Session 5

Design and Calculation of Capacitor Banks for Power Factor Correction in Distribution Substation
Miss Khin Trar Trar Soe Department of Electrical power Engineering, MTU, Myanmar thartharsoe@gmail.com

Abstract
Main objective of this paper is to compensate the distribution substation by using capacitor banks. This paper describes generally theory, application and design characteristics of power factor correction with shunt capacitor banks. The location of power factor improvement with capacitor bank at low tension side is Kyaw Zwa project in Myanmar. Kyaw Zwa projects loading is 15MVA.. Sending end voltage is 66 kV to 6.6 kV. This paper has been calculated by variable data. The components which absorb reactive power are generators and synchronous condensers operated with a leading angle. Reactive power is generated by generators and synchronous condensers operated with a lagging angle . Reactive power is consumed not only by most of the network elements, but also by most of the consumer loads. On the other hand reactive power control is power factor correction and voltage control stabilization. There is a fundamental and important interrelation between active and reactive power transmission. Synchronous condensers were used for voltage support and transfer capability improvement. At the same time, shunt capacitors began to be installed in distribution circuits to improve voltage profiles, reduce line loading and losses. The rapid development and relative economy of these shunt capacitors led to stability and voltage control are identifiable as problems in reactive power control, and a wide range of different solution has been developed. Ranging from the use of fixed shunt reactors and capacitors, series capacitors will be discussed with detail description of their functions and phasor diagrams.

1. Introduction
An electrical power system consists of three principal components. There are generating stations, the transmission lines, and the distribution systems. The transmission lines are the connecting between the generating stations and the distribution systems. A power system is complicated. It has a number of power stations of different types, interconnected by a system of tie lines, transmission lines, sub transmission lines, and distribution networks to supply different types of loads to various consumers. A distribution system connects all the individual loads in a given to the transmission lines. In the power distribution automation area there are many

problems the potential areas of application in distribution automation field include: 1. Location of faults 2. Feeder load forecasting 3. Feeder reconfiguration 4. Voltage regulation and capacitor switching 5. Substation sitting 6. Capacitor placement under limits 7. Identification of potential harmonic problem The distribution system is part of the system between transmission and consumer service point. It contains 1. Sub transmission circuits in voltage ratings, usually between 33 kV and 220 kV, which deliver energy to distribution substation. 2. The distribution substation which converts the energy to lower primary system voltage for local distribution and usually improves facilities for voltage regulation of the primary voltage. Normally, there are two basic types of reactive power flows of concern in a power system. 1. Reactive power consumed by loads 2. Reactive power consumed within the network. Reactive power management can be defined as the control of generator voltages, variable transformer tap settings, compensation, and switch able shunt capacitor and reactor banks plus the allocation of new shunt capacitor and reactor banks in a manner that best achieves a reduction in system losses and voltage control. The maximum rating of the capacitors installed on a distribution system are considered to be known from an optimization study on the distribution system design where the peak power demand and varying load profile. Mainly capacitors are used to develop reactive power near the point of consumption. For capacitor compensation at load, the user reaps the same advantage as the power utility for higher power factor on small scale. If power factor has been corrected only at the service entry, system power can make relatively wide swings as heavy loads are switched on and off. Suitable capacitors banks at grid on main substation are desirable to feed requirement of lines, transformers and domestic consumers, etc, who have no capacitors at terminals.

2. Definition of Power Factor

Electrical equipment having a resistance R and a reactance L will draw from the supply and apparent power S in terms of kilovoltampes (kVA) which

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comprises a component of active power P and a component of reactive power Q, which is not involved in the transfer of energy. S is the vectorial sum of components P and Q. The angle between the vectors of the active power and the apparent power is the phase displacement angle. Power factor is the ratio (Cos ) between the active power (kW) and the apparent power (kVA) drawn by an electrical load. Reactive Power

I Load

I V V I

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig 2. Phasor diagrams showing (b) leading and (c) lagging currents and power factor An induction motor has a lagging power factor since it requires both active and reactive power to flow into the motor (same direction). An over-excited synchronous motor has a leading power factor, as it requires active power to flow into the motor while reactive power flows from the motor into the power system (opposite direction). A generator that provides both watts of active power and VAR of reactive power to the power system (same direction) is operating with a lagging power factor. Since capacitors are supplying only reactive power to a system, their power factor is always leading. Apparent power derives largely from the inductive loads in the installation, the higher the inductive loads connected, the lower the power factor. Types of equipment that are likely to have a low power factor are 1. Induction motors 2. Power transformers and voltage regulators 3. Welding machines 4. Electric furnaces 5. Choke coils and magnetic systems 6. Neon signs and discharges lamps Moreover, a poor power factor can be result of either a significant phase difference between the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform. A distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.

