Method
Gravimetric Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) Spectrophotometry Chemiluminescence Gas chromatography (GC) - flame ionization detector (FID) Gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

Variable Measured
PM10, PM2.5

Principle
Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters are weighed to determine the volume of the pollutant.

more than 60 metals This technique operates by measuring energy changes in the atomic or metalloid state of the analyte. Emitted radiation is a function of atoms present elements (e.g. Pb, in the sample. Hg, Zn) Measure the amount of light that a sample absorbs. The amount of SO2, O3 light absorbed indicates the amount of analyte present in the sample. Based upon the emission spectrum of an excited species that is SO2, O3 formed in the course of a chemical reaction. VOC VOC Responds in proportion to number of carbon atoms in gas sample. Mass spectrometers use the difference in mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other. Sample absorbs infrared radiation and difference in absorption is measured.

CO, VOC, CH4

Spectrophotometry

A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a sample absorbs. The instrument operates by passing a beam of light through a sample and measuring the intensity of light reaching a detector. Spectrophotometry commonly used to measure sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations. The amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of sulfur dioxide present in the sample.

Figure: Schematic of a UV-VIS spectrophotometer

Chemiluminescence

An ambient air sample is mixed with excess ozone in a special sample cell. A portion of the NO present is converted to an activated NO2 which returns to a lower energy state and in the process emits light. This phenomenon is called chemiluminescence.

Figure: Chemical reaction to determine oxides of nitrogen by chemiluminescence

Chemiluminescence methods for determining components of gases originated with the need for highly sensitive means for determining atmospheric pollutants such as ozone, oxides of nitrogen, and sulfur compounds. The intensity of this light can be measured with a photomultiplier tube and is proportional to the amount of NO in the sample. A second reaction measures the total oxides of nitrogen in the air sample and in turn, the concentration of NO2 can be calculated.

Gas Chromatography (GC)

Gas chromatography (GC) coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) is employed for qualitative identification and quantitative determination of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air pollution monitoring. The GC, consists of a column, oven and detector. In the gas chromatograph, a sample goes to the column, separates into individual compounds and proceeds through the hydrogen flame ionization detector.

Figure: Schematic gas chromatography

The flame in a flame ionization detector is produced by the combustion of hydrogen and air. When a sample is introduced, hydrocarbons are combusted and ionized, releasing electrons. A collector with a polarizing voltage located near the flame attracts the free electrons, producing a current that is proportional to the amount of hydrocarbons in the sample. The signal from the flame ionization detector is then amplified and output to a display or external device. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) instruments have also been used for identification of volatile organic compounds. Mass spectrometers use the difference in mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other. Mass spectrometry is useful for quantification of atoms or molecules and also for determining chemical and structural information about molecules.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

FTIR can detect and measure both criteria pollutants and toxic pollutants in ambient air FTIR can directly measure more than 120 gaseous pollutants in the ambient air, such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone. The technology is based on the fact that every gas has its own "fingerprint," or absorption spectrum.

Figure: FTIR can directly measure both criteria

pollutants and toxic pollutants in the ambient air.

The FTIR sensor monitors the entire infrared spectrum and reads the different fingerprints of the gases present in the ambient air. Carbon monoxide is monitored continuously by analyzers that operate on the infrared absorption principle. Ambient air is drawn into a sample chamber and a beam of infrared light is passed through it. CO absorbs infrared radiation, and any decrease in the intensity of the beam is due to the presence of CO molecules. This decrease is directly related to the concentration of CO in the air. A special detector measures the difference in the radiation between this beam and a duplicate beam passing through a reference chamber with no CO present.

This difference in intensity is electronically translated into a reading of the CO present in the ambient air, measured in parts per million.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

POLLUTANTS sulphur dioxide (SO2) Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Lead Carbon Monoxide Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM) AVERAGE TIME Annual average 24 hour A.A 24H A.A 24H A.A 24H A.A 24H A.A 24H CONCENTRATION 60 g/cubic m 80 g/cubic m 60 g/cubic m 80 g/cubic m 140g/cubic m 200g/cubic m 0.75 g/cubic m 1.0 g/cubic m 2.0 g/cubic m 84.0 g/cubic m 60 g/cubicm 100 g/cubic m

NAAQS by USEPA 2006

Pollutant
Carbon Monoxide Lead Nitrogen Dioxide Particulate Matter (PM10) Particulate Matter (PM2.5)

Primary Stds.
9 ppm (10 mg/cubic m) 35 ppm (40 mg/cubic m) 1.5 g/cubic m 0.053 ppm (100 g/cubic m) Revoked(2) 150 g/cubic m 15.0 g/cubic m 35 g/cubic m 0.08 ppm

Averaging Times
8-hour(1) 1-hour(1) Quarterly Average Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Annual(2) (Arith. Mean) 24-hour(3) Annual(4) (Arith. Mean) 24-hour(5) 8-hour(6) 1-hour(7) (Applies only in limited areas) Annual (Arith. Mean) 24-hour(1) 3-hour(1)

Secondary Stds.
None None Same as Primary Same as Primary

Same as Primary

Same as Primary Same as Primary ------------0.5 ppm (1300 g/cubic m)

Ozone

0.12 ppm 0.03 ppm 0.14 ppm -------

Sulfur Oxides

(1)Not to be exceeded more than once per year. (2)Due to a lack of evidence linking health problems to long-term exposure to coarse particle pollution, the agency revoked the annual PM10 standard in 2006 (effective December 17, 2006). (3) Not to be exceeded more than once per year on average over 3 years. (4) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the weighted annual mean PM2.5 concentrations from single or multiple community-oriented monitors must not exceed 15.0 g/cubic metre. (5) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 24-hour concentrations at each population-oriented monitor within an area must not exceed 35 g/cubic metre (effective December 17, 2006). (6) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year must not exceed 0.08 ppm. (7) (a) The standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average concentrations above 0.12 ppm is < 1, as determined by appendix H. (b) As of June 15, 2005 EPA revoked the 1-hour ozone standard in all areas except the fourteen 8-hour ozone nonattainment Early Action

Compact (EAC) Areas.

WHO Air Quality Guidelines Value

POLLUTANTS AVERAGE TIME AQG value 10 g/cubic metre 25 g/cubic metre 20 g/cubic metre 50 g/cubic metre 100 g/cubic metre 40g/cubic metre 200g/cubic metre 20 g/cubic metre 500 g/cubic metre

Particulate matter PM2.5 PM10

1 year 24 hour(99th percentile) 1 year 24 hour(99th percentile)

Ozone, O3

8 hour, daily maximum

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2

1 year 1 hour

Sulfur dioxide, SO2

24 hour 10 minute

References
USEPA, 2007. Online literature from www.epa.gov WHO, 2005. WHO air quality guidelines global update 2005, WHOLIS number E87950. CPCB 2006, Central Pollution Control Board. http://www.cpcb.nic.in/standard2.htm

Air pollution effects : On living and non living beings Human Health Effects

Exposure to air pollution is associated with numerous effects on human health, including pulmonary, cardiac, vascular, and neurological impairments. The health effects vary greatly from person to person. High-risk groups such as the elderly, infants, pregnant women, and sufferers from chronic heart and lung diseases are more susceptible to air pollution. Children are at greater risk because they are generally more active outdoors and their lungs are still developing. Exposure to air pollution can cause both acute (shortterm) and chronic (long-term) health effects. Acute effects are usually immediate and often reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some acute health effects include eye irritation, headaches, and nausea. Chronic effects are usually not immediate and tend not to be reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. - Some chronic health effects include decreased lung capacity and lung cancer resulting from long-term exposure to toxic air pollutants.

Effects on Human respiratory system

Both gaseous and particulate air pollutants can have negative effects on the lungs. Solid particles can settle on the walls of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Continuous breathing of polluted air can slow the normal cleansing action of the lungs and result in more particles reaching the lower portions of the lung. Damage to the lungs from air pollution can inhibit this process and contribute to the occurrence of respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, emphysema, and cancer.

