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Magnetism
Introduction

Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape recorders,

and telephones all use magnetic effects to perform a variety of important tasks.

Certain materials have the ability to attract iron and steel. These are called magnets.

2 types:

(1) Temporary

(2) Permanent

 Hardened steels have high retentivity. When charged they can retain their
magnetism indefinitely. Permanent magnets.
 A piece of soft iron loses much of its magnetism when the magnetizing force is
removed. The amount left is called residual magnetism.

In 1820, Hans Oersted discovered that the needle of a compass deflects when near an
electrical carrying conductor.

Electricity and magnetism are related.

Magnetic Fields

A magnetic field is any region in which a magnetic force is exerted.

Oersted discovered that a magnetic compass needle always takes a position perpendicular
to the current carrying conductor.

Michael Faraday suggests that we think of a magnetic field as being made up of magnetic
lines of force.

Properties of a Magnetic Field

1. Magnetic lines of force represent a tension along their length which tends to make
them as short as possible.

2. Lines of force never intersect or cross

3. The lines try to put as much space between parallel lines as possible.

4. Magnetic lines of force are always complete loops.

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5. Lines of force leave North pole and enter
South pole

6. Magnetic lines of force repel one another.

7. Lines of travel most easily through soft iron.

Lines of force in a magnetic field are referred to as

Magnetic Flux and represented by the Greek letter
phi. φ−

Flux Distribution

Nonmagnetic material, such as glass or copper, will have no effect on the

magnetic lines of force when placed in the flux path surrounding a permanent
magnet.

When soft iron is placed in a magnetic field, the path of the magnetic lines of
force is altered to include the soft iron rather than the surrounding air. The total
number, of lines of force, increase. φ

(Ferromagnetic material)

The soft iron is a temporary magnet by induction. The magnetic field is always
‘ON’.

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Magnetic Shielding

There is no magnetic insulator, but,

but it is possible to
shield sensitive equipment by placing soft iron around
the instrument. Current Carrying Conductors Single
Conductor There is a magnetic field around every
wire that carries an electric current. The direction of
the magnetic flux lines can be found by placing the thumb of the right hand in the
direction of conventional current flow and noting the direction of the fingers. (RH
Rule).

φ∝I If current doubles then flux doubles

Single-turn Coil

# of lines of flux is proportional to the number of turns, and current

φ ∝ (# of turns)

Solenoid- multi-turn coil

Fingers of the right hand go in the direction of conventional current in the coil.
The thumb points in the direction of the north pole of the induced magnetic flux.

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Flux Density

Flux Density B T (teslas)

Flux density is the number of flux lines per unit area.

where φ is in Weber Wb and A is in m2

Example 3.1

If the flux density is 1.2 T and the area is 0.25 in.2, determine the flux through
the core.

Solution

Since then φ = BA

A = 0.25 in.2 = 1.613 x 10-4 m2

φ = BA = (1.2 T)( 1.613 x 10-4 m2)

= 1.936 x 10-4 W

Magnetic flux density can be measured with a gaussmeter.

1 T = 1 x 104 gauss

Magnetomotive force (mmf) =ℑ or Fm

where ℑ = NI (ampere-turns) and ℜ is reluctance

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Reluctance

Reluctance is the opposition to the establishment of magnetic lines of force

(magnetic flux)

R= length of magnetic path (m)

A = cross-sectional area of path (m2)

µ = permeability of material
permeability µ is a measure of the ability of a substance to establish
magnetic flux lines.

µ = µr µ0

µ0 = permeability of free space = 4π x 10-7 Wb/AT-m

µr = relative permeability of a substance WRT vacuum

if µ < µ0 material called diamagnetic Bismuth

if µ > µ0 material called paramagnetic Platinum
iron, steel, nickel,
if µ >>> µ0 material called ferromagnetic
cobalt, permalloy

now magnetic flux

Magnetic Field Intensity

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Magnetization curves

We have found that permeability

and it is non-linear. BH curve = Magnetization curve

Example 2

For a core that has flux = 6.0 x 10 –5 Wb and a cross-sectional area of 1.2 x 10-3 m2,
determine the flux density B in teslas.

Example 3

If the flux density is 2.5 T and the cross-sectional area is 0.37 in.2, determine the flux
through the core.

Domains that were nearly aligned to

1. lower knee region
the field before application of the field
Magnetic axis of domains are
2. Steep portion
switching
Magnetic axis of domains align with
3. Upper knee region external force instead of crystal
orientation

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Inductance
Electromagnetic Induction occurs when a magnetic flux, in motion with respect to
a single conductor, induces an emf in the conductor or coil.

