Assignment Writing Guide

A STUDENT GUIDE TO PREPARING AND PRESENTING ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, CRIMINOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY ASSIGNMENTS AND THESES
School of Social Science The University of Queensland St Lucia QLD 4072
This guide has been prepared for the use of students in Anthropology, Archaeology, Criminology and Sociology courses at The University of Queensland. It contains material presented in earlier guides distributed by the School as well as relevant new material.
SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
STUDENT WRITING GUIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ASSIGNMENT TOPICS AND TOPIC ANALYSIS HOW IMPORTANT IS THE ASSIGNMENT? EXPECTATIONS TOPIC PRE-PLANNING Determining (Instructional) Words Second Phase of Pre-planning: Orientation LOCATING INFORMATION READING AND MAKING NOTES FOR ASSIGNMENTS AN APPROACH TO READING HOW DO YOU KNOW WHAT IS RELIABLE? Primary Sources Always Carry More Weight Than Secondary Sources Three Witnesses Are Better Than One MAKING NOTES REVISITING YOUR ESSAY PLAN ESSAY WRITING WHAT MARKERS EXPECT WORKING UP A TOPIC ANSWERING A QUESTION ESSAY STRUCTURE Introduction (What You Are Going To Tell Them) Discussion or Body of the Essay (Telling Them) Conclusions (Tell Them What You Told Them) FINAL STAGES PROOFREADING ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES WRITING: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS LANGUAGE Inclusive or Non-discriminatory Language SPELLING, PUNCTUATION AND GRAMMAR PLAGIARISM TURNITIN ONLINE TUTORIAL PRESENTATION HANDWRITTEN OR TYPED? LAYOUT PAPER SIZE AND PAGINATION USE OF ITALICS ORPHANS AND WIDOWS LENGTH SUBMITTING AND COLLECTING WORK COVER SHEET SUBMITTING COLLECTION DUE DATES AND EXTENSIONS REFERENCING DIRECT QUOTATIONS HOW TO QUOTE WITHIN THE BODY OF YOUR ESSAY CITING ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND INTERNET SOURCES
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HOW TO COMPILE A REFERENCES CITED LIST OTHER REFERENCING CONSIDERATIONS HOW TO COMPILE AN ON-LINE REFERENCES CITED LIST Format for Referencing Electronic Sources Examples of Reference Entries for Electronic Sources Sources of Further Information on Referencing Electronic Documents NOTES ON THESIS PREPARATION THESIS CONTENT PROBLEMS IN WRITING FRAMEWORK FOR A THESIS DATA HANDLING AND PRESENTATION TABLES, FIGURES AND APPENDICES Tables Graphs Diagrams and Illustrations Appendices TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THESIS PRESENTATION SOURCES OF HELP AND FURTHER READING REFERENCE WORKS ON WRITING SPECIALIST DICTIONARIES
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1. ASSIGNMENT TOPICS AND TOPIC ANALYSIS

While undertaking studies in the School of Social Science (Anthropology, Archaeology, Criminology and Sociology) you will be required to submit written assignments for assessment. These assignments are a crucial part of your learning and give you an opportunity to develop and express your research, critical thinking and communication skills. The type and number of assignments you are required to submit will depend on your chosen courses. However, the procedures and principles involved in producing well written assignments are applicable in all courses. Following these guidelines will improve your work in the eyes of your reader/s, and many of the skills you will learn are essential to academic and professional report writing and presentation.
1.1. HOW IMPORTANT IS THE ASSIGNMENT?

The course guide or outline will indicate the proportion of total marks attached to an assignment. The percentage of marks an essay is worth is a useful guide to how much time and effort you should spend on it relative to other items of assessment for the course. However, while an assignment may only be 5001000 words long, it can often be harder to write a clear and concise short essay than a longer one. Percentage of marks, rather than word limits, are a better way of judging effort to expend on your work.
1.2. EXPECTATIONS
At University level what is assessed in your written work varies across disciplines and across courses. However, you are NOT assessed on your ability to merely recite facts or reproduce information from other sources. Instead, you WILL BE assessed on your ability to interpret a question intelligently, and your ability to demonstrate a depth of understanding of a topic based on critical analyse of sources surrounding that topic. In all instances, your ability to organise information from various sources into a clear, concise and logical argument will be pivotal to the success of your assignment. (See Section 3.1 for more information on markers expectations.)
1.3. TOPIC
In most cases (theses usually excepted) you will be given a set topic to write about or research. (In some cases you will be given the option to create your own topic and this is discussed in Section 3.2 of this guide.) The set topic will provide a clear definition of assignment requirements. Analysing the topic statement will give you clues as to how to approach your planning, writing and research. Plan your assignment so that the topic is clearly and directly addressed, not avoided or dealt with indirectly.
1.4. PRE-PLANNING
The first step in undertaking an essay is to study carefully the question or topic to be addressed. Undertaking a critical and reflective analysis of the topic or question will contribute to the success of your essay by drawing your attention to key words essential to understanding the nature of the essay. Failing to read an essay topic or question appropriately often leads to mere descriptive or factual writing, rather than essays that fulfil the requirements of the topic.
Essay topics or questions can often be broken down into three separate but interrelated parts:
Defining words: Key words or concepts which must be considered and defined before essay preparation can begin (social class, oligarchy, culturally constructed, gender inequality, functionalist tradition are examples of concepts requiring definition). Often these key words and concepts have to be defined within the context (or setting) of the essay topic.
(Often defining words can be clarified by referring to a specialist dictionary in your course area. Course dictionaries are located in the reference section of the librarythree examples for each discipline have been provided in the Bibliography to this guide. These examples represent a small proportion of those available in the library.) Problem or issue set by the question/topic: Essay topics and questions in the social sciences often have an issue (or conflict) which you need to address, explore and adopt a position on. Exploring a topic or question allows you to be more analytical and successful in your writing. Determining (instructional) words: Words which set down a method for approaching the essay question or topic (typical examples are illustrate, discuss, evaluate, analyse). They will determine how you read your references and organise your essay. (See list below of example determining words and explanations.)
(Adapted from Mahony, David. 1997 The Student Guide for Writing and Studying Effectively at University: The World of Ideas and The World of Text. Kelvin Grove, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. [LB2369.M335 1997 Quarto])
1.4.1. Determining (Instructional) Words

Analyse Break the topic matter down into its component parts and examine each part in detail to get to the essence of topic matter. Systematically accept or reject a position by presenting reasons and evidence for acceptance or rejection. Always indicate your awareness of opposing viewpoints. Make critical observations about the topic matter, avoiding overgeneralisations and mere description. Look for similarities and differences between ideas, events, interpretations, propositions and so on. Place the ideas, events, interpretations, propositions in opposition in order to show the differences between them. Give your viewpoint or judgment about the worth of theories or opinions about the truth of facts, and back you opinion with a discussion of evidence. Set down clear, concise and authoritative meanings about the nature of the topic matter. Show that the distinctions implied in the definition are necessary. Give a detailed or graphic description of the characteristics of the topic, emphasising the most important points.
Argue
Comment
Compare
Contrast
Criticise
Define
Describe
Differentiate
Show the difference between two or more things by determining their distinctions. Investigate or examine by argument, presenting a point of view (whether yours or others). May entail description and interpretation, and your opinion should be supported by arguments and evidence both for and against. List or specify and describe one by one the points required. Make an appraisal of the worth of something, in the light of its apparent truth or utility. Include your personal opinion, supported by evidence, and consider both strengths and weaknesses. Make clear, interpret, and account for in detail (interpret meanings clearly). Avoid mere description or summarising and focus on the why and how aspects of an issue. Thoroughly examine a topic by investigating and analysing every aspect of it. Explain and make clear by the use of concrete examples or by the use of figures, pictures, diagrams or concrete examples. Bring out the meaning of, and make clear and explicit; usually also giving your own judgment (with adequate backing). Search, study and carefully survey all areas of the topic. Defend or show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions, take opposing viewpoints into consideration. Supply the main points or general principles of a topic, leaving out less significant details. Emphasise should be on the structure and relationship of information. Confirm or verify, or demonstrate truth or falsity by presenting evidence and arguing logically. Reveal or show how things are connected to each other, emphasising relevance and associations in a descriptive fashion. Critically examine, analyse and discuss the majors points of a topic, in an organised and orderly manner. Formally set forth or definitely declare a position, specifying details fully and clearly while omitting unnecessary details. Provide a concise account or statement of the main points or substance of a matter, omitting details and examples. Identify and describe the development, process or history of a topic from some point or origin (usually the latest to the earliest evidence or development).
Discuss
Enumerate Evaluate
Explain
Explore
Illustrate
Interpret
Investigate Justify
Outline
Prove
Relate
Review
State
Summarise
Trace
(Adapted from Bate, Douglas and Peter Sharpe. 1996 Writers Handbook for University Students. Sydney: Harcourt Brace [LB2369.B345 1996] and Marshall, Lorraine and Frances Rowland. 1998
A Guide to Learning Independently. 3rd edn. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman. [LB2395.M369 1998])
The TOPIC is the descriptive or focus area of the essay question, the PROBLEM is the central issue raised by the essay question and the THESIS STATEMENT is the main idea, or your claim, in response to the problem.
1.4.2. Second Phase of Pre-planning: Orientation

Often this requires general reading in the area of investigation to clarify key concepts, theories, etc. This is particularly important if you have little knowledge of the essay topic. Early knowledge can be obtained from: set readings and textbooks assigned to the course; general references in the library; specialist dictionaries; lecture notes, tutorials and/or seminars; and references lists or bibliographies attached to primary sources.
Initial reading will usually start with set texts assigned in the course and these will allow you to: explore the topic; understand key terms, concepts and theories; assess the determining words of the topic; organise obtaining and utilising specialist references relevant to the topic (essential to developing a well informed essay); and frame an early tentative thesis statement for the essay.
A thesis states or claims your earlier assertions about the central problem raised by the essay topic. Thesis statements are likely to change throughout the process of researching and writing your essay. Continue to develop your plan gradually by compiling evidence, examples and quotations form the literature and review your plan from time to time in the light of any new literature. Remember that this plan should be flexible and you should be prepared to change it as you read and write more. It is often useful to write separate points on separate pages or cards so that you can easily reorganise your thoughts. Word-processing computer packages that allow you to move text around are ideal tools for essay preparation.
1.5. LOCATING INFORMATION

After general reading around a topic it is time to move to specialist works in your course reading list, as well as other relevant titles in the library. Bibliographies and reference lists attached to work you have read are often excellent sources of information for other worthwhile works. Our libraries also have specialist information sheets on relevant library resources for each discipline. These fact sheets contain information on how to locate dictionaries, encyclopedias, books, journals and databases, Internet resources and specialised resources for each discipline. Further information and help can be obtained from Helen Cooke, the librarian for Anthropology, Archaeology, Criminology and Sociology. Helen Cooke is located in the Social Sciences and Humanities Library. Be sure to judge the relevance of a work to your essay topic. You should be constantly asking yourself: Is what I am reading pertinent to the topic?
After this initial surveying of relevant literature you can now move to reading, critical thinking and note taking.
2. READING AND MAKING NOTES FOR ASSIGNMENTS

The following aims to make you aware of the STRUCTURE of academic texts and how this structure influences your thinking. In the process you will learn how to critically evaluate arguments, rather than just extract information. While some pieces of writing will be easier to examine in the way we suggest than others, there will always be some structure that you need to be aware of in order to evaluate the work. Awareness of academic writing structures is also a first step in being able to produce such writing yourself.
Critical thinkers: test evidence define terms see the various sides to an argument look for consistency in argument seek out the strengths as well as the weaknesses in an argument are aware of the authors assumptions are detached in their approach to the problem set by the question
(Taken from Mahony, David. 1997 The Student Guide for Writing and Studying Effectively at University: The World of Ideas and The World of Text. Kelvin Grove, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. [LB2369.M335 1997 - Quarto])
2.1. AN APPROACH TO READING