Table 1: Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria

Pollutant Carbon Monoxide (CO) Health Effects Welfare Effects Headaches, reduced Contribute to the mental alertness, heart formation of smog. attack, cardiovascular diseases, impaired fetal development, death. Sulfur Colorless gas that Coal-fired power plants, Eye irritation, wheezing, Contribute to the Dioxide dissolves in water petroleum refineries, chest tightness, shortness formation of acid rain, (SO2) vapor to form acid, and manufacture of sulfuric of breath, lung damage. visibility impairment, interact with other acid and smelting of ores plant and water gases and particles in containing sulfur. damage, aesthetic the air. damage. Nitrogen Reddish brown, highly Motor vehicles, electric Susceptibility to respiratory Contribute to the Dioxide reactive gas. utilities, and other infections, irritation of the formation of smog, acid (NO2) industrial, commercial, lung and respiratory rain, water quality and residential sources symptoms (e.g., cough, deterioration, global that burn fuels. chest pain, difficulty warming, and visibility breathing). impairment. Ozone (O3) Gaseous pollutant Vehicle exhaust and Eye and throat irritation, Plant and ecosystem when it is formed in the certain other fumes. coughing, respiratory tract damage. troposphere. Formed from other air problems, asthma, lung pollutants in the damage. presence of sunlight. Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, lead Anemia, high blood Affects animals and smelters, battery pressure, brain and kidney plants, affects aquatic manufacturers, iron and damage, neurological ecosystems. steel producers. disorders, cancer, lowered IQ. Particulate Very small particles of Diesel engines, power Eye irritation, asthma, Visibility impairment, Description Colorless, odorless gas Sources Motor vehicle exhaust, indoor sources include kerosene or wood burning stoves.

Matter (PM) soot, dust, or other matter, including tiny droplets of liquids.

plants, industries, windblown dust, wood stoves.

bronchitis, lung damage, atmospheric deposition, cancer, heavy metal aesthetic damage. poisoning, cardiovascular effects.

Table 2: Sources, Effects of Air Pollutants on Vegetables

Pollutants Aldehydes Effects on Vegetables The upper portions of Alfalfa etc. will be affected to Narcosis if 250 ppm of aldehydes is present for 2 hrs duration. Ozone (O3) Photochemical reaction of hydrocarbon All ages of tobacco leaves, beans, grapes, pine, and nitrogen oxides from fuel pumpkins and potato are affected. Fleck, stipple, combustion, refuse burning, and bleaching, bleached spotting, pigmentation, growth evaporation from petroleum products. suppression, and early abscission are the effects. Peroxy Acetyl The sources of PAN are the same as Young spongy cells of plants are affected if 0.01 ppm Nitrate (PAN) ozone of PAN is present in the ambient air for more than 6 hrs. Nitrogen dioxide High temperature combustion of coal, oil, Irregular, white or brown collapsed lesion on (NO2) gas, and gasoline in power plants and intercostals tissue and near leaf margin. Suppressed internal combustion engines. growth is observed in many plants. Ammonia & Thermal power plants, oil and petroleum Bleached spots, bleached areas between veins, Sulfur dioxide refineries. bleached margins, chlorosis, growth suppression, early abscission, and reduction in yield and tissue collapse occur. Chlorine (Cl2) Leaks in chlorine storage tanks, If 0.10 ppm is present for at least 2 hrs, the epidermis hydrochloric acid mists. and mesophyll of plants will be affected. Hydrogen Phosphate rock processing, aluminum Epidermis and mesophyll of grapes, large seed fruits, fluoride, Silicon industry, and ceramic works and pines and fluorosis in animals occur if 0.001 ppm of tetrafluoride fiberglass manufacturing. HF is present for 5 weeks. Pesticides & Agricultural operations Defoliation, dwarfing, curling, twisting, growth Herbicides reduction and killing of plants may occur. Particulates Cement industries, thermal power plants, Affects quality of plants, reduces vigor & hardness blasting, crushing and processing and interferences with photosynthesis due to plugging industries. leaf stomata and blocking of light. Mercury (Hg) Processing of mercury containing ores, Greenhouse crops, and floral parts of all vegetations burning of coal and oil. are affected; abscission and growth reduction occur in most of the plants. Sources Photochemical reactions

Air pollution control : Principles of controls, source control

Source Control Technology

Air quality management sets the tools to control air pollutant emissions. Control measurements describes the equipment, processes or actions used to reduce air pollution. The extent of pollution reduction varies among technologies and measures. The selection of control technologies depends on environmental, engineering, economic factors and pollutant type.

Settling Chambers

Settling chambers use the force of gravity to remove solid particles. The gas stream enters a chamber where the velocity of the gas is reduced. Large particles drop out of the gas and are recollected in hoppers. Because settling chambers are effective in removing only larger particles, they are used in conjunction with a more efficient control device.

Figure: Settling chambers

Cyclones

The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulateladen gas is forced to change direction. As gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles causes them to continue in the original direction and be separated from the gas stream.

The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of the unit, allowing the particles to be collected in a hopper.

The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of the chamber, flowing upward in a spiral vortex, formed within a downward moving spiral. Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but are not as efficient with smaller particles. For this reason, they are used with other particulate control devices.

Venturi Scrubbers

Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to remove solid particles. In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with particulate matter passes through a short tube with flared ends and a constricted middle. This constriction causes the gas stream to speed up when the pressure is increased. The difference in velocity and pressure resulting from the constriction causes the particles and water to mix and combine. The reduced velocity at the expanded section of the throat allows the droplets of water containing the particles to drop out of the gas stream. Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small particles, with removal efficiencies of up to 99 percent. One drawback of this device, however, is the production of wastewater. Fabric filters, or baghouses, remove dust from a gas stream by passing the stream through a porous fabric. The fabric filter is efficient at removing fine particles and can exceed efficiencies of 99 percent in most applications. The selection of the fiber material and fabric construction is important to baghouse performance.

Figure: Fabric filter (baghouse) components

THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS - A Philosophical Perspective

Transport and diffusion from source to receptor

Air Pollutant Cycle

Dispersion

General mean air motion Turbulent velocity fluctuationsTurbulent velocity fluctuations Diffusion due to concentration gradients from plumes Aerodynamic characteristics of pollution Particles - Size - Shape - Weight Not always completely understood Two types: Atmospheric heating - Causes natural convection currents --- discussed - Thermal eddies Mechanical turbulence - Results from shear wind effects - Result from air movement over the earths surface, influenced by location of buildings and relative roughness of terrain.

Lapse Rate

Important characteristic of atmosphere is ability to resist vertical motion: stability Affects ability to disperse pollutants When small volume of air is displaced upward - Encounters lower pressure - Expands to lower temperature - Assume no heat transfers to surrounding atmosphere - Called adiabatic expansion

Adiabatic Expansion

To determine the change in temp. w/ elevation due to adiabatic expansion . - Atmosphere considered a stationary column of air in a gravitational field - Gas is a dry ideal gas - Ignoring friction and inertial effects

( dT/dz)adiabatic perfect gas = - (g M/ Cp)

T = temperature z = vertical distance g = acceleration due to gravity M = molecular weight of air Cp = heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure

Adiabatic Expansion
( dT/dz)adiabatic perfect gas = -0.0098C/m or ( dT/dz)adiabatic perfect gas = -5.4F/ft
Change in Temp. with change in height

Lapse rate

Lapse rate is the negative of temperature gradient Dry adiabatic lapse rate = Metric:

Metric: G = - 1C/100m or SI: G = - 5.4F/1000ft

Important is ability to resist vertical motion: stability. Comparison of G to actual environment lapse rate indicates stability of atmosphere. Degree of stability is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to disperse pollutants.

Atmospheric Stability

Affects dispersion of pollutants Temperature/elevation relationship principal determinant of atmospheric stability Stable - Little vertical mixing - Pollutants emitted near surface tend to stay there - Environmental lapse rate is same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate 4 common scenarios

Stability Classes

Developed for use in dispersion models Developed for use in dispersion models Stability classified into 6 classes (A F) A: strongly unstable B: moderately unstable C: slightly unstable D: neutral E: slightly stable F: moderately stable

Vertical Temperature Profiles

Environmental lapse rate (ELR) Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

If,

ELR > DALR =sub adiabatic condition, atmosphere is stable. ELR >> DALR= Inversion conditions. Very stable atmosphere. ELR= DALR= atmosphere is neutral. ELR< DALR = super adiabatic condition, atmosphere is unstable.