Lenz’s Law - Heinrich Lenz 1804-1865 Russian Physicist.

The induced current always develops a flux which opposes the motion or change
producing the current.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:

Thumb: Relative motion of conductor

1st finger: direction of lines of flux

Middle finger: direction of induced emf.

Work is done to move the conductor through the field.

For work to be done, a force must oppose the motion.

This opposing force is the result of flux setup by the induced current.

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Induced emf

Faraday’s Law Michael Faraday 1791-1867

The emf induced in an electric circuit is proportional to the rate of change of flux linking
the circuit.

single conductor where eL : volts

Φ∆ : Webers Wb

∆t : seconds

1 V. = 1 Wb/s

If there are N turns on the conductor, then

An iron core is used to channel the magnetic flux generated by one coil into another coil.

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Example

Core flux Φ is increased from 0 to 0.05 Wb in 4 seconds.

Calculate the number of secondary turns required to have an induced

voltage of 1.5 V.

Solution:

N= =

N= 120 turns

Self inductance

A conductor moving through a magnetic field has an emf induced in it. That growth of
current in the coil can induce an emf in another coil.

It is possible for a coil to induce a voltage in itself as the current through it grows. This is
called self-inductance.

The expanding field cuts other conductors, setting up magnetic fields that
oppose the flux inducing them.

The expanding field cuts other conductors, setting up magnetic fields that oppose the flux
inducing them.

Inductance henry (H) Joseph Henry

Amer. Physicist 1797 – 1878

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A coil that is constructed to have a certain inductance is usually referred to as an
inductor or choke.

Substitute in the equation for L

where

φ = BA

B = µr µ0 H

H= L = µr µ0 N2

Example

Find the Inductance of the following Air-coil.

l = 100mm, 100 turns, dia. = 4 mm, µr = 1 (air)

Sol’n:

µ = µr µr = 1 x 4π x 10 –7 Wb/A-m

A= = = 12.57 x 10-6 m2

L= =

= 1.58 µH

Non-Inductive Coil (precision resistor)

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Adjacent conductors carry currents in opposite directions

Mutual Inductance

When the flux from one coil cuts another coil, an emf is induced in the second coil.

The induced emf is again a cemf and the inductive effect is called mutual inductance.

but secondary turns

loosely coupled small am’t of flux reaches sec. coil

tightly coupled large am’t of flux reaches sec. coil or

secondary coil is very close to primary coil

Am’t of flux linkage from primary to secondary

Coefficient of coupling K= ≤1

= k Np Ns µr µ0

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* M=K L = µ r µ 0 N2

* Induced emf

Example

Three inductors have values of L1 = 10 mH. L2 = 100 µH, and

L3 = 500 µH.
Determine the total inductance of the three if there are no mutual inductances
between the inductors when connected in series.

Example 3

Three inductors have values of L1 = 10 mH. L2 = 100 µH, and

L3 = 500 µH.
Determine the total inductance of the three if there are no mutual inductances
between the inductors when connected in series.

Example 4

Three inductors have values of L1 = 10 mH. L2 = 100 µH, and

L3 = 500 µH.

Determine the total inductance of the three if there are no mutual inductances between the
inductors when connected in parallel.

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Inductors in Series

eLTotal = eL1 + eL2 + eL3 + etc

* Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3

Inductors in Parallel
∆iTotal = ∆i1 + ∆i2 + ∆i3 + etc

Mutually Coupled Coils

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Series Aiding Series Opposing

Ltot = L1 + L2 + 2M Ltot = L1 + L2 - 2M

Resistor Circuit

at t = 0- i = 0
at t = 0+

Inductor Circuit

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At t = 0- IL = 0, and VL = 0 At t = 0+ IL = ?, and VL = ?

Series RL Circuit

and so

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initially e L = E at t = 0 i=0

eL is max and slope is Max at E/L

t>0 eL decreases and slope decreases

i increases

Instantaneous Current in a series RL Circuit

Instantaneous Current

When
Time Constant is

the instantaneous current is always

63.2 % of Imax
i(t) = 99.3 % of Imax or
When

the instantaneous current is always

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63.2 % of Imax

Example 6

For the following circuit calculate (a) i(t)max, (b) tau, and (c) 5T

E = 15.0 V.

R = 330 Ω

L = 10 mH

Inductors and Capacitors

Capacitors
Remember from ELE 105-5

Charging a capacitor

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τ = RC
Inductors

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