First SKIM the work for structure, main theme and arguments. Work through the following aspect of the work in the order suggested. Title. What does the title suggest will be the main theme? Analyse the key words in the title. Introduction/Abstract. This is usually the first paragraph that summarises the main ideas to be covered. Some papers are preceded by a short abstract with the same function. What are the main ideas here? How far did you need to skim to find the outline of main points? Conclusion. This should also summarise the main points. Solutions should be provided or further work outlined. Are the main points reiterated and linked to the introduction here? Main body of text. Note headings for later analysis. Can you quickly determine whether headings are related to text? Does the first paragraph of each section act as a kind of introduction to that section? Graphic aids. Are there any tables or graphic representations that help to make points more emphatically and clearly? How effective are they? References. Is the work well supported by reference to other significant work and information from other sources? Are the quotations relevant?
Now READ AND THINK. Is the article plausible and accurate? If you disagree with any of it, what are the grounds for your doing so? You will have to give your reasons for your evaluation of this article, and for this purpose, it will be useful to consider the following: 1. Is there anything significant about the author, date or source of this article? Does the title give you a good overview of the content? 2. Summarise the introduction, listing the main points to be discussed. Do you agree that this outlines the main points, or does it merely open the discussion? 3. Summarise the conclusion. Does it draw the arguments together? 4. Write a summary of the article with your critical evaluation of the work. The following questions may help you develop your analysis: What is the article/book about? What is the case or problem being investigated? What are the key concepts used in the article? Make a note of their definitions. Does the author adopt a clear theoretical stance? Can this be identified (e.g. feminist, Marxist, functionalist, structuralist, post-structuralist)? Are arguments valid? Do they contain persuasion or faulty logic? What type of evidence is used to support the argument/outline the case/investigate the problem? How convincing is the evidence? Why? What are the chief strengths and weakness of the arguments? What are the main limitations or arguments and evidence? Are any particular forms of bias built into the study? What factors have influenced the choice of methods, the accuracy of measurements, the reliability of date, the conceptual framework? Are alternative explanations given and comparisons made? Are there any cause/effect relationships? Are these indeed cause and effect, or vice versa? Are the conclusions presented clearly, objectively, and in sufficient detail to enable the reader to evaluate them? Are the conclusions cautious, or overstated? What questions does it leave in the readers mind?
2.2. HOW DO YOU KNOW WHAT IS RELIABLE?

DATA are the raw material by which we turn opinions and hypotheses into convincing arguments. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary defines datum (singular of data) as: A thing given or granted; something known as fact, and made the basis of reasoning or calculation. Suppose we surveyed all the students in a given course and found that 80% of them said it was the best course they had ever taken. The FACT that we then know is not that it is the best course, but that 80% of current students thinks so. We have to form a THEORY to explain the observed data, and here our theory would probably be that it was a good course. But in order for this to be accepted as fact, we would have to test our theory by other means.
It has been said that data become facts when they have stood the test of time and argument. In constructing the argument of your essay you will need to call on the best possible range of information. How do you know what is reliable?
Criteria for judging evidence: is it relevant to the thesis statement? can it be validated? is it representative? does it broaden my understanding? does it challenge my thesis statement? what conclusion/interpretation does it lead to? how will it be used in the assignment?
(Taken from Mahony, David. 1997 The Student Guide for Writing and Studying Effectively at University: The World of Ideas and The World of Text. Kelvin Grove, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. [LB2369.M335 1997 - Quarto])
2.2.1. Primary Sources Always Carry More Weight Than Secondary Sources
A researchers own report of experimental data (carefully controlled and executed) or the citing of original documents or eyewitness account is preferable to a report of the same information by another person, or sometimes even a later reworking of the material by the same person. In anthropology, for instance, an original ethnography can be expected to give you better and more detailed data than something like a textbook. A rigorous critique of argument is best based on primary data. Are we shown the people doing the things the anthropologist says they do? How often are the informants own words quoted?
2.2.2. Three Witnesses Are Better Than One

This rule merely means the more supporting data there are, the more likely the conclusions are to be correct. If the anthropologist describes many families as having the same household arrangements, or surveys all the households, we can have more confidence in the description. If several anthropologists come to the same conclusions about a particular people or social formation, we have to take their argument seriously. That is not to say that a dissenting voice is necessarily wrong, however. We can only decide how much weight to give it by examination of the primary data presented.
2.3. MAKING NOTES

Make your notes initially including the following information: Bibliographic/reference information: Author/s name Title of article/chapter heading Title of book/journal Page numbers Date of publication Publication details (volume, part numbers, place of publication, publishers)
Is the article/book a report or critique of empirical research? a theoretical exposition? a theoretical review? Make a note of any tables or diagrams you may want to refer to later (include page numbers). Make a note of any quotations you may wish to utilise later (include page numbers).
When you have finished making notes, read them to see that they provide an adequate summary of what you have read. Are the notes sufficient to enable you to report on what you have read; that is, can you explain the reading to someone else? Can you use them to compare with other reading you have done or will do on the topic? Can you form a critical analysis from them? Be careful not to make your notes too concise. Invent your own system of shorthand to save space but be sure you can still understand it in a months time. Remember, the more detailed your notes the better, since the book or article may be hard to track down again once you have returned it to the library. Keep your notes in a safe place. Organise files carefully so that you can locate notes again in the future. Good notes will be useful beyond the requirements of any one course or assignment.
2.4. REVISITING YOUR ESSAY PLAN

Again examine carefully the scope and structure of your plan. Ask yourself: Have I compiled all the material necessary to answer the set question/address the set topic? Have I dealt with the whole topic? Have I answered questions that are not asked? Is there a clear thread running through the plan linking each of the parts logically together? Does the conclusion clearly follow from the main points of argument? Then read through all your notes to refresh your memory. It is now time to write your first full draft. Do not worry too much about the prose at this stage, just let it flow from your developed plan. If you do not have a word-processor you may want to work with separate ideas on separate cards or sheets of paper so that you still have the opportunity to easily reorganise your material. Write in your own words; take care to reference correctly and use quotations appropriately. DO NOT PLAGIARISE (see guidelines in Section 5 of this guide).
3. ESSAY WRITING
Writing an essay is a gradual process; the final version of an essay that you submit for assessment should develop through several drafts, prepared as you explore the topic and compile notes from reading material. Always begin the writing process as soon as you choose your topic, soon after topics/questions are distributed, and carefully manage your time to allow for each stage of preparation. The first step in writing is to study the set topic carefully (as discussed earlier). IT IS EXPECTED THAT YOUR ESSAY WILL BE CLEARLY FOCUSED ON THE TOPIC CHOSEN. Always keep a copy of the actual wording of the topic/question in view.
3.1. WHAT MARKERS EXPECT

You should be given a written copy of the criteria that will be used to mark your essay. Criteria, of course, can vary among markers, but the following indicates what would generally be expected of an essay receiving top marks: Outstanding essay that engages with the topic or problem, reviews and critically analyses the relevant literature and shows original or creative thinking; the information and data presented are relevant to the topic and have been analysed appropriately; conclusions are supported by the data; sources are properly cited and referenced; extremely well-written and organised; polished and professional in presentation. As a further indication of the standards markers apply and how the assessment of your essay will be approached from a markers perspective, the following provides additional information on the major aspects of an essay and what markers look for in relation to them: 1. Organisation. The essay should be coherently structured, with its parts logically and understandably organised. In addition to the body of the essay (in which information, analysis, discussion, etc. are presented), the essay should include an introduction (in which the topic or problem is specified, set in context and its relevance indicated) and a conclusion (in which the strands of argument are drawn together, final points are made and the broader implications of the study suggested). It is often helpful to readers, and makes essay preparation easier, if the essay is divided into sections, each clearly headedthis is especially true of longer essays. 2. Content. The essay should contain an adequate amount of data or information to support the conclusions drawn. The theoretical perspective from which the problem or question is approached should be made explicit, and the methods of analysis employed should be appropriate to the problem or question addressed. The arguments presented should be logical, and the conclusions reached should be plausible. 3. Presentation. This refers to the mechanics of essay writing. The essay should be free of grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors, and it should be neat and legible. The standard conventions should be followed for presentation of quotations, figures and tables; pages should be numbered; and the essay should have a title. The essay should have been carefully proofread and any errors corrected prior to submission.
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4. Style. The writing in the essay should be lucid and communicate the authors thoughts effectively (simplicity of style is generally a virtue). Words should be used properly, and technical terms, abbreviations and acronyms should be defined. The essay should be free of unnecessary jargon. 5. Originality and Creativity. In addition to information and perspectives derived from other sources, the essay must contain some ideas, outlooks, insights, information, analyses, or approaches of an original nature. It is not acceptable to create an essay simply by paraphrasing a set of sources or by stringing together a series of quotations. 6. Use of Literature and Referencing. The essay should demonstrate the ability to locate, critically assess and appropriately use the relevant literature. This literature should be used not only to provide information or data germane to the argument of the essay, but also to place the essay topic in context and to assist in developing a theoretical or other perspective on it. Primary sources should be cited whenever possible, and the sources used should be credible and pertinent. It is not acceptable to cite only popular works or such sources as encyclopaedias, and it should be evident that the references cited were actually read. Standard conventions for citing and presenting references should be followed. 7. Plagiarism. Markers will watch for plagiarism (see Section 5) and penalise it. Essay writing is a skill, but it is a skill that can be learned and improved upon with practice. Your lecturers and tutors will expect you to take your work seriously and to put some effort into it, and will mark accordingly.
3.2. WORKING UP A TOPIC

You may be asked to define your own topic for an essay or project. A classic mistake students make is to pick too large a topic and/or to not clearly define just what their topic is. The following is designed to help you begin to refine your ideas. 1. Firstly, identify the topic you intend to address. 2. Next, write down some descriptors, key words, relevant to that topic. You will have to check these key words against the course catalogue in the library (command ST or TE on the computer) to see which of them in fact appear there. This will make you aware of other possible key words as well as help you to focus your attention on a manageable portion of the field. You should now be ready to think about a title. 3. What terms in your title, or related to your topic, need to be defined? Remember that dictionaries are not specialist texts and therefore are not often the best places to go for definitions in this context. A definition might be a discussion of the possible approaches to a topic rather than a formula. 4. What lines of thought does your title suggest? Make sure that your title does not include references to an area you do not want to deal with or, alternatively, omits a major aspect of your assignment.
5. Can you discuss arguments both for and against the main thesis of the topic?
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3.3. ANSWERING A QUESTION

Where an essay question is provided students often fail to do what the question asks of them. Take note of the list of determining (instructional) words (outlined in Section 1.4 of this guide) and make sure you are fulfilling the markers expectations.
3.4. ESSAY STRUCTURE

Many of the articles you have read and will read in the future will not live up to the expectations that are embodied in our earlier exercises on reading. Many writers do not structure their work so as to help the reader but it will be of great help to you in your academic career if you can learn to do this. The trick is to tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, then tell them what you have told them. This means you need an introduction, a discussion (body of the essay) and conclusions.
3.4.1. Introduction (What You Are Going to Tell Them)

Here you should define your topic. This is probably the most important part of the essay as it will let your reader know what to expect. You might: ask a question you will attempt to answer; state a case you will argue; post a hypothesis you will test and report on; outline your reasons for focussing on certain aspects of a general topic; give selected data to establish a topic as worth writing about; or use a quotation which conveys the key ideas you will discuss.
Any terms or concepts that are central to your topic should be defined in the introduction or very early in the discussion. Now rough out an introduction for your own essay, using one of the strategies suggested here. The length of the introduction will vary with the length of the essay. Does your introduction cover the issues raised in the title and definition of topic? Does it leave any unaddressed? Does it make a reader want to read on? You will often find it necessary to rewrite first attempts, as your introduction should relate directly to the body and conclusion of your essay.
3.4.2. Discussion or Body of the Essay (Telling Them)