Active Power

Apparent Power

Fig 1.Power Triangle Where, = Phase angle p.f = Power factor P = Active power (kW) Q=Reactive Power (kVAR) S = Apparent power (kVA) This is known as the power factor of the load and is dependent upon the type of equipment in use. A large proportion of electrical machinery used in industry has an inherently low power factor, which means that the generating stations have to generate much more current than is theoretically required. In addition transformers and cables must obviously carry this extra current. Voltage drop will be high due to the high current. Generating efficiency will be low. Size of cable should be increased to carry high current. To obtain the best possible economic advantage from electrical power, both the generating station and consumers plant should be operated at the highest possible efficiency. To achieve this event it is essential to maintain a good power factor throughout the system. Most loads on an electrical distribution system fall into one of three categories resistive, inductive or capacitive. In the own plant, the most common is likely to be inductive. Typical examples of this include transformers, fluorescent lighting and AC induction motors. The operating power from the distribution system is composed of both active (working) and reactive (nonworking) elements. All current will cause losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system. The power factor of any operating power system or any component of any power system may be lagging or leading as shown in Fig 2. The determining factor is the relationship between the directions of the active and reactive power flow. If those flows are in the same direction, the power factor at the point of reference is lagging. If either components flow is in an opposite direction, the power factor at that point of reference is leading.
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2.1. Problems with Low Power Factor

When the overall power factor of a generating stations load is low, the system is inefficient and the cost of electricity correspondingly high. Disadvantages of low power factor are 1. Because of flowing high current to full load power due to low power factor, line losses increase and then running cost increase. 2. Install capacity is more necessary for generators because of increasing losses due to over excitation. 3. The rating of transformers, switch gears and transmission and distribution lines have to more install. So capital cost and fixed charges increase. 4. Higher line losses, lower voltage regulation. By taking advantage of these special terms, reductions in power costs can be made. If the system power factor is

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improved and maintained, even if there is no such penalty, the factory cabling and supply equipment can be relieved of a considerable extra current or reactive load. The objective, therefore, should be to reduce the reactive power drawn from the supply by improving the power factor. A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current wave form requires a change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable improvement Power factor correction (PFC) allows power distribution to operate at its maximum efficiency.

3. Reactive Power
The reactive power is consumed by overhead lines, transformers and loads. Its proper generation and control is important for maintaining the network voltage under normal and abnormal power system operation and to reduce system losses. The system should be planned for carrying out suitable proportion of reactive energy. Flow of reactive power on the distribution system loads up the cables, transformers, and overhead wires and causes the following disadvantages. 1. Reactive power reduces the ability of the distribution system to carry larger amount of active power. For a power factor of 70 %, 37 % of the capacity of distribution system handless the reactive current. 2. For a given load being supplied, the copper loss in the system is increased by the flow of reactive power. For a power factor of 70 %, the system copper loss is twice the loss for a power factor of 100 %. 3. Reactive power causes a large voltage drop in the distribution system, especially on overhead lines. Therefore, in those cases where the capacity of the circuit is limited by voltage drop, the flow of reactive power reduces the amount of loads which can be carried on the circuit. Instead of supplying reactive power from the generators and transmitting it to the load through the distribution system, it is possible to obtain the necessary reactive power by using static capacitors. They connect directly to the distribution circuits close to the load. Since capacitors operate at a leading power factor, they neutralize the lagging reactive current supplied to inductive loads on the system. Capacitors can be considered as generators of wattless current to supply the reactive power required by the system load. The use of capacitors on distribution system in large numbers is a relatively new development. The cost of capacitors has been reduced, while the cost of other types of power system equipment has been increasing and their use has become economical. As mentioned in the previous section the capacitor placement in a distribution system is an important area for system application. Shunt capacitors are placed along feeders for purposes of voltage regulation, voltage improvement, generator capacity release, power factor correction and energy loss minimization. Capacitor placement is an integral component of distribution system design. Information about capacitors such of size, kV, kVAR ratings and other restrictions are required. In this paper, one of the important areas of distribution automation, that is, capacitor control problem has been considered and solve. The output from the network is the magnitude of the capacitors required to optimize the energy losses and provide a current voltage profile at these selected buses.