Shapes of plumes depends upon atmospheric stability conditions.

Mixing Height of atmosphere

The height of the base of the inversion layer from ground surface.

MORNING AND AFTERNOON MIXING DEPTH CALCULATIONS

General Characteristics of Stack Plumes

Dispersion of pollutants Wind carries pollution downstream from source Atmospheric turbulence -- causes pollutants to fluctuate from mainstream in vertical and crosswind directions Mechanical & atmospheric heating both present at same time but in varying ratios Affect plume dispersion differently

Plume Types

Plume types are important because they help us understand under what conditions there will be higher concentrations of contaminants at ground level.

Looping Plume

High degree of convective turbulence Superadiabatic lapse rate -- strong instabilities Associated with clear daytime conditions accompanied by strong solar heating & light winds High probability of high concentrations sporadically at ground level close to stack. Occurs in unstable atmospheric conditions.

Coning Plume

Stable with small-scale turbulence Associated with overcast moderate to strong winds Roughly 10 cone Pollutants travel fairly long distances before reaching ground level in significant amounts Occurs in neutral atmospheric conditions

Fanning Plume

Occurs under large negative lapse rate Strong inversion at a considerable distance above the stack Extremely stable atmosphere Little turbulence If plume density is similar to air, travels downwind at approximately same elevation

Lofting Plume

Favorable in the sense that fewer impacts at ground level. Pollutants go up into environment. They are created when atmospheric conditions are unstable above the plume and stable below.

Fumigation

Most dangerous plume: contaminants are all coming down to ground level. They are created when atmospheric conditions are stable above the plume and unstable below. This happens most often after the daylight sun has warmed the atmosphere, which turns a night time fanning plume into fumigation for about a half an hour.

References

USEPA, 2007. Online literature from www.epa.gov Meteorology and Air Quality Modeling Support for Measurement Projects http://files.harc.edu/Sites/TERC/About/Events/ Other200503/MeteorologyAndAirQuality.pdf Rao, M.N. and Rao, H. V. N., 1993. Air Pollution, Tata Mc-Graw Hill, New Delhi. Murty, B. P., 2004. Environmental Meteorology, I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Nevers, N.D. 2000. Air Pollution Control Engineering, Second Edition, Pub., McGraw Hill, New York. Cheremisinoff, N.P., 2002. Handbook of Air Pollution Prevention and Control, Pub., Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier Science, USA.

Air Quality Modelling What does model means?

Models reflects a mathematical description of hypothesis conveying the behavior of some physical process or other. Not exact replica but contain some of natures essential elements.

What is mathematical modelling?

When the process of problem reduction or solution involves transforming some idealized form of the real world situation into mathematical terms, it goes under generic name of mathematical modelling. Mathematical modelling is an activity which requires rather more than the ability just to solve complex sets of equations difficult through this may be. Mathematical modelling utilizes ANALOGY to help understand the behavior of complex system.

What is physical modelling?

In physical modelling nature is simulated on a smaller scale in the laboratory by a physical experiment. When detailed mathematical models and/ or experimental field measurements become very costly, laboratory simulation using scaled down models in wind tunnels or water channels is often the best approach.

Concept of mathematical modelling applied to air pollution

Source : Point, Line, Area. Receptors : Humans. Transport : Decides fate of air pollution Re-entertainment : Re suspension of air pollutants.

Air Quality Models

Analogy - helps in explaining / understanding unfamiliar situations. Ex: Children playing father/ mother game Expectant mothers: practice nappy changing on dolls.

Models
-Not exact replica but contain some of natures essential elements.

-Ex: When expectant mother practice nappy changing to dolls, dolls are laying still while in reality, babies do not lie still!. -Hence, models reflects a mathematical description of hypothesis conveying the behavior of some physical process or other.

What is air quality model

A mathematical relationship between emissions and air quality that incorporates the transport, dispersion and transformation of compounds emitted into the air.

Model objective

Models are not a unique representation as they never completely replicate a system. But models are useful tool in the design of new, large or otherwise modified existing processes or systems. Conventional method of designing physical models replicating a process or system is time consuming and cumbersome process. Physical models sometime can not replicate a system which is having complicated heat and mass transfer processes. Mathematical models therefore is able to cope reasonably well with such processes or systems provided each

is built into the set of mathematical equations.

Model categories

Suggested readings:

M. Crossal A.O. Moscardini, Learning art of mathematical modelling,Ellis Harmood Publication

Air Quality Models

Suggested readings:

Weber, E., Air pollution assessment modelling methodology, NATO, challenges of modern society, vol.2, Plenum press, 1982

What is deterministic approach?

The deterministic mathematical models calculate the pollutant concentrations from emission inventory and meteorological variables according to the solution of various equations that represent the relevant physical processes. Deterministic modelling is the traditional approach for the prediction of air pollutant concentrations in urban areas.

Deterministic approach: Basics

What is Transport ?
o o o
It is also termed as advection Most obvious effect of atmosphere on emission Advection: implies transport of pollutant downwind of source

What is Dilution?
o o o
It is also termed as mixing. It is accomplished through turbulence Mainly atmospheric turbulence is active

What is Dispersion?
Dispersion = Advection (Transport) + Dilution = Advection +Diffusion

Basic Mathematical Equation

Deterministic based AQM

The deterministic based air quality model is developed by relating the rate of change of pollutant concentration in terms of average wind and turbulent diffusion which, in turn, is derived from the mass conservation principle.

where C = pollutant concentration; t = time; x, y, z = position of the receptor relative to the source; u, v, w =wind speed coordinate in x, y and z direction; Kx, Ky, Kz = coefficients of turbulent diffusion in x, y and z direction; Q = source strength; R = sink (changes caused by chemical reaction). The above diffusion equation is derived in several ways under different set of assumptions for development of air quality models Gaussian model is one of the mostly used air quality model based on deterministic principle Reference:

Cheremisinoff, P.N.,1989. Encyclopedia of environmental control technology: air pollution control. Volume 2, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston.

Gaussian plume Dispersion model: Assumptions

Steady-state conditions, which imply that the rate of emission from the point source is constant. Homogeneous flow, which implies that the wind speed is constant both in time and with height (wind direction shear is not considered). Pollutant is conservative and no gravity fallout. Perfect reflection of the plume at the underlying surface, i.e. no ground absorption. The turbulent diffusion in the x-direction is neglected relative to advection in the transport direction , which implies that the model should be applied for average wind speeds of more than 1 m/s (> 1 m/s). The coordinate system is directed with its x-axis into the direction of the flow, and the v (lateral) and w (vertical) components of the time averaged wind vector are set to zero. The terrain underlying the plume is flat All variables are ensemble averaged, which implies long-term averaging with stationary conditions.

Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model

Application: Gaussian Based Vehicular Pollutant Dispersion Model

The basic approach for development of deterministic vehicular pollution (line source) model is the coordinate transformation between wind coordinate system (X1, Y1, Z1) and line source coordinate system (X, Y, Z). A hypothetical line source is assumed to exist along Y1 that makes the wind direction perpendicular to it (Figure 1). The concentration at receptor is given by Csanady (1972):

Reference: Csanday, G.T., 1972. Crosswind shear effects on atmospheric diffusion. Atmospheric Environment, 6,221-232.

Numerical approach
Numerical models also comes under deterministic modelling technique which are based on numerical approximation of partial differential equations representing atmospheric dispersion phenomena.

Basic mathematical equation

The term Ft in the above equation is unknown and diffused equation is not in close form. Reference Juda, K., 1986. Modelling of the air pollution in the Cracow area. Atmospheric Environment, 20 (12), 2449-2458.

Basis for numerical approach

First order closure models, also called K- models, have their common roots in the atmospheric diffusion equation derived by using a K-theory approximation for the closure of the turbulent diffusion equation. The first order closure models are time dependent.