The body of the essay can be thought of as a series of building blocks that escort the reader step by step through your argument. This is the part where you report on your reading, weigh up arguments for and against a proposition, and present the evidence. Paragraphs. The way you structure your paragraphs assists in the development of your essay and is an important aid to your readers understanding. It is, therefore, important to outline some relevant points about paragraph structuring that will help ensure your essay flows properly. In particular: a paragraph should revolve around one main idea; a paragraph should at least have a topic sentence, supporting sentence/s and often a concluding sentence; paragraphs should have internal coherence; and there should also be coherence between paragraphs.
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Often, when planning your essay, it is helpful to subdivide the discussion paragraphs by the use of headings and subheadings.
3.4.3. Conclusions (Tell Them What You Told Them)

As we pointed out in the reading exercises, this should relate to the introduction. That is, here you should summarise the evidence you have presented for the main points of the topic as you have defined it. You should not introduce new evidence at this point but you may suggest further questions that may be asked. These should be specific questions and not statements of the type much work remains to be done. A conclusion may also point to the broader implications of the study. As well as drawing together what you have said, the conclusion should round off your essay so that it does not let your reader down too hard. Always ask is this an effective conclusion or does it just repeat, rather than synthesise, the main points?
3.5. FINAL STAGES

When you have completed your first full draft, re-examine the scope and structure of your essay and expand or prune if your draft is too short, too long or not well balanced. Evaluate the effectiveness of your introduction and conclusion and check that they point to and address the main issues of the set topic. Ensure that you have included references where necessary and check their accuracy (see Section 10 in this guide). Ask yourself, is my argument convincing? At this stage, it is very helpful if you can read your essay aloud to another person. Take note of any comments they have and make any necessary adjustments. Write your final draft and take particular care with spelling, punctuation, grammar and legibility, and the presentation of references. When complete, ask someone else to read your essay. If you are satisfied, produce your final copy; proofread it carefully; MAKE A COPY; attach a cover sheet; and submit it by the due date (see sections 8 and 9 in this guide).
3.6. PROOFREADING
Even if you compose your essays on a computer and use your spelling/grammar checker, mistakes will creep in. The most effective way to proofread is from a hard copy rather than on a computer screen. It is very important to proofread your work for grammatical and typing errors, as well as to check that your argument really does go the way you want it to, with no glaring omissions. A good way to detect mistakes is to read your work out loud. Since it will be hard for you to see errors in work you are still immersed in, it is usually a good idea to leave your essay at least overnight before proofreading. It is quite remarkable how mistakes will leap out at your after a passage of time. It is also a good idea to have someone else read your work.
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3.7. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Some courses will require you to produce annotated bibliographies for assessment. These bibliographies might be a part of the essay or report you are asked to submit, or they might be assigned as preparation for future work in the course. Annotated bibliographies are lists of references with brief comments (the Macquarie Dictionary defines the term annotate as to remark upon in notes). What is critical here is that the annotations for the works included in the bibliography should be brief, yet still informative. Each entry consists of the bibliographic details for the work listed followed by your comments on it. These comments should prcis the contents of the book or article, indicate how it is relevant, and provide a brief evaluation of it in relation to your topic or question. Example: Hart, C.M.W. and A. R. Pilling 1960 The Tiwi of North Australia. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. This is the standard monograph on the Tiwi comprising the earlier work of Hart on the ceremonies, social organisation, economic system and daily life of this Aboriginal people, and the more recent description of the Tiwi in the 1960s by Pilling. It was particularly useful in providing an insight into the various forms of social control which operate in an island community.
(This example taken from Clanchy, John and Brigid Ballard. 1997 Essay Writing for Students: A Practical Guide. South Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd. [LB2369.C55 1997])
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4. WRITING: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1. LANGUAGE
Write in clear, concise English prose. Avoid unnecessary detail and irrelevancies. Avoid repetition of arguments and evidence. Avoid the use of technical jargon for its own sake (this is different from the careful use of specific terms and concepts necessary in a theoretical argument or explanation). Avoid sweeping statements that you cannot support. Always write in a tone that is objective and persuasive. Avoid contractions such as dont, doesnt, cant, etc. Colloquialisms and slang should also be avoided. There is a difference between written and spoken English and you should observe the distinction between language suitable in conversation and language suitable in a written document. The following points should also be noted: Adopt Australian forms of spelling (e.g. colour not color, centre not center), unless quoting directly from a publication in which the American form is used. The Macquarie Dictionary is a suitable reference. Avoid excessive capitalisation of words and phrases. Avoid abbreviations. Spell out figures up to tenuse numbers for larger figures. Always spell out a number that begins a sentence. Be consistent and unambiguous when referring to dates (10 June 1981 rather than 10.6.81; the American practice reverses this, so that 10.6.81 would be October 6 not 10 June). Do not use acronyms (words made from initial letters) without spelling them out first, unless they are conventionally very familiar (MLC could mean Member of the Legislative Council or an insurance company; Anzac, Qantas, UNESCO are acceptable).
In other cases, when in doubt, consult your tutor or course controller. Aim for a simple, clear style, but always spell out what you mean rather than leave things ambiguous in the mind of the reader. A good general guide is Hudson, N. 1997 Modern Australian Usage. 2nd edn. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. [PE3601.H83 1997]
4.1.1. Inclusive or Non-discriminatory Language

Another aspect of language that must be adhered to is non-discriminatory or inclusive language. The use of inclusive language ensures that groups, and individuals within them, are not degraded or excluded (e.g. phrases like Christian name exclude the many people of other faiths at the University). The use of discriminatory language puts the writer at risk of being perceived as sexist, racist, rude or ignorant and, thus, unprofessional. Some general points to remember when writing assignments are as follow:
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Non-sexist language. The University Senate has formulated policy that supports the use of non-sexist language within this University. You should use words that include both sexes, and avoid the use of sexist generalisations in all written work. Avoid using words like man, mankind or he when writing generally about women, men and transgendered people. Instead use terms such as people, humankind, human beings, they, etc. Use terms such as staff in place of manpower and spokesperson in place of spokesman. Find neutral terms for occupational titles, such as police officer and homemaker and avoid putting female or male in front of these titles as this suggests that such jobs normally belong to either women or men. Culturally inclusive language. The purpose of using culturally inclusive language is to ensure that all ethnic and cultural groups are depicted as equals. When describing people or cultures, avoid stereotyping as it is misleading and ignores the personal worth of individuals. There is diversity amongst the indigenous groups and ethnic communities within Australia so try to avoid making generalisations. For example, be sensitive to how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people may prefer to be referred to. Some people may prefer to be known by their regional name, e.g. Murri or Koori, or by a local tribal or group name, or to be referred to as an Aboriginal person rather than an Aborigine. Torres Strait Islanders have a linguistic and cultural identity different from other indigenous people of mainland Australia and, hence, should not be referred to as Aboriginal. When referring to the two cultural groups together use Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples consistently throughout a document. Language and people with disabilities. If it is necessary to discuss a persons disability, it is better to refer to the disability as something that a person has, rather than the disability constituting the person. For example, refer to people who have a sight impairment rather than the blind, and to people with epilepsy rather than epileptics. The aim of using inclusive language when referring to people with disabilities is to focus on the individual, not the disability. People with disabilities do not wish to be ignored, or cast as special in relation to others. Thus, you should also avoid using the term normal as a contrast to people with disabilities. Discriminatory language based on sexual orientation. It is illegal to discriminate against people on the grounds of their sexual orientation. To be inclusive, your language should reflect the fact that our community contains people who are homosexual, bisexual and heterosexual. The terms gay men for men and lesbian for women are generally accepted within the homosexual community. It is also generally suitable to use the terms homosexual men and homosexual women when used in the same context as the terms heterosexual men and heterosexual women. Ageist language. Inclusive language should also be aimed at countering discrimination against older people. The majority of older people are busy, independent and contributing to the social and economic well-being of the community. Using words like pensioners, geriatric, and senile perpetuates negative stereotypes about older people. The term older people (not old people) is generally acceptable, while other terms in use at present include seniors, senior citizens and mature aged people. For further information on non-discriminatory language see Anderson, J. and M. Poole. 1994 Thesis and Assignment Writing. 2nd ed. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons. [LB239.A6 1994]
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For further information go to the University of Queenslands Inclusive Language brochure at http://www.uq.edu.au/equity/docs/inclusive_language05.pdf.
4.2. SPELLING, PUNCTUATION AND GRAMMAR

Errors in spelling, punctuation and grammar make it difficult for your reader to follow your ideas, no matter how insightful. If you are unsure of how to use various punctuation marks, consult some of the relevant texts provided in the attached reference list of other sources. An excellent source is the Australian Government Publishing Service. 1994 Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers. 5th edn. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. [Z253.A88 1994]
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5. PLAGIARISM
Students who are found guilty of plagiarism can be expelled from the University for misconduct, so you are advised to keep a careful record of any sources you use in material that is handed in for assessment. Your attention is drawn to the University regulation regarding plagiarism: The misuse or plagiarism of other persons work is a serious academic offence and is viewed with the greatest concern by the University. Plagiarism includes copying the work of other persons or presenting substantial excerpts from books, articles, theses, lecture notes, etc., without acknowledgment. In order to help you avoid this cardinal sin of Academe, the following definitions and examples illustrate the similarities/differences among citation/quotation, paraphrasing and plagiarising. Quote: to repeat (a passage, etc.) from a book, speech, etc. Paraphrase: a saying or writing of a text or passage in another way, esp. to make it shorter, simpler and clearer. Plagiarise: to take ideas, passages, etc., or their manner of expression and pass them off as ones own. (All of the above definitions are taken from the Pocket Macquarie Dictionary) The following examples are hypothetical passages from three student essays on Freedom and Constraint in Sport (the reference for the quotation used in these examples is Marx, K. 1970 The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. In K. Marx and F. Engels Selected Works. Moscow: Progress Publishers). An example of quoting properly is: However, beliefs like these neglect to consider the fact that people are very greatly restricted by extra-individual forces over which they have no or only very limited control. For example, serfs do not choose to be enslaved, women do not opt to be dominated, and Aborigines do not select racial oppression. Marxs following comments are particularly relevant in this case: Men make their own history, but they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly encountered, given and transmitted from the past. The tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brain of the living (Marx 1970:96). An example of paraphrasing properly is: However, beliefs like these neglect to consider the fact that people are very greatly restricted by extra-individual forces over which they have no or only very limited control. As Marx (1970) once noted, people are not free to do exactly what they want in life; they must take into account historical traditions that channel their behaviour. For example, serfs do not choose to be enslaved, women do not opt to be dominated, and Aborigines do not select racial oppression.
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An example of plagiarising is: However, beliefs like these neglect to consider the fact that people are very greatly restricted by extra-individual forces over which they have no or only very limited control. Men make their own history, but they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly encountered, given and transmitted from the past. For example, serfs do not choose to be enslaved, women do not opt to be dominated, and Aborigines do not select racial oppression. All three of the above examples convey the same ideas and information yet do so in different ways. The first two examples are legitimate and acceptable forms of academic writing. The last is not acceptable because the words are not shown as being quoted and thus they appear to be the work of the essay writer rather than the original author. PLAGIARISM IS REGARDED VERY SERIOUSLY. Legitimate quotation and paraphrasing are essential, and depend on accurate note-taking and research skills. IF IN DOUBT ASK YOUR TUTOR OR COURSE CONTROLLER FOR ADVICE.
5.1 Turnitin Online Tutorial