2.2. Improve the System Power Factor

The use of static capacitors for the improvement of system power factor is the most economical solution for industry of today when considering the following factors: 1. Reliability of the equipment to be installed 2. Probable life 3. Capital cost 4. Maintenance cost 5. Running cost 6. Space available Capacitors have no moving parts, initial cost is low, upkeep costs are minimal, and they are compact, reliable, and highly efficient and can be installed basically three possibilities to correct loads individually, in groups or centrally. In large installations, the capacitors are connected to the busbar of the low-voltage main and distribution equipment. Longer plant life distribution board and at load centers within the installation. Very often, sub distribution boards and large loads are compensated in groups or individually in addition to the centralized compensation with its associated p.f control unit. By installing capacitors to improve power factor could save money on electricity bill. Additional potential benefits include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Reduction of heating losses in transformers Stabilized voltage levels Increase in capacity of existing system and equipment Improved profitability

Loads which can fluctuations in the supply system voltage may have to be compensated not only for power factor correction but also for voltage regulation. Kinds of phase modifier equipment are classified into three. 1. Reactive power compensation (a) Shunt capacitors (b) Series capacitors 2. Shunt reactors 3. Rotary condensers

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3.1. Shunt capacitors in the System

The shunt capacitors provide an increase in the active power capacity of the line, a decrease in I2R losses, and an improvement of voltage regulation. The capacitors are generally installed in three-phase banks. Banks of any capacity can be installed by using a number of individual capacitors. Addition of the shunt capacitor generally reduces the amount of current carried in the circuit and in this manner makes possible the supply of a larger kilowatt load by the same circuit. The improvement in power factor will greatly reduce the voltage drop on the distribution system. In many cases where the circuit is relatively long, but consists of over head wire, the voltage drop determines the amount of load that can be supplied by the circuit. Therefore, improvement in power factor will greatly increase the amount of load which can be supplied for a given amount of voltage drop. And then, the shunt capacitors are usually installed on the high-voltage side of the distribution. Capacitors can be installed on the lowvoltage side of distribution transformer and in that way increases their usefulness by reducing the load on the transformer. However, the cost of low-voltage capacitors is considerably higher per kVA than for high-voltage capacitors; therefore, it has been the practice to install the capacitors on the high-voltage side of the circuit. Shunt capacitor has the same effect as an overexcited synchronous condenser, generator or motor. The acceptance of capacitors has been due to the following. 1. Reduction in selling price. 2. Improved design and manufacturing methods resulting in small size and weight. 3. Development of outdoor, pole- type units and standardized mounting brackets. 4. Reduction in failures. 5. Better understanding of system benefits that accrue from their use. 6. The economic of using capacitors is favorable. The lower the load power factor, the more effective the capacitors are. Installation of shunt capacitors is important for reactive planning of a power system it is apparent that it would be most economical if transmission lines are used to transfer only active power where the reactive power requirements of the loads are met within the distribution system at the consumer or at the most at the substation level. Capacitors in the system are placed in banks and can be connected in any form-grounded star, ungrounded star, double star neutral floating, double star neutral grounded, delta, etc. The delta connected bank is used with only one series section per phase and is used up to 6.6 kV and in higher voltage, star connections are usually used. For star connection banks, in general, neutral of the capacitors is grounded only if the system or substation transformer is negatively grounded.

4. Design and Calculation of Size Capacitor Banks for Power Factor Correction
Different type of aluminum conductors are AAC all aluminum conductors.