Numerical based AQM

Eulerian grid model (Danard, M.B., 1972) Lagrangian trajectory model (Johnson, 1981) Hybrid of eulerian-lagrangian model (Particle-in-cell) (Sklarew et al., 1972) Random walk (Monte-Carlo) trajectory particle model (Joynt and Blackman, 1976)

Mostly used numerical based AQM

Gaussian puff model (Hanna et al., 1982)

Reference

Danard, M.B., 1972. Numerical modelling of carbon monoxide concentration near a Highway. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 11, 947-957. Johnson, W.B., 1981. Interregional exchanges of air pollution: model types and application. In Air pollution modelling and its application-I, Edited by Wispelaere, C. De., Plenum Press, New York. Sklarew, R.C., Fabrick, A.J. and Prager, J.E., 1972. Mathematical modelling of photochemical smog the using PIC method. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, 22, 865Joynt, R.C. and Blackman, D.R., 1976. A numerical model of pollutant transport. Atmospheric Environment, 10, 433-. Hanna, S.R., Brigs, G.A. and Hosker, Jr. R.P., 1982. Handbook on atmospheric diffusion. National Technical Information Centre, U.S. Department of Energy, Virginia.

Statistical Approach
Statistical models calculate pollutant concentrations by statistical methods from meteorological and emission parameters after an appropriate statistical relationship has been obtained empirically from measured concentration

Basis for statistical approach

Regression and multiple regression models (Comrie, 1997)
Regression models describes the relationship between predictors (meteorological and emission parameters) and predictant (pollutant concentrations)

Time series models (Box and Jenkins, 1976)

Time series analysis is purely based on statistical method applicable to non repeatable experiments. Box-Jenkins approach extracts all the trends and serial correlations among the air quality data until only a sequence of white noise (shock) remains. The extraction is accomplished via the difference, autoregressive and moving average operators.

Reference:
Comrie, A. C., 1997. Comparing neural networks and regression model for ozone forecasting. Journal of Air and Waste Management Association, 47, 653-663 Box, G.E.P. and Jenkins, G.M., 1976. Time series analysis forecasting and control. 2nd Edition, Holdenday, San Francisco.

Basic mathematical equation

The Box Jenkins (B-J) models are empirical models created from the historical data. Statistical graphs of the autocorrelation function (ACF) and partial autocorrelation function (PACF) to identify an appropriate time series model. The general class of univariate B-J seasonal models, denoted by ARIMA (p, d, q) X ( P, D, Q)s can be expressed as:

Where

= regular and seasonal autoregressive parameters, B = backward shift operators,

=difference

operators, d and D = order of regular and seasonal differencing, s= period/span, = observed data series, = regular and seasonal moving average parameters, at = random noise, p, P, q and Q represent the order of the model and c = constant.

Mostly used stochastic based AQM

- 24 h avg.. CO model - Max. daily 1-h avg.CO model - Max. daily working hours (8 AM - 8PM) 1-hour COmodel - Hourly average CO model

- 24 h avg.. CO model with wind speed as input - 24 h avg.. CO model with temperature as input - Max. daily 1-h avg.. CO model with wind speed as input - Max. daily 1-h avg.. CO model with temperature as input - Max. daily working hours 1-hour avg.. CO model with wind speed as input - Max. daily working hours 1-hour avg.. CO model with temperature as input - Hourly average CO model withwind speed as input - Hourly average CO model with temperature as input

- 24 h avg.. CO model with temperature and wind speed as inputs - Max. daily 1-h avg.. CO model with wind speed and temperature as inputs - Max. daily working hours 1-hour avg.. CO model with wind speed and temperature as inputs

Reference:
Khare, M. and Sharma, P., 2002. Modelling urban vehicle emissions. WIT press, Southampton, UK. Sharma, P. and Khare, M., 2001. Short-time, real time prediction of extreme ambient carbon monoxide concentrations due to vehicular exhaust emissions using transfer function noise models. Transportation Research D6, 141-146.

Physical modelling approach Wind Tunnel

26 m long, suction type, low wind speed, 16 m test section, 8 panels, 2 m each

EWT consists of entrance section, honeycomb section, wire mesh screen filters, test section, exit contraction section, transition and diffuser section Turntable of 1.8 m diameter Plenum chamber for prevention of surge and other disturbance s, 6 m x 5 m wall

ENVIRONMENTAL WIND TUNNEL- IIT DELHI

Basis for physical approach

The physical simulation studies using wind tunnels have shown high potential to understand complex urban dispersion phenomenon. The pollutant concentrations measured within the physical model can be converted to equivalent atmospheric

concentrations through the use of appropriate scaling relationship. In the physical simulation studies of exhaust dispersion, the model vehicle movement system (MVMS) plays a vital role. The vehicle-induced turbulence can be understood accurately by using MVMS.

Design consideration for MVMS*

maintenance of no slip boundary condition in atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) flow, variations in traffic volume and traffic speed for two-way traffic, operation of MVMS for various street configurations, variation in approaching wind directions and wind speed, operation of vehicles in different lanes.

Reference:

*Ahmad, K., Khare, M. and Chaudhry, K.K. 2005. Wind tunnel simulation studies on dispersion at urban street canyons and intersections- a review. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 93, 697-71 Eskridge, R.E. and Hunt, J.C.R., 1979. Highway modelling-I: prediction of velocity and turbulence fields in the wake of vehicles. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 18 (4), 387- 400.

Plan of MVMS for urban street

Plan of MVMS for Urban Intersection

Wind tunnel based AQM

Development, testing and validation of atmospheric dispersion models through EWT generated database in a variety of atmospheric conditions. Systematic understanding of the pollutants dispersion characteristics for line source (automobile exhaust emissions), point source (stack emissions) and area source (low level areal emissions) in plain and complex terrains, such as, hills and valleys. Understanding of the dispersive behavior of toxic gases from accidental releases. Studies on the effects of pollutants on plants and buildings under dynamic environmental conditions for various geographical conditions. Simulation of heat islands and its effect on pollutant dispersion. Location of hot spots at the urban intersections.

Reference

Eskridge, P.E. and Thompson, R.S., 1982. Experimental and theoretical study of the wake of a block-shaped vehicle in a shear-free boundary flow. Atmospheric Environment, 16 (12), 2821-2836. Snyder, W.H., 1972. Fluid models for the study of air pollution meteorology: similarity facilities, review of literature and recommendations, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington.

Limitations of Models *
Deterministic models

Inadequate dispersion parameters Inadequate treatment of dispersion upwind of the road Requires a cumbersome numerical integration especially when the wind forms a small angle with the roadways. Gaussian based plume models perform poorly when wind speeds are less than 1m/s. Numerical models have common limitations arising from employing the K-theory for the closure of diffusion equation. The K-theory diffusion equation is valid only if the size of the plume or puff of pollutants is greater than the size of the dominant turbulent eddies. The Gaussian puff model relative diffusion parameters are derived from very few field experiments, which limits its applicability. The other limitations of numerical models are large computational costs in terms of time and storage of data. It also requires large amounts of input data.

Statistical models

Require long historical data sets and lack of physical interpretation. Regression modelling often underperforms when used to model non-linear systems. Time series modelling requires considerable knowledge in time series statistics i.e. autocorrelation function (ACF) and partial auto correlation function (PACF) to identify an appropriate air quality model. Statistical models are site specific. Hybrid model prediction accuracy depends on the selection of suitable deterministic model and identification of appropriate statistical distribution parameter. Application of hybrid approach to strongly auto correlated and/or non-stationary data requires specific treatment for auto correlation /non stationary to increase prediction accuracy. In ANN based vehicular pollution model, the main problem facing when training neural network model, is deciding upon the network architecture (i.e., number of hidden layers, number of nodes in hidden layers and their interconnection). At present, no procedures has been established for selecting proper network architecture, rather than training several network architecture and choose the best out of them. Multilayer neural network performs well when used for interpolation, but poorly, if used for extrapolation. No thumb rules exist in selection of data set for training, testing and validation of neural network based model.

Physical models: wind tunnel

The major limitations of wind tunnel studies are construction and operational cost. Simulation of real time air pollution dispersion is expensive. Real time forecast is not possible.