To assist you in using Turnitin there is an online tutorial on Blackboard at: http://blackboard.elearning.uq.edu.au/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_22_1 . In some courses you might be required to use Turnitin as part of the electronic submission process. If electronic submission is not required, Turnitin is a helpful tool to check that you have not used the work of others without the use of appropriate referencing.
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PRESENTATION
6.1. HANDWRITTEN OR TYPED?
Many course controllers specify that work must be typed or word-processed. However, if the course controller has not specified this, it is still preferable that you submit typed or wordprocessed work over handwritten work. If you are submitting handwritten work it will usually take several attempts at drafting before you have a final coherent and legible essay. Handwritten work containing cross-outs and insertions will be viewed as a draft and marked accordingly. Poorly typed work with typographical errors will attract as many penalties as poor handwriting. Do not rely on your word processors spell checker to pick up mistakes; proofread and correct all work before submission.
6.2. LAYOUT
Margins should be a minimum of 25mm all round. Left margins of 3540mm are helpful for markers and essential for bound work like theses. Lines should be double-spaced (including between paragraphs), although indented quotations will be single-line spaced (see Section 10.2). If handwriting, write on every second line. Standard 12 point font should be used throughout and avoid overuse of bold print, multiple fonts, or other printing effects. Also be careful in font selection; avoid ornate or difficult-toread font styles (Times New Roman is the font generally used in University documents). Type in one colour and do not use red (often used for marking).
6.3. PAPER SIZE AND PAGINATION

Use international size A4 in preference to other sizes (the default paper size for some commonly used word-processing programs is American letter size, so check your paper size setting before you begin your work). Do not mix paper sizes in an assignment, and use one side of the paper only. Number all pages clearly and in sequence. If inserting pages with diagrams, illustrations and so on, ensure that these have correct page numbers and that subsequent pages also flow in order.
6.4. USE OF ITALICS

The use of italics should be employed when: discussing Bills or Acts of Parliament (e.g. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders (Queensland Discriminatory Laws) Act 1984); and when incorporating words from other languages into your text (it is not necessary to continue italicising them after the first time they are used).
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6.5. ORPHANS AND WIDOWS

An orphan occurs then the first line or two of a paragraph is left by itself at the bottom of a page. A widow occurs when the last line or two of a paragraph is left by itself on the top of a page. It is preferable that when an orphan or widow occurs, you move the whole paragraph on to the next page. Many word-processing packages have functions which will do this automatically for you if set correctly.
7. LENGTH
For written work an approximate length is usually supplied in your course outline. This is a rough guide to the importance of the assignment in the overall pattern of assessment for the course. Avoid exceeding the recommended length as excessive length is no substitute for quality. Learning to be concise is an essential aspect of effective written communication. Many lecturers will not mark assignments that exceed the specified length limit.
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8. SUBMITTING AND COLLECTING WORK

8.1. COVER SHEET AND SUBMISSION
All assignments must be submitted with a cover sheet. All information requested should be supplied. Your assignment must be submitted to the School of Social Science General Office, Room 805, Level 8, Michie Building (9) where it will be scanned as a record of receipt. Please note, written assignments must not be handed to your course controller or tutor in class. School administrative staff will be responsible for the distribution of all scanned assessment items to the course controller. You may access the cover sheet through the School Website by logging onto http://www.socialscience.uq.edu.au/index.html?page=65016 and then log on with your UQ Username and Password.

Fill out the details relating to the assignment from the ECP. Please check the Plagiarism and Discipline policies. The boxes must be ticked to indicate that you have read and understood the policies. Then click the Assignment cover Sheet box and the completed assignment sheet will be generated containing a barcode. Print the assignment sheet and attach to your assignment and submit to the School office where the barcode will be scanned. Once your assignment is scanned, an email receipt will be generated and sent to you for your record. Assignments will not be accepted without a cover sheet with a barcode. Assignments must be submitted no later than 2:00pm on the due date. Assignments received after this time will be deemed late and attract a penalty, unless an extension has been granted by the course controller.
Students unsure of the above process may contact the administrative staff in the School of Social Science on Tel: 3365 3236 or via www.socialscience.uq.edu.au Note: Avoid the use of folders, binders and plastic sleeves. Instead, merely staple your assignment securely. Heavy folders and binders can be a nuisance for staff to handle. Faxed or e-mailed assignments are not accepted. If you post your assignment you must have the cover sheet date-stamped by the post office before placing it in your envelope for sending. Note: It is the students responsibility to keep a copy of all work submitted in case of theft or loss and to avoid disputes.
8.3. COLLECTION
Check with your tutor or course controller when and where work will be returned after marking. The possibilities are to: pick up the work in person at tutorial or lecture on nominated day of return, or a $1.20 stamped, self-addressed envelope can be left with your tutor or course controller who will arrange to forward the assignment after marking. Assignments are kept in the School for six months after the release of final results and then destroyed.
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9. DUE DATES AND EXTENSIONS

Due dates for submission of written work are designed to allow you to budget time and to prepare in advance. You must adhere to due dates. If you are unable to meet a due date you must seek an extension of time from the course controller or tutor concerned. If you require an extension of time you should seek one well before the due date. Any extensions asked for on, or close to, the due date will require a medical certificate. Extenuating circumstances will be taken into account by course controllers and tutors. Extensions of more than two weeks require the following form to be filled in and attached to the assignment: http://www.ansoc.uq.edu.au/forms/ExtensionRequestForm.doc Work submitted late without an authorised extension of time may attract penalties (see each course outline for details). Any student with a disability who may require alternative academic arrangements, including assessment, in the course/program is encouraged to seek advice at the commencement of the semester from a Disability Adviser at Student Support Services. Please refer to the University policy: Students with a Disability (Disability Action Plan) (http://www.uq.edu.au/hupp/index.html?page=25122) and to the policy on Special Arrangements for Examinations for Students with a Disability (http://www.uq.edu.au/hupp/index.html?page=25111)
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10. REFERENCING
The purpose of using referencing conventions is to acknowledge the work and ideas of other people as used within your own written work. Referencing conventions should be followed when you are: quoting the exact words of another author; closely summarising a passage from another author; or using an idea or material which is directly based on the work of another author.
Referencing conventions are used to: assist a readers further research in the same area of study; add an experts authority to your claims; and give credit to the work of others.
In the School of Social Science we use the author-date style of referencing, as opposed to footnote and endnote referencing. If you reference by using footnotes and endnotes you will be penalised. Saying this, there are times you may wish to footnote or endnote a substantive observation for your reader. In these cases keep the note simple and there is no need for the use of footnoting conventions such as ibid., loc. cit. or op. cit. and the like.
10.1. DIRECT QUOTATIONS

The use of direct quotations in an essay is governed by a number of formalities that must be observed: The words of the original text must be copied exactly. This can sometimes lead to problems in comprehension or grammatical coherence (e.g. one common mistake is the use of a quotation which takes the paragraph structure from present tense to past tense). In these cases additions or omissions from the quote are necessary but should remain minimal and follow recognised procedures. These procedures are the use of brackets [ ] for additions and three dots (an ellipsis) ... for omissions (note that ellipses are treated as if they were words and that the spaces and punctuation before and after them are handled accordingly). Every direct quotation must be accompanied by a full reference to the applicable source, i.e. where your information came from. This includes authors name, date of publication and page number/s of the material cited (examples appear below). All references cited within the body of your essay must be acknowledged in an accompanying reference list which should be alphabetically listed on a separate page, attached to the back of your assignment. It is not a convention in this School to do bibliographies. Only sources cited in your essay should be included in your reference list. (See sections 10.4 and 10.6 on constructing References Cited and On-line References Cited lists.)
The author-date style is economical in terms of time and space, easy to use, and entries can be added or deleted with very little disturbance to the text. Using this style, you identify a reference to an author instantly. From this reference your reader can then turn to your list of references for full publication details.
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Two final points for consideration are that, firstly, consistency is extremely important and you should proofread your work thoroughly to ensure you are referencing correctly at all times. Secondly, it is not acceptable to merely cite an author at the end of your paragraph as the source for all the information contained therein. Use of ideas and information not your own should be properly referenced according to the procedures detailed in the next section.
10.2. HOW TO QUOTE WITHIN THE BODY OF YOUR ESSAY