AAAC all aluminum alloy conductors. ACSR aluminum conductors, steel-reinforced. ACAR aluminum conductors, alloy-reinforced. The number of strands depends on the number of layers on whether all the strands are the same diameter. The effect resistance of a conductor is

R =

Power loss in conductor I2

L A

Eq 1

Direct current resistance is given by the formula is

Ro =

Eq 2

Where, unit / ft)

= resistivity of conductor ( -m) or ( L = length (m) (or) usually given in ft A = cross-sectional area (m2) (or) A = circular mil; (cmil)

A circular mil is the area of a circle having a diameter of 1 mil. 1 mil = 10-3 inch diameter The cross-sectional area of a solid cylindrical conductor is equal to the square of diameter of the conductor expressed in mils. At 20C for hard-drawn copper is 10.66 -cmil / ft (or) 1.77 10

-m

At 20 C for aluminum 2.83 10

8

is 17.00

-cmil / ft (or)

-m

The dc resistance of stranded conductors is greater than the value computed equation (2). The increased resistance due to spiraling is estimated as 1% for threestrand conductors and 2% for concentrically stranded conductors. The variation of resistance of metallic conductors with temperature is practically linear over the normal range of operation. So this resistance can be calculated by

R2 T + t2 = R 1 T + t1

Eq 3

Where R1 and R2 are the resistance of the conductor at temperature t1 and t2 respectively, in degrees Celsius and T is the constant determined as follows.
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T = 234.5 for annealed copper 100% conductivity = 241 for hard-drawn copper 97.3% conductivity = 228 for hard-drawn aluminum of 61% conductivity

L=

2 10 7 ln

D meq Ds
p

H / m / phase / m / phase

Eq 7 Eq 8

4.1. Skin Effect

The resistance of non-magnetic conductors varies not only with temperature but also with frequency. As the frequency of alternating current increases, the nonuniformly of distribution becomes more pronounced. As increase in frequency causes non-uniform current density. This phenomenon is called skin effect. Skin effect is due to the current flowing nearer the outer surface of the conductor as a result of non-uniform flux distribution in the conductor. This increases the resistance of the conductor by reducing the effective cross-section of the conductor through which the current flows. Skin effect is a function of conductor size, frequency, and relative resistance of the conductor material. The following formula should be used to consider the skin effect in resistance calculation. R ac = k.R dc Eq 4 Where, K is a function of X.

XL = 2 f L

Where, L = inductance of three-phase lines XL = inductance reactance of three-phase lines

p p D meq = 3 D ab D p D ca bc

Eq 9

Where, D ab =
p p
4

D ab D ab D ba D ba
4

Eq 10 Eq 11 Eq 12

D bc =

D bc D bc D bc D bc

p D ca = 4 D ca D ca D ca D ca

Where, Dab =

D ba is distance between a and b, b and a .

D ab = D ba is distance between a and b , b and a .

X = 0.063598

f R dc

Eq 5

Dbc

= D bc is distance between b and c, b and c .

D bc = D bc is distance between b and c , b and c .

Dca = D ca is distance between c and a, c and a .

f = frequency in Hz

= permeability (1.0 for nonmagnetic material) Rdc= dc resistance in ohms per mile

D ca = D ca is distance between c and a, c and a .

b b b D s = 3 D s,A D s,B D s,C p

Eq 13 Eq 14 Eq 15 Eq 16

For Parallel-circuit Three-Phase Lines

D b s,A = D s d aa D b s,B = D s d bb
d4

d1

D b s,C = D s d cc
Where,

d2

b
d5

d aa is distance between a and a . d bb is distance between b and b . d cc is distance between c and c .

d3

Fig 3. Typical Arrangement of Conductors of a Parrallel-Circuit Three-Phase Line L = 0.7411 log

D meq Ds

mH / mile / phase

Eq 6

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5. Power Factor Improvement Capacitor Bank at Low Tension Side

ShweDaung Kyaw Zwa Project

with

PL =12.75

MW
at 66 kV High voltage side at 6.6 kV low voltage side

QL =7.9012 MVAR Z1 =5.6402 62.5145 Z2 = 0.02602 + j 0.05003

For Kyaw Zwa Project, 15 MVA Transformer Gen 66kV 15MVA 66/6.6kV 6.6kV Bus In = 1312.16 A En =3810.51 V (L-N) Zn= 2.9039 (L-N)

Fig4. One line diagram from Shwe Daung to Kyaw Zwa From ShweDaung to Kyaw Zwa Six conductors of ACSR linnet constitute at 50Hz double circuit three-phase line arranged as shown in Fig 5.The conductor has 26 strands and its size is 336.4 mcmil. The length from ShweDaung to Kyaw Zwa is 27.4 km. At 20C for aluminum is 17 -cmil / ft. At 20C with an increase of 2% for concentrically stranded conductors. = 17 -cmil / ft L = 27.4 km A = 336.4 10 cmil
3