* Reference:
Juda, K., 1989. Air pollution modelling. In: Cheremisinoff, P.N. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Environmental Control Technology, Vol. 2: Air Pollution Control, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, USA, pp.83-134. Nagendra, S.M.S. and Khare, M., 2002. Line source emission modelling- review. Atmospheric Environment, 36 (13), 2083-2098.

Box Model

Application : Area source Principle :

(i) It assumes uniform mixing throughout the volume of a three dimensional box. (ii) Steady state emission and atmospheric conditions. (iii) No upwind background concentration.

Model description

Suggested reading:

Lyons, T.J. and Scott, W.D. Principles of air pollution meteorology, Behavan press, 1990

Line source model

Application

motor vehicle travelling along a straight section of highway OR agricultural burning along the edge of a field OR line of industrial sources on the bank of a river

Assumption

Infinite length source continuously emitting the pollution Ground level source Wind blowing perpendicular to the line source

Model:

Indoor Air Pollution

A Common Myth
Air pollution occurs only outdoors Or In industrial environment

Truth!!!!
What is more agreeable than ones home? Feeling safe ? Away from outside pollution ? Air inside the conditioned space can be substantially more polluted than outdoor air.

Historical Perspective
First indication of indoor contamination Asbestos pollution, a carcinogenic substance, discovered by epidemiologists, used in almost all building materials about 35 years back.Banned due to adverse health effects NOT considering IAQ. Concept of IAQ first introduced among scientific community in 1980 due to some occurrences of episodes indoors. At central headquarters of EPA building at Washington, D.C.- more than 100 people fell sick within 15 minutes of entering the office.In Los Angeles, CO level in most of the well insulated buildings was three times greater than the outside level.

Outcome
Such episodes indoors in developed nations ended up with
1. Extensive monitoring programme development indoors 2. Identification of indoor contaminants 3. Formulation of IAQ models 4. Development of control methodologies 5. Formulation of Indoor Air Contamination Standards. 6. Identification of Sick Buildings 7. Investigation of Sick Building Syndrome(SBS)

What is IAQ??
IAQ stands for Indoor Air Quality It refers to the nature of the conditioned (heat/ cool) air that circulates throughout space/area, where we work and live i.e. the air we breathe most of the time (almost 80 % of the time).

What Causes Indoor Air Pollution??

Air tightness of buildings Poorly designed air conditioning and ventilation systems Indoor sources of pollution Outdoor sources of pollution

Air Tightness in Buildings

Causes inadequate supply of fresh air, as a result, negative pressure develops, which causes
Ground level pollutants, e.g. CO, Radon etc.to be drawn inside the buildings. Release of odor (Bioaerosols) and other pollutants. Pull outside polluted air from vents, cracks and openings and increase dust, pollen etc. Causes Sick Building Syndrome.

Poorly Designed Air Conditioning Systems

Results into the production of fungi, molds and other sickness causing microbes.

Problems of IAQ
Enclosed spaces inhabited by humans produce following effects Reduction in oxygen level of spaces. Increase in CO2 level. Increase in temperature. Increase in humidity Increase in Bioaerosols and odor

Sources of Indoor Air Pollution in a Typical Office Building

Sources of Indoor Air Pollution in a Typical Household

Hard Facts
Fresh air contains 21.0% (v/v) O2 Exhaled air contains 17.0% (v/v) O2 and 83.0 % (v/v) CO2 An adult emits 45 gm sweat / hour containing bioaerosols. An adult produces 300 BTU of heat / hour. Carbon based gaseous pollutants (VOCs) indoors are 2 to 5 times higher than outdoors.

Poor IAQ Results

Indoor Air Pollutants and Their Health Effects

Pollutant Effect Limits
0.05 ppm (avg. over one year for 8 hours exposure daily)- EPA 9.0 ppm (avg. over 8 hours period)EPA 150 g/ m3 (24 hr. average) 0.05 ppm (avg. over one year for 8 hours exposure daily)- EPA >/ 4 pCi/ Litre of indoor air 120 ? g/ cu.m. (continuous exposure)ASHRAE >/ 2 fibers/ cu.cm. Of the indoor air (8 hrs. exposure period)- OSHA Type: Immediate NOz Causes: irritation to the skin, eyes and throat, cough etc. Type: Immediate Causes: headache, shortness of breath, higher conc. May CO cause sudden deaths. . Type: Cumulative RSPM Causes: Lung cancer Type: Immediate SO2 Causes: lung disorders and shortness of breath Type: Cumulative Radon Causes: Lung cancer Type: Immediate Formaldehyde Causes: irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, fatigue, headache, skin allergies, vomiting etc. Type: Cumulative Asbestos Causes: Lung cancer Type: Immediate Pesticides Causes: Skin diseases Type: Immediate VOCs Causes: Liver, kidney disorders, irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, skin rashes and respiratory problems. CO2 Surrogate index of ventilation O3 Type: Immediate Causes: eyes itch, burn, respiratory disorders, lowers our

Not for all VOCs. For chlordane: 5? g/cu.m.(continuous exposure)) 1000 ppm 100 ? g/cu.m (continuous exposure)OSHA

resistance to colds and pneumonia.

WHO Standards
Pollutants
Respirable particulates CO

Concentration reported
0.05 0.7 1-1.5

Concentrations of limited Concentration of or no concern concern

<0.1 <2 >0.015 >5

Remarks
Japanese standard 0.15 mg/cubic m Indicator for eye irritation(only from passive smoking) -----99.9% Continuous exposure Long- and Shortterm SO2 alone, shortterm Occupancy indicator Japanese standard 1800 mg/cubic m For long Exposure

NO2 CO

0.05 1 ---1-100

<0.19 2% CO Hb < 11 < 0.06 < 0.5 < 1000 ppm < 1800 ~0

>0.32 3%COHb >30 >0.12 >1.35 >1000 ppm >12000

Formaldehyde 0.05 2 SO2 CO2 O3 0.02 1 500 5000 ppm 600-9000 <10 fibres/cubic m

fibre/m * typical ranges of concentration is given in mg/cubic m, unless otherwise indicated

Parameters Affecting IAQ

Rate of exchange of air from outdoors (ventilation) Concentration of pollutants in outdoor air Rate of emission from sources indoors Rate of removal of pollutants (Sinks) Indoor temperature Indoor humidity Age of indoor structure Type of foundation soil

Steps for Investigating IAQ Problems

Document employee health complaints. Examine floor plans and ventilation system specifications. Analysis of data collected from above steps for SBS score calculations. Study of building layout, position and location of windows, doors, vents, openings etc. Ventilation measurement. Monitoring of indoor pollutants and other environmental parameters and development of IAQ model. Develop a plan for reducing and eliminating the IAQ problem

What is Ventilation??
A process, whereby air is supplied and removed from an indoor space by natural or mechanical means.

Why ventilation is needed indoors?

To remove heat or moisture OR to reduce the concentration of one OR more indoor pollutants

Types of Ventilation

Natural Mechanical

Natural Ventilation Involves

Infiltration: random/ intentional flow of outdoor air through windows, cracks and a variety of openings in the buildings. Exfiltration: movement of air from indoor spaces to outdoor.

Limitation of Natural Ventilation

Fairly inefficient as it is NOT UNIFORMLY distributed. Air doesnt circulate evenly and stale air gets collected in some dead end spaces. It brings POLLENS & OTHER POLLUTANTS from outside air. Maximum energy loss occurs as NO CONSERVATION of energy can be done

Mechanical ventilation
It involves use of fans and heating / air conditioning equipments.

Principle of mechanical ventilation

Pulling fresh air from outside to indoor spaces. Exhaust stale air. Control temperature and humidity inside.

Ventilation Measurement
A. In naturally ventilated buildings

By Infiltration measurement.Infiltration is reported as air change per hour (ACH) the average rate at which indoor air is replaced by fresh outdoor air.ACH is a rough guideline for different building conditions, given by ASHRAE. For e.g., in air tight buildings ACH is 0.1 to 0.2, in leaky building, ACH is 2.0 to 3.0. ASHRAE model for measuring infiltration in naturally ventilated buildings is I = ln (CO / Ci) / t Tracer gas technique is employed to measure infiltration. Non reactive gases, e.g. SF6/NO are used as tracer gases with the assumption that the loss of tracer gas is only due to ventilation/ exfiltration.