The citation of a general argument or a body of work as a whole requires only the name of the author and the year of publication (with no punctuation between the two). This type of citation is placed at the end of the sentence before the full stop. Example: The notion that foundational discourses cannot avoid being local and ethnocentric is pivotal to what has come to be called postmodernism (Rorty 1991). only authors last name needed, unless in your essay you cite works by more than one author with the same surname; then first names or initials are included to differentiate them, e.g. (P. Smith 1993) (J. Smith 2001)
Alternatively, the authors surname may be integrated into the text, followed immediately by the year of publication in parentheses. Example: Rorty (1991) discusses how foundational discourses cannot avoid being local and ethnocentric, a pivotal tenet of what has come to be called postmodernism.
year of publication
If a specific idea or quotation needs to be referenced, then a colon and the page number follows the year (with no spaces in between), all in parentheses. Again, note that the reference is part of the sentence and comes before the full stop. Example: However, Aboriginal dispute resolution mechanisms (such as swearing and fighting) remain and need to be viewed as culturally meaningful social devices employed between Aboriginal people, and between Aborigines and others (Langton 1998:201). whilst these are not Langtons exact words, they are her ideas and therefore a page number reference should be supplied; also note full stop after the citation
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If the citation is a direct quote of an authors work then double quotation marks should be inserted around the words used. Example: In contemporary Aboriginal society, swearing and fighting is rule-governed behaviour, adapted from earlier indigenous patterns to enable meaningful existence in ... new political, legal and social situations (Langton 1998:202).
double quotation marks
page number follows directly after colon
If the quotation is 3 lines or more in length, than the whole quotation is separated from the main text by a line, indented on both sides and single-line spaced. Quotation marks are left out. Example:
reference information after authors name, not at end of quote, and always in parentheses (round brackets)
Yeatman (1986:157), when discussing the impact of feminism on the social sciences, has noted that: place colon before quote Within sociology, for example, gender has become a central variable of social analysis alongside class, ethnicity, race and occupation. This has significantly recast the empirical reference points of sociological inquiry, and has made patterns of gender inequality as significant a concern as patterns of class, ethnic or racial inequality.
no quotation marks Where more than one author is mentioned the names are separated by semicolons and presented in alphabetical order. Example: Several ethnographic studies (see Hiatt 1965; Meggitt 1962; Stanner 1968; Taylor 1983; Warner 1958) have discussed varying aspects of conflict resolution mechanisms in Aboriginal societies. You may quote one author directly but wish to note other authors who have discussed the same or similar ideas. In these cases you place a semicolon after the citation information, followed by the words see also and the respective authors and years of publication. Example: Feminists have not only documented the androcentric bias of sociology, they have also analyzed critically the politics of science in its normative constructions of femininity and womanhood (Seidman 1994:124; see also Harding 1986; Harding and Hintikka 1983; Keller 1985). semicolon after initial reference inclusion of words inclusion of other relevant authors alphabetically
In the course of referring to an authors work you may know of alternative discussions by other authors about the same points being cited. While these other authors views may not
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be directly relevant to your analysis, you may wish to alert readers to these works for comparative purposes. The brief abbreviation cf. (Latin confer = compare) is used in text to note authors for comparison. Example: When discussing anthropological analyses of economy in Aboriginal societies, Anderson (1988) notes that archaeology has made a significant contribution to the ethnographic field of subsistence behaviour since the late 1960s: This is ironic given that many social
anthropologists had been saying for some decades that the opportunities for research of this sort had long disappeared (Anderson 1988:140; cf. Meehan 1982:7). inclusion of abbreviation cf. to note comparative text If the same author has used an idea in two or more of their publications and you wish to cite them all it is important to place the publications in date order, with a comma between each year of publication. Example: use of a comma as opposed to a semicolon Von Brandenstein (1970, 1972) appears to have found such a system in Western Australia, where world view is condensed into a formula that neatly coincides with a section system. If the same author has used an idea in two or more of their publications in the same year and you wish to cite them all, it is important to order them alphabetically in your References Cited list (see Section 10.4) and to distinguish them by adding lowercase letters in alphabetical sequence to the common date. Example: order alphabetically when dates the same Anderson (1979a, 1979b) shows how subsistence patterns on the southeast coast correspond to resource clusters and how group identity is based partly on predominating associated environments. When you wish to cite information or ideas from a work by two authors, you must list both authors names in the order that they appear in the original source. This order should also be reflected in your References Cited list (see Section 10.4). Example: The most familiar guarantees of the truth of discourses are science, God and common sense (Grosz and Lepervanche 1988; Weedon 1987). Grosz is the name under which the reference can be found in your References Cited list, but both authors must be listed at all times
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When you wish to cite information or ideas from a work by three or more authors, you must list all the authors last names the first time you refer to their work. Subsequently, however, it is only necessary to reference the first authors last name followed by et al. (in italics). In your References Cited list you name all the authors in the appropriate order (see Section 10.4). Example: On the eastern side of central Australia and working within the same framework as Gould (1980), there is also the ethnoarchaeological work of OConnell and others on the Alyawarra (see OConnell and Hawkes 1984; OConnell et al. 1983).
use of et al. denotes more than two authors, while OConnell is the surname for alphabetical ordering in the reference list remember to list all authors last names the first time you cite their work in your text, but use et al. in subsequent citations
In the case of institutional authorship, supply only sufficient information for positive identification of the institution. In some cases you may opt to spell out the full name of the institution or organisation the first time you cite it but thereafter use an acronym. In these cases ensure that you note the acronym in parentheses or brackets the first time you refer to or cite it. Example: Any discussion of development issues must take into account that [i]ndigenous peoples cultural integrity and cultural self-understanding are reflected in their own development strategies (International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs [IWGIA] 1994:12)
note the inclusion of the acronym in brackets after the full title is given (the same convention applies in your References Cited list); also note the use of brackets for material already enclosed within parentheses
At times you may need to refer to work by an author who is cited in another authors work. You should seek out the cited authors original text; only when this is not possible does the following convention apply. Also note that it is the secondary source, not the original, that is entered in your References Cited list. Example: Generally, their conclusions are that the life of Aborigines in these situations is a povertystricken reflection of the life of Australian working people (Wilson 1963 cited in Bell 1965:396). source in which original is cited; include only this in your References Cited list author and year of publication of original text, followed by the words cited in
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If you wish to use a direct quote but an error appears in the original words of that quote, the convention of inserting sic in brackets applies. This is placed immediately after the error and informs readers that the error was present in the original and not created when you transcribed the quotation. Example: in this case family appears rather than familiar; [sic] is inserted to note error in original text the most family [sic] guarantees of the truth of discourses are science, God and common sense (Grosz and Lepervanche 1988:54). On rare occasions you might need to cite a work that has no date. The abbreviation n.d. (no date) is used in such situations. Example: ... and with many features in common with the cultures of Aborigines living in more remote areas (Keen n.d.:191). Similarly, if you wish to quote from a work that has no author, the abbreviation Anon. is used to denote no author or anonymous. Example: ... and with many features in common with the cultures of Aborigines living in more remote areas (Anon. 1988:191). When citing print media (newspapers, magazines, brochures, etc.) use writers/authors/journalists names when available. There is no need to include a publications name, full dates, etc. as the citation points the reader to the relevant information in your References Cited list. Example: ... and with many features in common with the cultures of Aborigines living in more remote areas (Sommerton 2000:2). If quoting from a print medium where a writers/authors/journalists name has not been supplied, the publications name is used as the point of reference. Example: ... and with many features in common with the cultures of Aborigines living in more remote areas (The Australian 2000:2).
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When quoting from an audio-visual use the producers name or, if for some reason this is not available, use the video title. EXAMPLES: ... and with many features in common with the cultures of Aborigines living in more remote areas (Thiele 2000).
OR
producers name in the example above, programs name in the example below
... and with many features in common with the cultures of Aborigines living in more remote areas (The Cutting Edge 2000).
If you want to quote an authority in a certain area to whom you have spoken directly, but they have not written anywhere on the information you want to use, you can reference in the following way. Personal communications do not get listed in your References Cited list. Example: pers. comm. becomes the shorthand way to say personal communication Bradley (1999:pers. comm.) believes that we must all critically assess and negotiate our responses to Aboriginal views and needs when studying indigenous societies. Note: This does not apply to course lectures. It is unacceptable to quote directly from course lectures: You must research appropriate sources. This may entail going directly to the lecturer for guidance on relevant literature.
When quoting from another authors work you may decide to emphasise a certain word or concept (by using italics) in the quote for your readers attention. As you are changing the original text by using italics it is necessary to indicate that you have added the emphasis. Example: Embracing the notion that language speaks or constructs acknowledges the dynamic nature of language, and, thus, texts become a metaphor for understanding the struggle for meaning beyond referential language (Birch 1989:6; emphasis added). semicolon after reference information then the words emphasis added
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Similarly, to avoid confusion between emphasis added by you and emphasis already present in the original, it is necessary to distinguish the two. This is done in the way indicated below. Example: Power is operationalised within discourses through the means in which discourses comprise and regulate subjects: That is, discourses organise a way of thinking into a way of doing (McLaren 1992:79; emphasis in original). here the author has added the emphasis and you are noting that it is not your addition to the text
There may be times when you wish to start your essay, thesis, etc. with a stand alone quotation as a prelude to analysis or discussion. These quotes should be relatively brief and appear in 10pt font, indented on both sides and single-line spaced. All words should be italicised, except for the reference information, which remains in normal type. These conventions apply no matter how long the quote, but only when this type of quote is used. Example:
Research practices undertaken in a critical mode necessitate regarding the complexity of social relations and the researchers own socially determined position within the reality that one is attempting to describe (McLaren 1992:84).
Tables, graphs and other illustrations reproduced and adapted from other sources have the same status as quotations of words, and must be acknowledged and referenced in the same manner (also see Section 11.5 of this guide). Example: A dialectic relationship exists; not only is discourse determined by social structures, it augments the achievement of social continuity or social change (Fairclough 1989:37) by impacting on social structures (see Figure 1). Social Structures referencing remains the same as for quotations, while the inclusion of Figure 1 in the text and with the diagram signposts the reader to relevant information; note that the same conventions also apply to tables
Practice and Discourse Figure 1. Social structures and social practice and discourse (Fairclough 1989:38).
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10.3. CITING ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND INTERNET SOURCES

In citing material on the Internet or, for that matter, any other source, a number of points need to be kept in mind. The most important consideration is that you should not assume that something, either on the Internet or in a book or in a journal, is accurate and valid simply because it appears in written form. Many things that appear in written form may be misleading or erroneous, in part or in whole. Material that you cite should always be tested against the evidence that is available on the topic. Where cited material refers to research, then it is advisable to go back to the original research, examine it and make a judgement about whether the citation is correct in its description of the research findings. It may also be necessary to make a judgment about whether the research itself is valid. It is worth emphasising that reported research can be inaccurate and misleading, and that individual studies rarely provide convincing evidence by themselves. A better test for the accuracy of a particular body of evidence, or arguments based on that evidence, is whether there is a consistent pattern of results in a range of studies that use a variety of methodologies. The view that you should adopt toward material on the Internet (or elsewhere) is one of scepticism and doubt. You should read what is offered, question the motives behind it and the evidence put forward in its support, and make a judgment about its credibility. Once you have made such a judgement, you will need to state clearly in your work the basis on which this judgement was made. If you wish to cite material on the Internet, it is best first to characterise the evidence that is provided and then to comment on it in terms of its credibility. Simply citing a source as evidence for a particular point is, of itself, relatively weak as an argument unless the nature of that source and its credibility are given critical consideration. Although one must be careful in using the Internet as a source of information, more and more academic material is being published on it, and this material can be useful. However, as with print media, material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be referenced. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. Scholarly electronic publishing is an evolving field but as a general rule you cite these references in your text as you would other sources such as books, journal articles, audio visual items, etc. (as shown in the examples in Section 10.2). Providing bibliographic details for electronic media and Internet references in your References Cited list is a more difficult task. A later section deals with this, but in general, electronic sources that have been cited in your text should be referenced in a separate list entitled On-line References Cited. This list should be separate from, and placed after, the References Cited list (which contains all the other sources cited in your text).
10.4. HOW TO COMPILE A REFERENCES CITED LIST

This section provides information on how to compile a References Cited list (as noted earlier, in this School we do not construct bibliographies). This list should be alphabetically ordered by surname and then by date of publication. There are many different ways to set out a References Cited list. Conventions and rules vary from publisher to publisher and from discipline to discipline. Many social science journals publish notes for contributors or style sheets that contain information similar to that provided in the examples given in this section.
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You can use any system in common use in anthropology, archaeology, criminology or sociology. You cannot invent your own. The School recommends that its students adopt the style of a reputable anthropological, archaeological or sociological journal such as Canberra Anthropology, Current Anthropology, Australian Archaeology, or the Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology. If a staff member requests the source of the referencing system you have used, you must be able to supply the details. You should also be aware that the full titles of books often only appear on their inside pages (not on their front covers). Ensure you check for this detail and include the whole title of the book being referenced. The most important point to keep in mind when citing and referencing sources is that the key to the use of any system is consistency throughout your text in citation and referencing style. The following illustrates an acceptable way in which a References Cited section might be constructed. Example:
REFERENCES CITED Anderson, C. 1979a Aboriginal economy and contact relations at Bloomfield River. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies Newsletter 12:33-37. 1979b From ecology to political economy: An introduction to the study of cultural and economic change at Bloomfield River, North Queensland. Unpublished manuscript. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. the above illustrates how multiple works by the same author in the same year should be referenced unpublished manuscripts and theses can be denoted in this way
Anonymous 1988 Continuity of Identity and Culture in Aboriginal Societies. Unpublished manuscript. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Anon. is used as shorthand for anonymous in the citations in your text, but here it is spelled out in full; the date becomes the key if you are including more than one anonymous source
when names of writers/authors/journalists are not available for print media, publication titles should be used for referencing; note that articles (a, an, the) are discounted in alphabetising titles Australian, The 2000 Homeless horror: Social housing not meeting needs. The Australian. 1 February 2000:2. full date of publication followed by page number/s title repeated
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Crawford, J. 1983 International law and the recognition of Aboriginal Law (paper presented at the Conference on Aborigines and International Law). Canberra: Centre for Continuing Education, Australian National University. this reference relates to a paper presented at a conferenceof importance is where the conference was held by adding this you are letting your readers know that you have used an audio-visual as a reference
when a producers name is not available for an audio visual, the program title should be used for referencing
Cutting Edge, The 2000 Continuity of identity and culture in Aboriginal societies [video recording]. Cutting Edge, Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 12 May 2000. date of screening Fairclough, N. 1989 Language and Power. London: Longman Group United Kingdom Limited. for book references the title is in italics, followed by the place of publication, colon, space, and then the publisher if two or more authors, the initials follow the surname for the first author but precede the surname for second, or subsequent, authors
The
Grosz, E.A. and M. de Lepervanche 1988 Feminism and science. In B. Caine, E.A. Grosz and M. de Lepervanche (eds) Crossing BoundariesFeminisms and the Critiques of Knowledges, pp. 5-27. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Keen, I. n.d. Continuity of identity and culture in Aboriginal societies. Unpublished manuscript. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. n.d. is shorthand for no date and should appear before any other works that you have cited by the same author
this is a reference for a chapter in an edited book; the chapter title appears first, followed by the editors name with the initial first and surname next, and then the ed. abbreviation follows in parentheses
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Langton, M. 1988 Medicine Square. In I. Keen (ed.) Being Black: Aboriginal Cultures in Settled Australia, pp. 201-225. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. pp. stands for page numbers and the full page range of the chapter must be indicated the book title in italics follows the editors name
place where published followed by a colon and the publishers name
this reference is for an article in a journal; the article title appears first and capital letters are used for the first word in the title, for the first word after a colon, and for any proper nouns that may appear McLaren, P. 1992 Collisions with otherness: Travelling theory, postcolonial criticism, and the politics of ethnographic practicethe mission of the wounded ethnographer. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 5(1):77-92. volume number is followed by issue number or season or month (in parentheses) if this information is available journal title is capitalised and in italics
full range of page numbers follows directly after colon

when referencing three or more authors, et al. is used in citations in your text, after initially listing all authors last names; in the reference list you must provide all authors names
OConnell, J.F., P.K. Latz and P. Barnett. 1983 Traditional and modern plant use among the Alyawarra. Economic Botany 7(1):80109. when names of writers/authors/ journalists are available for print media, they should be used for referencing Sommerton, J. 2000 Homeless horror: Social housing not meeting needs. The Australian. 1 February 2000:2. full date of publication followed by page number/s title repeated by adding this you are letting your readers know that you have used an audio-visual as a reference
when a producers name is available for an audio visual, the 35 program title should be used for referencing
Thiele, J. 2000 Continuity of identity and culture in Aboriginal societies [video recording]. Cutting Edge, Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 12 May 2000. date of screening
The
von Brandenstein, C.G. 1970 The meaning of section and section names. Oceania 41:39-49. 1972 The symbolism of the north-western Australian zig-zag design. Oceania 42:223-234. when you have cited several works by the same author, you need only enter the authors name once in your References Cited list
10.5. OTHER REFERENCING CONSIDERATIONS