Transformer Ztr = j 0.33395 Ztotal = Z2 + Ztr = 0.02602 + j 0.3839

6. Uncompensated Condition
Rs = 0.02602 Xs = 0.3839 E = 6.6 kV V = 5.9919 kV Voltage drop in the supply impedance V = 0.5616 + j 0.7826 kV Supply voltage E =6.6 6.8098 kV Line current IL Power factor =2.5032 -31.7896 kA =0.85 (lagging)

Rdc =0.27216

for 1 mile

At 50C, t2 = 50C, t1= 20C T = 228 for hard-drawn aluminum of 61% conductivity Rdc (50C) = 0.30508 Rac = 2.6031 for 1 mile

for Parallel Double Circuit

Voltage Regulation =10.1487%

To find the inductive reactance

c
b

7. Compensated Condition to increase the voltage of Project 6.6kV bus to 6.4kV

Rs = 0.02602 Xs = 0.3839

a
Fig 5. Typical Arrangement of Conductors of a Parallel Circuit Three-Phase Line

Qs = -214.092 (or) 1.7425 MVAR

Q =-6 MVAR
Three parallel capacitor banks 2 MVAR is applied in this distribution substation. After compensation, XL = 5.00356 / phase Voltage drop in the supply impedance V = 0.15635 + j 0.7577 kV Supply voltage E =6.6 6.5922 kV The total current in the supply line Is= 2.0107 -7.7822 kA The compensator current =I=j 0.9623kV
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To Install Capacitor Bank at Low Voltage Side of Kyaw Zwa for Voltage Improvement S = 15 MVA % impedance = 11.5 % p.f = 0.85

Session 5

The current flows into the load Il= 2.3437 -31.7872 kA Power factor = 0.9908 (lagging)

ILR=1.9598 kA

E=6.6kV V VX VR VR=0.0509kV VX=0.7524kV I=1.2145 kA

Voltage regulation = 3.125%

3 1 V=6.509kV

8. Compensation for Unity Power Factor

Il=2.3056 kA To get unity power factor Qs = QL + Q =0 IlX=-1.21456 kA

Q= -QL= 7.9012 MVAR V = 6.5059 kV Voltage drop in the supply impedance V = 0.0509 + j 0.7524 kV E = 6.5996.54612kV I= j 1.2145 kA Is= 1.9598 kA IL =2.3056 -31.7867 kA Voltage regulation =1.4463% ILR=2.1277 kA E=6.6kV V 1 1 V=5.9919kV VR VR=0.5616kV VX=0.7826kV VX

Fig 8. Phasor Diagram of Load Compensated for Unity Power Factor1=31.789,3=6.54612 Table 1.Calculation Result for Power Factor Correction and Voltage Regulation with Capacitor Banks SD-KZ Km kV VR% Before PFC VR After PFC Load (MW) P.F Before 0.85 lagging 0.8 lagging 0.85 lagging 0.85 lagging 12.75 25.5 25.5 12.75 3.125 6.45 3.125 3.125 27.4 66-6.6 10.1487 SD-KZ 27.4 66-33 11.6078 SD-KZ 27.4 66-6.6 10.6825 SD-KZ 80.5 66-6.6 16.013

I =2.5032 kA IlX=-1.3185 kA l

Fig 6. Phasor Diagram of Uncompensated Load (12.75+j7.9012), 1=31.789,1=6.8098 2 E=6.6kV I 1 ILR=2.1277 kA 2 V=6.4kV IS=2.0107 kA IL=2.3437 kA IlX=-1.2346 kA V VR VR=0.15635kV VX=0.7577kV I=0.9623 kA VX

PFC P.F After PFC Size of cap: Mcmil R,Ohm X,ohm -6 MVAR 336.4 0.02602 0.3839 -8 MVAR 336.4 0.6508 4.9336 -14 MVAR 336.4 0.026 0.1836 -8 MVAR 336.4 0.0764 0.4808 0.99 lagging 0.957 lagging 0.997 lagging 0.999 leading