B. In mechanically ventilated buildings

ACH is measured by CO2 concentration. It is a good surrogate index to determine the proper ventilation in HVAC buildings. ASHRAE model for measuring infiltration in HVAC buildings is Q = G/ Ci Ca Minimum recommended ventilation rate by ASHRAE is 8L/sec. per person to maintain the indoor concentration of CO2 as 700 ppm.

Parameters for Natural Ventilation

Air Flow- occurs mainly due to two driving forces

1. Pressure Gradient Difference in outdoor and indoor pressure (varies with building shape, size, openings, wind direction, local environmental densities, neighbour buildings configuration, topography etc.) 2. Temperature Gradient (Buoyancy Forces)- when the inside air temperature is higher than outside air, the warm air at floor surface starts rising and the cool air starts entering as a result of vaccum created at floor surface. This effect is called as Stack Effect.

Parameters for Mechanical Ventilation

Infiltration air Exfiltration air Recirculated air Exhaust air Makeup air

What is sick building syndrome?

The feeling of illness among majority of occupants of a conditioned space is called Sick Building Syndrome. A variety of illness symptoms reported by occupants in sick buildings are Headache, fatigue, irritation in eyes, nose and throat, shortness of breathe etc. Causes Inadequate ventilation insufficient supply of outside air; poor mixing; fluctuations in temperature & humidity; air filtration problem due to lack of maintenance of HVAC systems. The CO2 level indicates the ventilation efficiency of buildings. Building shows SBS symptoms, if CO2 concentration > 1000 ppm.

About The building

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

How old is the building? What construction materials have been used? How many floors in the building? How many square feet per floor? What types of windows are in the building? Do they open? Who is responsible for the functioning of the building systems? Who is responsible for cleaning the interior of the building? How often is the building cleaned? Have there been any major renovations or operating changes ? What are they ? When did they occur? Does the building have sprayed or foamed insulation? When was it applied? What type of heating system is used? What type of cooling system is used? What type of humidification system is used? How is the total ventilation system operated? What floors and rooms are served by each system? What type of filtration system is used? How often it is changed or maintenainced? How much fresh air is being introduced into the ventilation system? Does this amount meet system specifications? Where are the fresh air inlets? Are they functioning properly? Are there any possible sources of contamination located in the general vicinity of the air inlets? How likely are contaminants to be drawn into the air inlets due to prevailing winds and inversions? How does exhaust air leave the building? Is the building being used for the same purpose for which it was designed? What type of activities are buliding occupants engaged in?

22. What processes or activities are present in the building that may serve as contaminant sources?Is locla exhaust ventilation used near contamination sources?

Employees Questionnaire
1. 2. What health complaints have experienced at work? Do you have any of the following conditions? Hey fever _______ Other allergies ________ Dermatitis or other skin problems______ Sinus problems______ Cold or Flu______ Naussea or dizziness____ Eye irritation________ Headache______ Excess fatigue______ Joint aches_____ When did you first noticed these symptoms? When do the symptoms occur? How often? Do your symptoms clear within an hour of leaving work?If not, which symptoms persist through the week? Are the symptoms more likely to appear at particular times of day? Do they occur in the particular areas of the building? How many co-workers smoke? Do they smoke? Is there a specific incident to which your health problems can be traced( ie building renovations, installation of new carpets,purchase of new furniture) What office machines are used in your vicinity? What chemicals do they use? What office products are used that contain chemicals?List the ingredients? What fabrics are used in the carpets,curtains, shades and wall coverings? Is there any evidence of excessive dust or mold? Are you aware of any water leakage that have not been repaired so far? What is your overall assessment for the air quality and confort level in your office? Do you work with any office equipment? Specify the type? Where is your office located? Specify floor, department, and proximity to office equipment ? How old are you? What is your job title? Briefly describe your responsibilties? Whta is the general condition of your health?

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20. Is there any family histroy or illness?

Indoor Air Quality Modelling Monitoring and modelling of indoor air pollutants
Parameters considered are

Temporal variation of indoor air pollutants. Spatial variations of indoor air pollutants. Chemical transformation of pollutants. Population inside the indoor space. Outdoor pollutant concentration. Indoor-outdoor air exchange rate (ventilation). ndoor air pollutant sources. Indoor air pollutant sinks.

Sampling techniques
Quite complicated as normal routine of users of the building should not be disturbed.

Continuous sampling is preferred instead of grab sampling. Meteorological data inside and outside the building are need to be collected Outdoor concentration of relevant pollutants are also needs to be collected.

Modelling of IAQ

Role of IAQM

Relates indoor pollutants concentration to various geometric,ventilation, source and sink parameters. Predict peak concentration or dosage indoors as a function of outdoor air pollutant concentrations and indooroutdoor air exchange rate.

IAQ Model Development

A statement of the mass balance concerning pollutant of interest in an indoor space. Parameters for mass balance statement
Concentration of pollutant, C. Volume of indoor space, V. Flow rate of fresh make up air from outside through filter, q0 Flow rate of building air recirculated through another filter, q1 Infiltration rate of outside air through openings, q2 Filter factor, F which is defined as below

Types of IAQ models

Single compartment model
Used, when;

Rate of mixing is uniform throughout the region. Sources and sinks are uniformly distributed.

Multi compartment model

Used, when;

Rate of mixing is low compared with the characteristic residence time of the pollutants. Sources and sinks are NOT uniformly distributed.

IAQ Mass Balance Model

The basic mass balance equation, on which the compartmental modelling technique is based is

Rate of increase of pollutant conc. = Rate of pollutant entering - (Rate of pollutant leaving + Rate of accumulation + Source + decay rate)

RESEARCH STUDIES AT IIT DELHI

1994 - onwards

Evaluating indoor air quality using CO2 as surrogate index (J. AIRAH, Vol. 51, No.11, 1997, Australia)
Sites investigated IIT Delhi Central Library, Inorganic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Physical Chemistry Laboratory, IC Engine Laboratory. Indoor Parameters Monitored CO2, NO2, SO2, TSP. Instrumentation Handy samplers, Low Volume Samplers Findings
- Prevalence of Stack Effect for CO2 - Evening Concentration of CO2 > day concentration - Settlement of Gases towards the floor after closure of the buildings - Improper mixing and dispersion at upper floor levels - CO2 concentration is a function of window area/ occupant and window area / unit floor area rather than on total window area. Maximum CO2 concentration 500 mg/ cu.m

Sick Building Syndrome in an Educational Institute Library and Laboratories (in 7th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality & Climate, Vol. 4, pp 269-74, 1996)
Sites investigated IIT Delhi Central Library, Inorganic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Physical Chemistry Laboratory, IC Engine Laboratory.

Population studies 130 (at all the four sites) Sampling Technique Grab sampling SBS Scale 0.0 -1.0 ( 0.0 = often; 0.5 sometimes; 1.0 never) Indoor Parameters Monitored CO2, NO2, SO2, TSP, SBS Instrumentation Handy samplers, Low Volume Samplers Findings
- SBS score is a decisive parameter in IAQ study. - Prevalence (%) of SBS symptoms in Central Library - Irritation in eyes 10% of total population - often; - Irritation in nose 14% of total population- often; - Dryness in mucous 28% of total population- often. - lethargic / drowsy 38% of total population often - Dryness 18% of total population often, 100% at labs often - Headache 17% of total population often 100% at labs often

Indoor air quality in centrally air- conditioned airport authority building (MS research thesis, 1999)
Sites investigated - airport authority office complex Sampling Technique Grab sampling SBS Scale 0.0 - 4.0 ( usually; often; sometimes) Indoor Parameters Monitored SPM, CO2, NO2, SO2, CO and SBS Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Findings Correlation was found between CO2 concentration and % outdoor intake. the recirculated air increased the CO2 concentration on 2nd and 3rd floor. SBS score was found on 3rd floor is 3.01, which is higher than other floors stack effect was observed in the building. sudden increase in occupancy level on ground floor resulted in increase in CO2 concentration. Females were more susceptible to SBS symptoms as compared to men and occupants in the age group of 20-29. direct relation between CO2 concentration and SBS Score shows that SBS score is a useful indicator of IAQ - Insufficient supply of make-up (fresh) air was found in the building.