Corporate authorship. Resources authored by corporations are listed under the corporations name in your reference list. In the body of your text they are cited by the corporations name and date. Example: Curriculum Corporation. 1995 National Principles and Guidelines for Aboriginal Studies and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Melbourne: K-12, CC.
Reprints. Where a work is reprinted in a different form or a classic is republished in a modern version, the original date of publication is generally placed in parentheses after the publication date of the reprint. Example: Rogets Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases 1977 (1982). Second and subsequent editions. If the work cited is other than a first edition, it is necessary to cite the publication date of the edition being used and to provide the edition number after the title of the work. Example:
Hudson, N. 1997 Modern Australian Usage. 2nd edn. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
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Standard reference works. These are well-known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new editions come out fairly regularly. They are entered under the title even though an editor is mentioned on the title page. As editors change over the years, these works are usually known by title. Example: The Macquarie Illustrated World Atlas 1984 Sydney: Macquarie Library. For information on referencing issues not dealt with above you should consult a standard source such as: Australian Government Publishing Service. 1994 Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers. 5th edn. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. [Z253.A881994] Note: Course controllers and supervisors may have their own referencing preferences and you should seek their advice on this as well as on any other matters relating to assignment and thesis preparation and presentation.
10.6. HOW TO COMPILE AN ON-LINE REFERENCES CITED LIST

This section provides information on how to compile a On-line References Cited list. This list should be ordered alphabetically by surname and then by date of publication and should be located directly after your References Cited list (i.e. it should not be placed on a separate page unless space limitations require it). What is imperative in compiling this list is that you supply adequate information for the electronic sources cited in the body of your text. The minimum items of information required for this purpose are authors name and/or Web page title, a URL (for Internet sources), and the date/s you accessed the source. If referencing an e-mail, you will need to include: the authors name; the authors e-mail address (in parentheses); the date of the e-mail (year/month/day); the title of the article attached; the name of the e-mails recipient (often you); and, lastly, the recipients e-mail address (in parentheses).
10.6.1. Format for Referencing Electronic Sources

Scholarly electronic publication is still evolving, and so is the way these sources are referenced. This guide is not intended to be definitive, but to offer some general pointers to how electronic sources can be referenced. It is important that you check with your lecturers or tutors, who may have their own guides to referencing on-line material. Punctuation is an important part of Internet addresses; therefore, certain conventions for punctuating reference entries have been changed and/or adapted to suit electronic sources. Furthermore, take care to preserve case in network server directories and file names, as it is usually significant. You may break URLs (Universal Reference Locations) across lines, but if possible arrange for breaks to occur only at punctuation separators, not at hyphens, and do not add hyphens. The basic elements of an Internet reference listing consist of the following: Authors last name, first name (or initial) Title of article/document Title of journal/book Volume number, issue number and page numbers (if journal) [Protocol and address] Date of publication (and publishing information for books) [Date accessed]
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The information supplied in a reference entry should be adequate to accurately identify the resource. It is always possible to get the protocol and address and the date/s YOU accessed the resource, and their inclusion is mandatory. As electronic documents are liable to change frequently, you should always specify the modification date of the version used or, if none is available, an access date. If you access the material more than once then all dates of access should be supplied.
10.6.2. Examples of Reference Entries for Electronic Sources

Electronic sources are extremely diverse. Following are some examples of formats for referencing the principal types of sources you are likely to use Individual works: author, editor or site name title in italics indicates found on-line Important: accurate URL address is an imperative
Quinion, M. 1996 Citing Online Sources [on-line]. Available from: words/articles/citation.htm [Accessed 17 July 2000]. date of publication
http://www.quinion.com/
Important: accurate date accessed is essential; if you accessed more than once, all dates should be listed
Electronic journal works: title of article with only first word and proper nouns capitalised authors name journal title in italics
Seton, K. 1999 Fourth World Nations in the era of globalisation: An introduction to contemporary theorising posed by indigenous nations. Fourth World Journal [on-line]. 4(1). Available from: http://www.cwis.org/fwj/41/fworld.html [Accessed 18 June 2000; 19 July 2000]. date of publication indicates found on-line volume number followed by issue, season or month if available
Important: accurate URL address and date accessed are an imperative; if accessed more than once all dates should be listed
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E-mails:
name and e-mail address of sender year, month and day e-mail sent specify the subject of the communication
Seton, K. (kaseton@mailbox.uq.edu.au) 2000, July 16. Fourth World Nations in the era of globalisation: Journal article attached. E-mail to John Bradley (j.bradley@mailbox.uq.edu.au). provide recipients name and e-mail address Note: The above referencing conventions are also applicable to the referencing of information from CD-ROMs, on-line databases and ERIC documents.
10.6.3. Sources of Further Information on Referencing Electronic Documents

There are several Websites that provide detailed information on ways of citing and referencing electronic sources. For a guide to application of the Harvard referencing system to on-line material, consult: http://www.usq.edu.au/library/resources/genref/harvardprint.htm For specific examples of referencing formats for various types of e-documents, consult: http://www.ifla.org/I/training/citation/citing.htm http://www.quinion.com/words/articles/citation.htm http://www.wilpaterson.edu/wpcpages/library/refpubs.html http://www.uvm.edu/~ncrane/estyles/ The last two of the above Websites are based on Li, X. and N. Crane. 1993 Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information. Westport: Meckler. [Z253.L5 1193]) The Web also contains sources of help on the specific problem of citing URLs in reference lists. One that is aimed at the biomedical and scientific fields is: http://www/nrlssc.navy.mil/meta/bibliography.html For useful examples and bibliographies of guides to referencing Internet documents, see: http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/maw13/citation.html http://www.library.ualberta.ca/library_html/help/pathfinders/style/style.net.html
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10.6. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

For general conventions refer to Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 5th Edition (revised) 1998. 1. For Anthropology assignments see the most recent hard copy of The Australian Journal of Anthropology; its guidelines are also available at http://www.aas.asn.au/TAJA/Style_guide.pdf. 2. For Archaeology assignments see the most recent hard copy of the journal Australian Archaeology; its guidelines are also available at www.australianarchaeologicalassociation.com.au/australianarchaeology/notesforcont ributors.php). 3. For Criminology assignments see the most recent hard copy of Australia and New Zealand Journal of Criminology; its guidelines are also available at http://www.australianacademicpress.com.au/Publications/Journals/Criminology/Crimc ontribsinfo.htm 4. For Sociology assignments see the most recent hard copy of Journal of Sociology; its guidelines are also available at www.sagepub.co.uk/journalManuscript.aspx?pid=105687&sc=1.
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11. NOTES ON THESIS PREPARATION

This section is specifically aimed at students writing theses. However, it does contain information on the setting out of graphs, tables, diagrams, illustrations, abstracts, etc. that other students may find useful. Students writing theses should also take note of information supplied in previous sections of this guide that may be useful in the course of their work (how to write plans, find resources, take notes, etc.).
11.1. THESIS LENGTH The required word counts for theses are as follows: Bachelor of Social Science (Honours): Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Sociology/Criminology: Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Anthropology/Archaeology: Coursework Masters: Master of Philosophy: Doctor of Philosophy: 11.2. THESIS CONTENT
In essence, the process of writing a thesis reduces to answering five questions (see Barrass, Robert. 1978 Scientists Must Write: A Guide to Better Writing for Scientists, Engineers and Students, p.131. London: Chapman and Hall. [T11.B37 1978]): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What did you study? Why did you study it? How did you study it? What did you find out? What does what you found out mean?
8000 12000 15000 15000 40000 80000
The first question corresponds to introduction and problem definition; the second to project rationale and background, in which pursuit of the problem is justified and placed in context; the third to discussion of methodology and methods; the fourth to results and analysis; and the fifth to discussion and conclusion, including an indication of the broader implications of your study and suggestions for further research.
11.3. PROBLEMS IN WRITING

We cannot teach you how to write, but we can offer you some suggestions. 1. Consistency in style and format are important. Keep a style sheet (a record of the stylistic decisions you have made). This will help you to be consistent in matters of style and will save you from repeatedly agonising over the same decisions. Likewise, select a good dictionary and keep to it. 2. Organise your thoughts. Approach the process of writing in steps; do not try to tackle the whole procedure at once. Decide first what you want to say, then decide in what order you will say it and, finally, decide how you will say it. Outlines are an invaluable tool in this process and should be applied at several levels, from the thesis as a whole through separate chapters and sections of chapters to individual paragraphs.
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There are several techniques of organisation you can employ. You may arrange the elements of your discussion in a logical sequence (A B C D) if the points to be made derive from one another in logical order. An alternative is to rank the points to be made in terms of the their importance or significance (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th). Then present them in the order: 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 1st. This order of presentation holds the readers interest while imparting maximum impact to your most important point. This pattern can be applied at several levels of thesis organisation. Divide chapters into manageable unitssections and subsectionsand identify them with headings and subheadings. This assists readers by making the overall plan of organisation evident to them. 3. Keep it simple. Avoid long, convoluted sentences and big words (obfuscatory scrivenery). There are several indices that can be used to gauge the degree of readability of your writingthese can be found in manuals on writing or as a facility in word-processing programs. 4. Take care that you are saying what you mean to say (e.g. avoid such ambiguities as Mary had a little lamb). Readers cannot read your mind; you should ask of every sentence you write whether or not it actually says what you want it to say. In addition, consider the implications of what you are saying: If logically extended, what are the ultimate conclusions that could be drawn from what you say? Are these conclusions what you intend? 5. Take care to use words correctly (do not confuse comprise/compose, alternate/alternative, relative/relevant, etc.). Avoid abbreviations and acronyms unless you are sure they are in common use. If you must use them, take care to define them when they are first introduced. Also take care to define technical terms and jargon. You may mistakenly think that your examiners are familiar with them when they are not, and even if they are, they will want to know if you know what they mean and are not really hiding your ignorance or misunderstanding behind a cloud of obfuscatory scrivenery. Finally, be sure to follow established conventions in such matters as the presentation of scientific names. 6. Your writing should be direct and active rather than passive. Although you will want to use a variety of sentence types, simple declarative sentences are generally the best. Avoid flowery prose: You are not writing a novel. 7. Use good grammar. The references on writing listed in Section 12.1 include several that provide information on grammatical conventions, but below are some conventions that you should pay particular attention to in your writing:
Each pronoun should agree with their antecedent. Just between you and I, case is important. A preposition is a poor word to end a sentence with. Verbs has to agree with their subject. Do not use no double negatives. A writer must not shift your point of view. When dangling, do not use participles. Join clauses good, like a conjunction should. Do not write a run-on sentence it is difficult when you have to punctuate it so it makes sense when the reader reads what you wrote.
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About sentence fragments.
(Adopted from Day, Robert A. 1979 How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, p. 115. Philadelphia: ISI Press. [T11.D33 1979])
In addition, pay attention to punctuation, especially proper punctuation of restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses and phrases, abbreviations, contractions and such conjunctive adverbs as however. 8. Do not use footnotes. If it is not important enough to include in the main text, it is not important. 9. Rewriting and revising are the keys to writing well. Give yourself time to hone and polish. Do not try to produce a final draft in one go. 10. Always have consideration for your readers. Put yourself in your readers place and try to make their job as easy as possible without being condescending. Theses that are a struggle to read frustrate examiners, and frustrated examiners are unlikely to be sympathetic to your cause.
11.4. FRAMEWORK FOR A THESIS