Table 2. Calculation Results of supply Voltages, Load Fig7.phasor Diagram of Compensated for Constant Voltage,, 1=31.789, 2=7.7822,2=6.5922 Voltages and Variable Size of Capacitors and Factor

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Supply voltage (kV) 6.6 6.7 6.6 6.7 6.8 33 33.32 33.63

Size

of

Power Factor After PFC 0.990(lag) 0.956(lag) 0.997(lag) 0.956(lag) 0.933(lag) 0.957(lag) 0.933(lag) 0.908(lag)

Load Voltage (kV) 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 31 31 31

Load (MW)

capacitor (MVAR) -6 -4 -14 -8 -6 -8 -6 -4

company should be connected before any effort is made to improve the power factor. By improving power factor correction, system voltage is stabilization. Acknowledgements Firstly, the author would like to express her indebtedness and deep gratitude to her beloved parents, for their kindness, support, understanding during the whole course of this work and encouragement to attain ambition without any trouble. The author would like to express grateful thank to Daw Than Than Win, Professor and Head of Electrical Power Engineering Department, U Than Zaw Thwe , lecturer, and Dr.Aung Zeya, lecturer Y.T.U and Dr. Tun Naing (Deputy Director Department of Electric Power) for their kindly advices, her paper supervised and permission to carry out this paper. The author is also indebted to all her teachers who give her knowledge from M.T.U and Y.T.U in Myanmar.

12.75 12.75 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5

9. Conclusion
Except in a very few special situations, electrical energy is generated, transmitted, distributed, and utilized as alternating current (AC). However alternating current has several distinct disadvantages. One of these is the necessity of reactive power that needs to be supplied along with active power. Reactive power can be leading or lagging. Reactive power is either generated or consumed in almost every component of the system, generation, transmission, and distribution and eventually by the loads. Most of the loads are inductive, and must be supplied with lagging reactive power. Moreover, power system harmonics have been carefully considered for many years. Compensating the load lagging power factor with the bus connected shunt capacitor bank improves the power factor and reduces current flow through the transmission lines, transformers, generator, etc. Power factor correction capacitors perform the function of an energy-storage device. Instead of transferring reactive energy back and forth between the load and the power source, the magnetizing current reactive energy is stored in a capacitor at the load. Capacitors are rated in kVARs, and are available for single and multiphase loads. Rectifier loads that generate harmonic load current are the cause of a low power factor condition. The capacitors, in some cases, may actually raise the lone current and fail to improve the power factor. When adding capacitors for power factor correction, be careful to avoid any unwanted voltage resonances that might be excited by harmonic load currents. Reduction in total system losses has the benefit of lowering generator fuel cost. Since the real power of generators must supply the system loads and losses, fuel cost will decrease when system losses decrease. Such resistors are connected momentarily in series with the capacitors. Installation of power factor correction capacitors at a facility is a complicated process that requires a knowledgeable consultant the local utility

10. References
[1] T.J.E.MILLER, 1982. Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems 1982 by Jihn Wiley & Sons Inc. [2] R.K.Mukhopashyay and T.Choudhury, S.P. Choudhury, Samiran Choudhuri, F.I.E, Power System for the year 2000 and beyond. Reactive Power Compensation in Industrial Power Distribution System [3] A.S pabla, Electric Power Distribution (Fourth edition) Tata McGraw-Hill Pubkishing Company Limited. [4] Williiam D. Stevenson, Jr, Elements of Power System Analysis (Third ediion) 1955,1962,1975 by Mc Graw-Hill, Inc. [5]Bernhardt G.A.SKROTZKI,. Electric Transmission & Distribution. 1954 Jersey Central Power and Light Cmpany. [6]Glen Ballou, "Electrical Engineering HandBook. 1999. [7] Ed LL.Grisby Boca Ratton,. Electrical Power Engineering. 2001 8.R.S.ARORA. Handbook of Electrical Engineering. 2004. (Fourth edition), New Dehli. [9] A.Johnson, Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book. Oxford & IBH publishing Company. Author received her M.E degree in Electrical Power Engineering from Yangon Technological University, and then following three months training in industry; joined the Department of Electrical Power Engineering at Technological University (Loikaw, Myanmar) where she taught courses in Transmission and Distribution for five months. Her interests include Transmission and Distribution in Station and substation.

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