Environmental evaluation of a public building with respect to IAQ (sponsored research project by MHRD, 2000- 2001)
Site Investigated Departure terminal- IGI Airport Sampling Technique integrated and continuous Indoor Parameters Monitored RSPM,SPM, CO2, NO2, SO2, CO and SBS Meteorological Parameters temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind direction Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Bioaerosol sampler, airflow meter, weather station Findings Pollutant concentration were found within the limits except CO2 concentration, which was very high in peak hours

(nights and weekends) SBS score indicated the building as Sick Insufficient supply of make up (fresh ) air in the building caused negative pressure inside the building w.r.t. outdoor pressure. I/O showed that the high concentration of pollutant inside is due to possible penetration of outside air.

IAQ monitoring at offices/ commercial complexes (post doctoral research, sponsored by DST, 2001-2003)
Site Investigated Centrally air conditioned multistory commercial building Sampling Technique integrated and continuous Indoor Parameters Monitored RSPM,SPM,CO2, NO2, SO2, CO, O3 and Bioaerosols Meteorological Parameters temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind direction Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Bioaerosol sampler, HVS, air flow meter, weather station, ozone test strips Findings Insufficient ventilation 100 percent recycled air. High concentration of CO2 in corridors of all floors.

IAQ monitoring studies in naturally ventilated school buildings (Ongoing PhD)

Sites Selected - A naturally ventilated three storied school building in South Delhi Indoor Parameters Monitored RSPM, CO2, NO2, SO2, CO and ventilation parameters Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Differential pressure manometers, Dust monitor, Environmental Wind Tunnel (EWT) Wind Tunnel simulation of building for measuring pressure coefficient (Cp) and air flow pattern in and around the building at different orientation of wind and different opening conditions. Expected Findings the relationship between ventilation and the IAQ Formulation of IAQ model for naturally ventilated building I/O relationship SBS Validation of aerodynamics using wind tunnel in a naturally ventilated building

Indoor Air Quality Modelling Monitoring and modelling of indoor air pollutants
Parameters considered are

Temporal variation of indoor air pollutants. Spatial variations of indoor air pollutants. Chemical transformation of pollutants. Population inside the indoor space. Outdoor pollutant concentration. Indoor-outdoor air exchange rate (ventilation). ndoor air pollutant sources.

Indoor air pollutant sinks.

Sampling techniques
Quite complicated as normal routine of users of the building should not be disturbed.

Continuous sampling is preferred instead of grab sampling. Meteorological data inside and outside the building are need to be collected Outdoor concentration of relevant pollutants are also needs to be collected.

Modelling of IAQ
Role of IAQM

Relates indoor pollutants concentration to various geometric,ventilation, source and sink parameters. Predict peak concentration or dosage indoors as a function of outdoor air pollutant concentrations and indooroutdoor air exchange rate.

IAQ Model Development

A statement of the mass balance concerning pollutant of interest in an indoor space. Parameters for mass balance statement
Concentration of pollutant, C. Volume of indoor space, V.

Flow rate of fresh make up air from outside through filter, q0 Flow rate of building air recirculated through another filter, q1 Infiltration rate of outside air through openings, q2 Filter factor, F which is defined as below

Types of IAQ models

Single compartment model
Used, when;

Rate of mixing is uniform throughout the region. Sources and sinks are uniformly distributed.

Multi compartment model

Used, when;

Rate of mixing is low compared with the characteristic residence time of the pollutants. Sources and sinks are NOT uniformly distributed.

IAQ Mass Balance Model

The basic mass balance equation, on which the compartmental modelling technique is based is

Rate of increase of pollutant conc. = Rate of pollutant entering - (Rate of pollutant leaving + Rate of accumulation + Source + decay rate)

RESEARCH STUDIES AT IIT DELHI

1994 - onwards

Evaluating indoor air quality using CO2 as surrogate index (J. AIRAH, Vol. 51, No.11, 1997, Australia)
Sites investigated IIT Delhi Central Library, Inorganic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Physical Chemistry Laboratory, IC Engine Laboratory. Indoor Parameters Monitored CO2, NO2, SO2, TSP. Instrumentation Handy samplers, Low Volume Samplers Findings
- Prevalence of Stack Effect for CO2 - Evening Concentration of CO2 > day concentration - Settlement of Gases towards the floor after closure of the buildings - Improper mixing and dispersion at upper floor levels - CO2 concentration is a function of window area/ occupant and window area / unit floor area rather than on total window area. Maximum CO2 concentration 500 mg/ cu.m

Sick Building Syndrome in an Educational Institute Library and Laboratories (in 7th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality & Climate, Vol. 4, pp 269-74, 1996)
Sites investigated IIT Delhi Central Library, Inorganic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Physical Chemistry Laboratory, IC Engine Laboratory.

Population studies 130 (at all the four sites) Sampling Technique Grab sampling SBS Scale 0.0 -1.0 ( 0.0 = often; 0.5 sometimes; 1.0 never) Indoor Parameters Monitored CO2, NO2, SO2, TSP, SBS Instrumentation Handy samplers, Low Volume Samplers Findings
- SBS score is a decisive parameter in IAQ study. - Prevalence (%) of SBS symptoms in Central Library - Irritation in eyes 10% of total population - often; - Irritation in nose 14% of total population- often; - Dryness in mucous 28% of total population- often. - lethargic / drowsy 38% of total population often - Dryness 18% of total population often, 100% at labs often - Headache 17% of total population often 100% at labs often

Indoor air quality in centrally air- conditioned airport authority building (MS research thesis, 1999)
Sites investigated - airport authority office complex Sampling Technique Grab sampling SBS Scale 0.0 - 4.0 ( usually; often; sometimes) Indoor Parameters Monitored SPM, CO2, NO2, SO2, CO and SBS Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Findings Correlation was found between CO2 concentration and % outdoor intake. the recirculated air increased the CO2 concentration on 2nd and 3rd floor. SBS score was found on 3rd floor is 3.01, which is higher than other floors stack effect was observed in the building. sudden increase in occupancy level on ground floor resulted in increase in CO2 concentration. Females were more susceptible to SBS symptoms as compared to men and occupants in the age group of 20-29. direct relation between CO2 concentration and SBS Score shows that SBS score is a useful indicator of IAQ - Insufficient supply of make-up (fresh) air was found in the building.

Environmental evaluation of a public building with respect to IAQ (sponsored research project by MHRD, 2000- 2001)
Site Investigated Departure terminal- IGI Airport Sampling Technique integrated and continuous Indoor Parameters Monitored RSPM,SPM, CO2, NO2, SO2, CO and SBS Meteorological Parameters temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind direction Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Bioaerosol sampler, airflow meter, weather station Findings Pollutant concentration were found within the limits except CO2 concentration, which was very high in peak hours

(nights and weekends) SBS score indicated the building as Sick Insufficient supply of make up (fresh ) air in the building caused negative pressure inside the building w.r.t. outdoor pressure. I/O showed that the high concentration of pollutant inside is due to possible penetration of outside air.

IAQ monitoring at offices/ commercial complexes (post doctoral research, sponsored by DST, 2001-2003)
Site Investigated Centrally air conditioned multistory commercial building Sampling Technique integrated and continuous Indoor Parameters Monitored RSPM,SPM,CO2, NO2, SO2, CO, O3 and Bioaerosols Meteorological Parameters temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind direction Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Bioaerosol sampler, HVS, air flow meter, weather station, ozone test strips Findings Insufficient ventilation 100 percent recycled air. High concentration of CO2 in corridors of all floors.