In many of the social sciences a prescribed framework is followed in writing a thesis as it is usually based on an empirical investigation, often through survey, interview or observation. Students primarily report on their own investigations rather than on the ideas and evidence of others. The following is a brief guide to thesis organisation.
The Introduction
Includes: I. A literature review which demonstrates to the reader that: A. the writer can, in the light of the literature review, make claim to undertaking a research project which is significant to the field of study by complementing or challenging other studies, adding to knowledge in the field or more likely applying an acknowledged theoretical position to a particular setting; and B. the writer is well versed in the significant research findings/interpretations in the field in which the research is being undertaken. II. The problem, or focus of the research study, stated in such a precise and specific way that it can be validly investigated. Its significance should also be borne out by the literature review. The problem may be developed into a hypothesis which is to be investigated. In this case a statement should be made why you consider the hypothesis to be true.
Methodology and Methods
The methodology section should discuss the original purpose of the research, and clearly outline the theoretical starting point that informs the research (e.g. specific concepts, ideas from specific literature). This section should also clearly define the methods chosen for the study and the sort of data anticipated. If, after analysis of the data, modifications had to be made to the original research design, those modifications should also be discussed in
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the methodology section. These modifications range from decisions to vary aspects of chosen methods, to the construction of new concepts and theories to be tested following rejection of working hypotheses and unanticipated discoveries in the preliminary analysis of data. All these aspects need to be clearly outlined in this section to convey the development of thinking surrounding the research process; that is, how and why this process moved from its intended beginning to its final end.
Methodology and Methods (cont.)
The methods component of the methodology section should indicate the type of research instrument used (survey, questionnaire, interview, observations), the reasons for the method undertaken, its sustainability and the structure of the investigation. Sustainability (why the method can be defended) is particularly important in relation to the variables which were studied, the nature of the sample (and perhaps control group), the research instrument and the setting of the study. If statistics are to be used, the method/s of processing (for example, as means and standard deviations, correlations, or differences expressed, for example as F values) should be indicated. The methods section has to be spelt out in such clear and precise terms that it could be followed readily by another researcher who wishes to test the research. The results section reports faithfully upon the outcomes of the study. Statistical tables and/or graphs and charts may well be an essential aid to this reporting. Significant results (through degrees of similarity or difference) may merit special attention. Outcomes should be expressed fully and clearly and not left to the reader to try to work out. This is the section where you seek to integrate the study; i.e., you can now demonstrate the extent to which the problem posed by the study or your hypothesis has been proved or disproved. In the final section, you can relate your findings to your literature review by showing how your study was relevant to the general field of knowledge. You may also wish to reflect upon how some aspects of your research design could have been improved or why unexpected results occurred and their significance. How the study could be used in other settings may also be indicated. The main conclusions that can be drawn from the study should be clearly shown.
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
(Above adapted from Mahony, David. 1997 The Student Guide for Writing and Studying Effectively at University: The World of Ideas and The World of Text. Kelvin Grove, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. [LB2369.M335 1997 - Quarto])
11.5. DATA HANDLING AND PRESENTATION

In most cases the presentation of data is central to the business of thesis writing, and how well you handle and present your data will have a crucial bearing on how your thesis is received. There is much diversity in the kinds of problems and the types of data dealt with in theses; we cannot cover them all. If you have any specific difficulties, discuss them with your supervisor. The following are some general guidelines for data presentation.
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1. Be selective in the data you include. Resist the compulsion to include everything you know or have found out: The compulsion to include everything ... does not prove that one has unlimited information; it proves that one lacks discrimination (Aaronson, S. 1977 cited in Day, Robert A. 1979 How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, p. 115. Philadelphia: ISI Press. [T11.D33 1979]). This requires some judgement. On the one hand, you do not want to leave out information that might be important to your argument or that might be useful to others in the future. On the other hand, be careful not to let your ego become involved; avoid the temptation to demonstrate your brilliance as a scholar by overwhelming the reader with a barrage of data. These comments apply especially to large quantities of raw data. The best place for this is in an appendix; save space and your readers patience by including in the main body of your text only summary or representative data. You can also save space by presenting this information in graphs and tables, rather than in detailed written descriptions. In this connection, a note on statistics: If you use them, explain how they are derived and what they indicate. Your statistics should be meaningful ones (not 33% of the sites examined were stratified; 33% were unstratified; and the third site was not excavated). 2. Take care that the information you include is relevant to your thesis topic or problem. Extraneous information will only distract the reader and may distort your argument. In addition, inclusion of irrelevant material might convey the impression that you do not really know what you are doing. Not only do you want to take care that only relevant information is included, but you also want to be sure that its relevance is apparent to readers. It is pointless to present a lengthy discussion and assume that your readers will immediately grasp its crucial importance; spell out its relevance. Of course, relevant information not only includes information that supports your arguments or explanations, it also includes data that are contrary to them. 3. Write clearly and succinctly. Readers are easily confused, so take pains to present your results with crystal clarity. Be especially cautious in use of analytical terms and concepts. Avoid technical jargon that may be unfamiliar to your readers. When using analytical terms and concepts, define them and make it clear what they mean, how you derived them and how they apply to the data in your particular case. 4. Take care with redundancy. Do not repeat in words what has been made readily apparent to the reader in other wayse.g. by means of tables or graphs. This requires that you present your data in an organised manner: Group data under descriptive headings and deal with them in successive sections. At the same time, some redundancy is often useful. When an idea is a difficult one to grasp, you can often help the reader by presenting it in different ways, either through differently phrased restatements or by combining methods of presentation (e.g. a written description in conjunction with a figure, diagram, flow chart, or photograph). Use your imagination in devising ways of illustrating your points effectively. It is also useful in dealing with very long and involved discussions or analyses to provide brief summaries or reminders of previous discussion at certain points in the text, but be very careful not to become tiresomely repetitious.
5. You must acknowledge the source of all data or ideas not your own!
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11.6. TABLES, FIGURES AND APPENDICES

Tables, figures and appendices are useful in a number of ways: for summarising data and saving words; as points of reference on which discussion can be focused; as reinforcement or clarification for points made in discussion; and as sources of raw data that others can use to check your results or to analyse in ways that you did not. 11.6.1. Tables Presenting information in tables can save a great deal of space, as well as facilitate comparisons and provide supporting evidence for your arguments. Following are some general comments on tables and their presentation. 1. When to use. Use tables when you have a reasonable quantity of information (qualitative or quantitative) and it is necessary to present it. If you have only a few items of data, it is better to incorporate them into the text; if you have a large amount, it is better to place it in an appendix. If the variation in the data is not significant, mention the range in the text and omit presentation of a table. These decisions require that you exercise your own judgment as to whether or not a table is appropriate and adds to the presentation rather than simply occupies space. 2. Placement and orientation. Tables should be placed as close as possible to the place where they are first mentioned or discussed in your text. If a small table, place it on the same page as the text after the first reference to it (leave adequate space between table and text to offset the table from the text). If a large table, place it on a separate page. The data in the table should be arranged to read down (vertically). If a table is wide and is to be read by turning the page on its side (landscape orientation), place the tables heading on the left side of the pagethe table should face out from the centre of the bound thesis, not in (the latter is very awkward for examiners trying to read theses in bed). If a table is very wide, place it on two perfectly aligned facing pages or, even better, use a fold-out format for it. If a table is very long, run it over successive pages, taking care to place a heading on each page. It is often best in the case of large or awkwardly sized tables to reduce themif resolution is preserved and they can still be easily read. 3. Identification. A heading consisting of a number and a title should identify each table. The title should be concise, yet clearly indicate what the table is about. It should be possible to understand the table without reference to the text (although obviously you can elaborate or expand on the significance of the table and its contents in your text). Note that tables are designated tables and not figures, and that the heading is placed above the table. Each column of the table should have a precise heading and, if numerical data are being presented, should specify the units. It may be necessary to use footnotes to explain abbreviations or other entries in the table; use letters or other symbols, not numbers, to denote footnotes in tables. If a particular place in the table lacks an entry, use an ellipsis or a dash, not the number zero; zero denotes a zero reading or result, not an absence of data. As an indication of how a table might be presented, below is an EXAMPLE:
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Table 11. Species presence/absence at Gatton Shelter (#) (Morwood 1987:105) and Bushrangers Cave (*).
Species Macropod Macropus rufogresius Thylogale species Possum Petaouroides volans Trichosurus vulpecula Pseudocheirus peregrinus Bandicoot Perameles nasuta Koala Phascolarctos cinereus c. 4,000 BP * #* * * #* c. 1,000 BP * #* #* #* #*
* *
#* #*
(Reproduced from from Kearney, Amanda. 1998 Bushrangers Cave: An Archaeofaunal Analysis and Palaeoenvironmental Study, p.82. Unpublished Honours thesis. St Lucia: University of Queensland.)
11.6.2. Graphs
Graphs may be combined with tables or used separately. Following are some general considerations relating to the use of graphs. 1. When to use. Graphs facilitate comparisons and show how one variable varies with another. A graph is essentially a pictorial table, and many of the same considerations apply (e.g. if the data are limited in number, include them in the text; a two-point graph looks silly). In general, use a graph if the data show a clear trend and make an interesting picture; otherwise use a table. 2. Placement and orientation. As with tables, graphs should be placed as close as possible to the place where they are first mentioned or discussed in your text. Graphs drafted in landscape orientation should face out from the centre of the bound thesis. Unlike tables, graphs do not run over several pagesif you have a very large graph, scale down its size, but be very careful to preserve its resolution when you do this. 3. Identification. Each graph should be designated by a number and have a legend. These are placed below the graph, and should clearly indicate the graphs subject. Data sources and the symbols used in the graph can be included in parentheses as part of the legend. The axes of the graph must be labelled and the units specified. 4. Presentation. It is important that graphs are cleanly drawn and neatly presented. Because of their visual prominence, badly produced graphs can greatly detract from the appearance of professionalism you will want to convey in your thesis. Many computer packages are available that can help you draw and present graphs neatly and concisely.
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As an indication of how a graph might be presented, below is an EXAMPLE: 40 Average Duration of Visit (mins) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 910 1011 1112 121 12 23 34 Time of Visit (hourly intervals) 45
Figure 17. Relationship between duration of visit and time of visit among visitors to Anthropology Museum display gallery. 11.6.3. Diagrams and Illustrations
Diagrams and Illustrations of various kinds, including flow charts, site plans and illustrations of artefacts, are important features of many theses produced in our School. Following are some observations on their use. 1. When to use. As with tables and graphs, diagrams and illustrations can be very useful in showing relationships and limiting the need for descriptive text. In many cases, they can contribute to accuracy by depicting observations with a precision that is not possible in words. However, when some parts of the subject illustrated are visually emphasised and others are deleted or de-emphasised, diagrams and illustrations can also serve as an aid to interpretation and as a way of directing readers to a particular observation. 2. Identification. As with graphs, illustrations are designated and numbered as Figures (except in the case of photographic Plates) and this is placed below them on the page, along with an explanatory legend. 3. Presentation. Illustrations should be well executed and should include a scale, if appropriate. See your supervisor or consult a manual on technical or scientific illustration for further details on the production of illustrations. Also see the Universitys Higher Degree Handbook (the section on PhD theses) for guidelines on diagrams and illustrations and their presentation.
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11.6.4. Appendices
Information or data supplementary to your main text are placed in appendices. These may include a variety of things: data recording forms, copies of documents, notes regarding technical matters, raw data, etc. Provide separate appendices for separate categories or forms of data; each should be numbered and have a title. The pages of appendices are numbered in sequence with the text, and should be placed before the References Cited section of the thesis. Tables, figures and appendices are a very important part of your thesis. Students often underestimate the time required to produce them. They should not be an afterthought: Schedule sufficient time for you to do them well!
11.7. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THESIS PRESENTATION