IAQ monitoring studies in naturally ventilated school buildings (Ongoing PhD)

Sites Selected - A naturally ventilated three storied school building in South Delhi Indoor Parameters Monitored RSPM, CO2, NO2, SO2, CO and ventilation parameters Instrumentation IAQ monitor, Handy samplers, Differential pressure manometers, Dust monitor, Environmental Wind Tunnel (EWT) Wind Tunnel simulation of building for measuring pressure coefficient (Cp) and air flow pattern in and around the building at different orientation of wind and different opening conditions. Expected Findings the relationship between ventilation and the IAQ Formulation of IAQ model for naturally ventilated building I/O relationship SBS Validation of aerodynamics using wind tunnel in a naturally ventilated building

Photochemical Smog Photochemical smog ??

Noxious mixture of highly reactive and oxidizing air pollutants including:

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) Volatile organic compounds Troposphere Ozone Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN)

Generation Mechanism

Three ingredients required:

Ultraviolet Light Hydrocarbons Nitrogen oxides

Photochemical Reaction

Photochemical Reactions

1) Tropospheric Ozone:

Sources

Exhaust gases From Motor vehicles Unburnt Hydrocarbons

2) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

Carbon-based molecules such as Aldehydes, Ketones and Hydrocarbons

Sources
Paint thinners, solvents and petroleum constituents Trees: emits isoprene and terpenes Methane from termites, cows and cultivation

3) Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN)

Are secondary pollutants formed from peroxyacid radicals and NO2

Effects on human health

Ozone

- Cause acute respiratory problems - Aggravate asthma - Cause temporary decreases in lung function in healthy adults - Lead to hospital admissions and emergency room visits - Impair the body's immune system

Peroxyacetylnitrate (PANs)

- Respiratory and eye irritants - Mutagenic- causing skin cancer

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

- Global warming- Methane - Carcinogenic- benzene - Form Ozone

Ozone problem Introduction

That is, the layer of life-protecting ozone found at the top of the stratosphere. A brief history of the discovery of the ozone 'hole' is included. The general concepts found in this section include the following:

Concentrations of stratospheric ozone represent a balance, established over eons, between creative and destructive forces and this balance, or dynamic equilibrium, has been changed by human activity. Ozone is formed in the earth's stratosphere and is critical to life on earth as we know it. There is compelling scientific evidence that ozone is destroyed in the stratosphere and that some humanreleased chemicals are speeding up the breakdown of ozone in the atmosphere. CFCs, a human-developed compound, are particularly destructive to the breakdown of ozone in the atmosphere. Ultraviolet radiation is present in natural outdoor light and can be blocked or filtered by various substances.

Ozone Layer Depletion: Historical Perspective

The ozone 'hole', it is really not a hole but rather a thinning of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. We will use the term 'hole' in reference to the seasonal thinning of the ozone layer.

The appearance of a hole in the earth's ozone layer over Antarctica, first detected in 1976. 1974: Rowland & Molina theorize CFCs destroy stratospheric ozone molecules 1975: U of M / Harvard papers predict that CFCs deplete Earths ozone layer 1985: Ozone holes found over Antarctic 1988: Ozone layer thinning over North Pole 1993: Thinning over mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere 1997: Low values of total ozone occur in Arctic as well as Antarctic

Antarctic Ozone Hole Progression

1979 1986 1991

CH4 itself is an important greenhouse gas, and links climate with air pollution via its influence on tropospheric ozone

CONTINENT 1

OCEAN

CONTINENT 2

Ozone Layer Depleting Chemicals

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3) hydrochloric acid (HCl) methyl chloride (CH3Cl) methyl bromide(CH3Br) International Response to Ozone Layer Depletion

1985: United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) 1987: The Montreal Protocol 1992: Copenhagen Amendments 1998: The Montreal Protocol is affecting stratospheric chemical composition.

International Response to Ozone Layer Depletion

1999-2000: Stratospheric ozone layer recovery will be a slow process and extend into the next century. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994 and 1998 (World Meteorological Organization). Ozone Depletion Web Page: http://www.epa.gov/ozone Ozone Layer Depleting Chemicals: Chlorine

Ozone Layer Depleting Chemicals: CFCs

CFCs are inert, nonreactive, nontoxic, nonflammable. Human-made CFCs used in: - refrigeration - air conditioning - foam blowing - cleaning electronic components - solvents CFC Reactions Deplete Ozone Layer in Stratosphere Ozone Depleting Process

Global Stratospheric Ozone Layer Depletion Trend

Biological Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation

Sunburn,Premature Aging & PreCancer Cancer of Skin

-Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinoma -Melanoma Cataracts Photosensitivity Immune system changes

Human Immune System can be suppressed by ultraviolet radiation

Human Immune System can be suppressed by ultraviolet radiation

Human Immune System can be suppressed by ultraviolet radiation

suppression of immune system increased incidence of infection promotion of cancer growth

The Skin Cancer Epidemic

Basal cell carcinoma - most common, least aggressive, locally destructive Squamous cell carcinoma - more aggressive, can metastasize Melanoma - most aggressive, ~75% of all skin cancer deaths

The Skin Cancer Epidemic

melanoma is increasing in incidence faster than any other cancer lifetime probability of developing melanoma is 1 in 75 100 new cases of melanoma diagnosed per day, ~ one death per hour

The Skin Cancer Epidemic Problems

knowledge: 1/3 of Americans know that melanoma is a kind of skin cancer attitudes: >60% of Americans think people look better with a tan behavior: only 1/4 of the population use sunscreens regularly

Cataracts of Eyes

cataracts are when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy 20 million cases worldwide account for half of blindness in the world

Good & Bad Effects of Sunlight

References

Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion. AMBIO 24 May(1995):137-196. Cook, Elizabeth, ed. Ozone Protection in the United States: Elements of Success. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute,1996. UNEP Ozone Depletion Report 1994/98 http://www.gcrio.org/ozone/toc.html http://www.gcrio.org/UNEP1998/ Southern Hemisphere Ozone Hole Size http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/stratosphere/sbuv2to/ozone_hole.html Health and Environmental Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation. INTERSUN: The Global UV Project. 9 Sep 1998. http://www.who.int/peh-uv/publications/index.html The health impact of solar radiation and prevention strategies. Report of the Environment Council, American Academy of Dermatology. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 41:81-99. Think Globally and Act Locally

Acid Rain

What ever happened to acid rain?

In the 1980s, acid rain received a lot of media attention. Although we dont hear about acid rain as much these days, it is still a problem that deserves our attention. Fortunately, acid rain is a problem that we can all help to solve.

What is Acid Rain? How Does it Form?

Acid rain includes both wet and dry acidic deposits Precipitation with a pH lower than 5.6 is considered acidic Acid rain originates from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide particles Once these particles are emitted into the air they form sulfate and nitrate particles These particles can travel long distances on wind currents By combining with water vapor, these particles form acids which fall to the earth as acid rain.

The pH Scale
Measures Potential of Hydrogen = total # of free hydrogen

Where do Sulfur Dioxide & Nitrogen Oxide Particles Come From?

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide particles are emitted from utility plants, especially coal-fed electric plants Automobiles also emit acid rain causing pollution

How Does Acid Rain Effect Our Lives?

Poor forest health due to acidification of soil: acid rain can kill nutrient-producing microorganisms Acidification of lakes and streams can lead to the death of aquatic life, such as trout and bass Acidity can leach mercury out of the soil, causing toxic levels to build up in the fish we eat Acid rain can erode buildings and monuments and destroy paint finishes

What else needs to be done about Acid Rain ?

In 1990, an amendment to the Clean Air Act called for reductions in sulfur emissions This proved to be less effective than hoped, as acid rain still persists today This is largely due to 2 reasons: -1) reductions in sulfur emissions were not great enough and - 2) there were no reductions in nitrogen emissions which are also implicated in forming acid rain Presently, the New England Governors and eastern Canadian Premieres are working together on a solution An International Acid Rain Steering Committee was formed and is currently discussing joint action to further reduce sulfur emissions by 50% and reduce nitrogen emissions by 30% by the year 2010

Can We Do Anything About Acid Rain?

YES! We can all take small actions to help solve the problem We can help by: -using our cars less -conserving electricity -choosing electricity providers that emit lower amounts of air pollution emissions