There is an established format for presentation of information within theses. Below is an outline of the parts of a thesis and the order in which they should appear. 1. Title page. This is the first page of the thesis and it should include: the title of the thesis the name of the person submitting the thesis the clause on submission which generally reads: Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of . with Honours Degree the School name (i.e. School of Social Science) date of submission (month and year only)
2. Declaration. This appears on the page following the title page. It certifies that the thesis is an original work and represents your views alone. Inclusion of it in your thesis is mandatory. It should read as follows: This thesis represents original research undertaken for a Bachelor of .. Honours Degree at the University of Queensland, and was completed during [insert year/s]. The interpretations presented in this thesis are my own and do not represent the view of any other individual or group. .......................................... Name of author Date signed 3. Table of contents. The words Table of Contents should head this page, followed by the title of the thesis. After the title, the contents table is set out as follows (not all of the headings may be applicable to your thesis): Title Page Declaration Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Acronyms Abstract Acknowledgments page one, but is not numbered page number in roman numerals (numbered as page ii) page number in roman numerals page number in roman numerals page number in roman numerals page number in roman numerals page number in roman numerals page number in roman numerals
49
(Note: In the technical sense of thesis structure the title page is the first page, but it is not numbered. Numbering, therefore, starts on the declaration page, which is given the roman numeral ii. Roman numerals follow in numerical sequence from the declaration page to the acknowledgments, as outlined above). Thesis chapter titles and section and subsection headings are then listed in the table of contents, along with corresponding page numbers. Since the pages in this part of the thesis are numbered with arabic numerals, at this point it is necessary to convert your page numbering format to this numbering style. Titles and page numbers (in arabic numerals) for any appendices are then provided. Individual appendices are listed separately. Lastly, the References Cited section is listed and the number of its starting page is indicated, again in arabic numerals. 4. List of Tables and Figures. The page following the Table of Contents contains lists of the tables and figures appearing in your thesis. These lists include the identifying numbers and titles of the tables/figures and the numbers of the pages on which they are located. Both lists can appear on the same page if space allows. 5. List of Acronyms. alphabetically. This list appears on a separate page and is arranged
6. Abstract. Again on a separate page, you need to supply an abstract. An abstract gives a brief (150200 words) overview of the whole thesis. It may include background information which places the thesis in perspective; a clear statement of your aims and objectives, an outline of major points or findings, and conclusions or recommendations. As it is a reflection of your whole thesis it is best to leave abstract writing until the last. 7. Acknowledgments. Your acknowledgments are a personal undertaking that should, in essence, thank those people who have been instrumental in the formulation of your thesis (i.e. your supervisor/s) and others who you may wish to thank for their support, time reading drafts, etc. Your acknowledgments appear on their own page. If you have cited personal communications within the text of your work, you may wish to acknowledge these sources here, as they do not appear in your References Cited list. 8. Body of Thesis. Your chapters follow from here and should each start on a separate page. (See previous discussion on headings and subheadings.) Up to this point all page numbers should have been in roman numerals. Now you change to normal numerical (arabic) page numbering, starting with the first page of the first chapter, which is given the number 1. 9. Appendices. Any appendices are placed after your final chapter and their numbering follows in sequence from that of the preceding chapters. 10. References Cited. Your References Cited and On-line References Cited lists are the last parts of the thesis. Their page numbers continue the earlier numbering sequence, and their format and organisation should follow the conventions discussed in Section 10.
11.8. THESIS SUBMISSION 50
For Research Higher Degree theses the Graduate School website offers the best guidance: http://www.uq.edu.au/grad-school/index.html?page=26304. With regard to Coursework Masters theses the following steps apply: 1. Submit three temporarily bound theses to your Supervisor; 2. They will nominate 2 examiners and the Academic Programs Officer will distribute the theses for examination; 3. Once the thesis has been examined the School will notify the student of the outcome and whether any corrections need to be completed; 4. The student has four weeks to make the required corrections and resubmit the thesis; 5. If the thesis is acceptable to the Chief Examiner then it is accepted and three copies (one for the Library, one for the School and one for your Supervisor), need to be sent to the Printery for permanent binding.
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12. SOURCES OF HELP AND FURTHER READING

There are many books available on English usage, scholarly writing, and assignment and thesis preparation, and several are listed below. In addition, see the reference section of the University Bookshop; the American Bookstore also has a good selection. The Learning Assistance Unit in Counselling Services offers both workshops and individual assistance in academic writing, and many students have greatly benefited from them. Finally, do not hesitate to consult your lecturer, tutor or supervisor if you are having difficulties.
12.1. REFERENCE WORKS ON WRITING

Below is a selection of books on assignment and thesis writing that are available in the Universitys libraries. They have been chosen for their usefulness, and call numbers are provided after each entry. Australian Government Publishing Service. 1994 Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers. Government Publishing Service. [Z253.A88 1994]
5th edn.
Canberra: Australian
Anderson, J. and M. Poole. 1994 Thesis and Assignment Writing. 2nd edn. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons. [LB239.A6 1994] Bate, Douglas and Peter Sharpe. 1996 Writers Handbook for University Students. Sydney: Harcourt Brace. [LB2369.B345 1996] Blaxter, L., C. Hughes and M. Tight. 1996 How to Research. Buckingham, United Kingdom: Open University Press. [Q180.55M4B59 1996] Chicago Manual of Style, The. 1993 14th edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Z253.U7 1993] Clanchy, John and Brigid Ballard. 1997 Essay Writing for Students: A Practical Guide. South Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd. [LB2369.C55 1997] Cryer, P. 1996 The Research Students Guide to Success. Buckingham, United Kingdom: Open University Press. [LB2395.C787 1996] Davis, Lloyd and Susan McKay. 1996 Structures and Strategies: An Introduction to Academic Writing. South Melbourne: MacMillan Eduction Australia Pty Ltd. [LB2369.D39 1996] Fowler, H.W. 1998 The New Fowlers Modern English Usage. Press. [PE1628.F65 1998]
3rd edn.
Oxford: Oxford University
Harmon, Charles (ed.). 1996 Using the Internet, Online Services and CD-R for Writing Research and Term Papers. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers. [Gatton - LB1047.3.U75 1996]
Hudson, N.
52
1997
Modern Australian Usage. [PE3601.H83 1997]
2nd edn.
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Lewins, Frank. 1993 Writing a Thesis: A Guide to its Nature and Organisation. Canberra: ANUTECH Pty Ltd. [LB2369.L45 1993] Li, X. and N. Crane. 1993 Electronic Style: [Z253.L51 1993]
A Guide to Citing Electronic Information.
Westport: Meckler.
Lindsay, D. 1984 A Guide to Scientific Writing. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire. [Gatton - T11.H54 1984] Mahony, David. 1997 The Student Guide for Writing and Studying Effectively at University: The World of Ideas and The World of Text. Kelvin Grove, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. [LB2369.M335 1997 - Quarto] Marshall, Lorraine and Frances Rowland. 1998 A Guide to Learning Independently. 3rd edn. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman. [LB2395.M369 1998] Murray-Smith, Stephen 1989 Right Words: A Guide to English Useage in Australia. 2nd edn. Ringwood, Victoria: Viking. [PE3601.MB 1989] Pauwels, A. 1991 Non-Discriminatory Language. Service. [PN218.P38 1991]
Canberra: Australian Government Publishing
Partridge, E. 1994 Usage and Abusage. London: Penguin. [PE1460.P17 1994] Strunk, W. and E.B. White. 2000 Elements of Style. 4th edn. New York: MacMillan. [PE1408.S772 2000] Taylor, G. 1989 The Students Writing Guide for the Arts and Social Sciences. Cambridge University Press. [PE1478.T38 1989] Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. 1986 A Practical English Grammar. [PE1128.T39 1986]
Cambridge:
4th edn.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Turabian, K. L. 1996 A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations. 6th edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [LB2369.T8 1996] University of Chicago Press. 1987 Chicago Guide to Preparing Electronic Manuscripts: For Authors and Publishers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Z286.E43C45 1987]
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12.2. SPECIALIST DICTIONARIES

There are several specialist dictionaries and encyclopaedias that provide information on anthropology, archaeology, criminology and sociology subjects. These can often serve as a useful starting point in assignment or thesis research. Be warned, however, that the information they contain is often simplified and incomplete and that citing only them in your assignment or thesis would not generally be acceptable. Consequently, while you might start with them, you must go beyond them to research your topic or problem adequately. The works listed below are available in University libraries.
Anthropology
Barnard, A. and J. Spencer (eds) 1996 Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology. .E648 1996] London: Routledge. [GN307
Barfield, Thomas 1997 The Dictionary of Anthropology. Oxford, United Kingdom: Malden. [GN11.B4 1997] Ingold, T. (ed.) 1994 Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology. London: Routledge. [GN25.C65 1994] Levinson, D. and M. Ember (eds) 1996 Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. New York: Henry Holt. [GN307.E52 1996V.14] Seymour-Smith, Charlotte. 1986 MacMillan Dictionary of Anthropology. [GN11.S48 1986] Winick, Charles. 1970 Dictionary of Anthropology. 1970]
Boston, Massachusetts: G.K. Hall.
Totawa, New Jersey: Littlefield Adams.
[GN11.W5
Archaeology
Bray, Warwick and David Trump (eds). 1970 A Dictionary of Archaeology. London: Allen Lane. [CC70.B7 1970] Champion, Sara. 1980 A Dictionary of Terms and Techniques in Archaeology. New York: Facts on File. [CC70.C48 1980] Shaw, Ian and Robert Jameson (eds) 1999 A Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. [CC70.D53 1999]
Criminology
McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (eds) 2001 The Sage Dictionary of Criminology. London: Sage.
54
Sociology
Jary, David and Julia Jary (eds). 1995 Collins Dictionary of Sociology. 2nd edn. London: Harper Collins. [HM17.J3 1995] Johnson, Allan G. 2000 The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A Users Guide to Sociological Language. 2nd edn. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. [HM17.J64 2000] Marshall, Gordon (ed.). 1994 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. University Press. [HM17.C66 1994]
Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford
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A STUDENT GUIDE TO PREPARING AND PRESENTING ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, CRIMINOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY ASSIGNMENTS AND THESES

School of Social Science The University of Queensland St Lucia QLD 4072

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

1. ASSIGNMENT TOPICS AND TOPIC ANALYSIS

1.1. HOW IMPORTANT IS THE ASSIGNMENT?

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

1.4.1. Determining (Instructional) Words

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

1.4.2. Second Phase of Pre-planning: Orientation

1.5. LOCATING INFORMATION

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

2. READING AND MAKING NOTES FOR ASSIGNMENTS

2.1. AN APPROACH TO READING

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

2.2. HOW DO YOU KNOW WHAT IS RELIABLE?

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

2.2.2. Three Witnesses Are Better Than One

2.3. MAKING NOTES

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

2.4. REVISITING YOUR ESSAY PLAN

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

3.1. WHAT MARKERS EXPECT

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

3.2. WORKING UP A TOPIC

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

3.3. ANSWERING A QUESTION

3.4. ESSAY STRUCTURE

3.4.1. Introduction (What You Are Going to Tell Them)

3.4.2. Discussion or Body of the Essay (Telling Them)

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

3.4.3. Conclusions (Tell Them What You Told Them)

3.5. FINAL STAGES

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

3.7. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

4. WRITING: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1.1. Inclusive or Non-discriminatory Language

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

STUDENT WRITING GUIDE