Gravitational Radiation from the PSR 1913+16 Binary Pulsar System

Final Project for ASTR G6005, May 2011 James Mossman

I. Introduction

This report will discuss the effects of gravitational radiation on the PSR 1913+16 Binary Pulsar System. This system, located about 10,000 light years from us, consists of two stars circling around each once every 7 hours, 45 minutes and 6.9816132 seconds. The precision of this measurement allows for a number of tests of Einsteins theory of General Relativity -- including its prediction of gravitational radiation. The binary system consists of a rapidly spinning neutron star (a pulsar) and a companion, also believed to be a neutron star. The pulsar emits a pulse of electromagnetic radiation in our direction every 59 milliseconds -indicating that it is rotating around its axis 17 times a second -- and acts as a very stable clock. The system was discovered in 1974 by Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor, who used the arrival time of these pulses to make very accurate measurements of the motion of the pulsar and its companion. As will be shown below, a system emits gravitational radiation, and hence loses energy, by a factor proportional to the square of the third time derivative of its quadrupole moment. The binary pulsar system has just such a moment. If a binary star system loses orbital energy its two stars should slowly begin spiraling inward towards each other. This will cause a shortening of its orbital period. The energy loss rate predicted by General Relativity is in very close agreement with the measured value, as shown in the following graph of periastron advance from Joseph Taylors 1993 Nobel Lecture [1]. The predicted parabolic curve is due to energy losses from gravitational radiation, relative to a constant period orbit.

General Relativity also predicts that as the orbit of the binary system decays it should evolve from an elliptical shape to a circular form. Ultimately, gravitational radiation will cause the binary system to collapse within a calculable lifetime.

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 2

General Relativity also predicts that as the orbit of the binary system decays it should evolve from an elliptical shape to a circular form. Ultimately, gravitational radiation will cause the binary system to collapse within a calculable lifetime. The report will begin in Section II with an overview of the theory of gravitational radiation. Much of the material is based on discussions found in the following texts: Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology by Radoje Belusevic [2] Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology by Ta-Pei Cheng [3], and The Classical Theory of Fields by Landau and Lifshitz [4] The report attempts to fill in the blanks in the development of the theory by showing all the steps involved in deriving the various relationships. Section III deals with calculations specific to the PSR 1913+16 system. First the calculations of energy loss and angular momentum loss will be developed for the case of a circular orbit. These will then be generalized to an elliptical orbit with eccentricity e. The theoretical rate of orbital period decay for our system will be found to be about 7 10-5 seconds per year. The agreement between theory and observation turns out to be accurate to about one part in a thousand -- a strong testament to the validity of the theory of general relativity. The relationship between orbit size and eccentricity will be explored next. Finally, the lifetime, or decay time due to gravitational radiation, of a binary system will be discussed. It turns out that the PSR 1913+16 system will decay due to gravitational radiation in about 3 108 years.

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 3

II. Overview of the Theory of Gravitational Radiation

The Linearized Einstein Field Equations: Assume a small linear perturbation, h n , on a flat Minkowski background metric, h mn g mn = h mn + h n with h n `1 Then the related Christoffel symbol, since h mn,l = 0, is Ga mr =
1 as h Ihsm,p + hsr,m - h mr,s M 2

(1)

And the Ricci tensor, to first order in h, is R mn = (Ga - Ga ) = ma,u mn,a =

1 [! Ihaa Iham,a + haa,m - h ma,a MM - !a Ihaa Iham,n + han,m - h mn,a MME 2 n

1 (h - ha - ha + !l !l h mn ) m,na n,ma 2 ,mn

with

h = ha a

(2)

The curvature scalar is R = Rm m =

1 I2 h, m m - 2ham ,ma ) 2

= h - h mn , mn

with = !l !l

(3)

Substituting R mn and R into the Einstein field equations, G mn = R mn - n mn R/2 = k T mn gives 2k T mn = (h,mn - ha - ha + h mn ) - h mn (h - hab , ab ) m,na n,ma For later simplicity, define h mn as a traceless version of h mn ==> h mn = h mn - h mn h = h mn Ih mn - h mn h mn = h mn
h ) = h - 2h = - h 2 h h + h mn = h mn - h mn 2 2 h 2

(4) Then (5)

and

Substitute this into the expression for T mn in (4)

a m,na

2k T mn = - h !,mn - h

+ ha m h,na /2 - h
ab ,ab

a n,ma

+ ha n h,ma /2 + ( h mn - h mn ) +

h 2

h mn (h + h = - h !,mn - h
a m,na

- hab h ,ab /2)

a n,ma

+ h,mn /2 - h

+ h,mn /2 + h mn - h mn

h h ab + h mn h +h mn h ,ab - h mn 2 2

T mn =

1 (h mn 2k

-h

a m,na

- h

a n,ma

+h mn h

ab

,ab )

This is the field equation for the linear perturbation.

(6)

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 4

Gauge Freedom: The basic defining equation, g mn = h mn + h n with h n `1, does not specify a unique reference frame. Consider a transformation to a new reference frame noted by x m' where x m' = x m + c m (x)
! x m' !xs

Here the c m are four small functions of x such that ! m cn ` 1, and and the inverse
! xm !xs'

= d m s + !s c m

= d m s - !s c m

to first order

(7)

If these are applied to the metric tensor, then ga' b' =

! x m ! xn g !xa' !x b' mn

= ( d m a - !a c m )( dn b - ! b cn ) (h mn + h n ) to first order

= d m a dn b (h mn + h n ) - d m a ! b cn h mn - dn b !a c m h mn = gab - ! b ca - !a c b = hab + ha' b' Where

ha' b' = hab - ! b ca - !a c b

This is the general gauge transformation of the linear gravitational field, similar to the electromagnetic field transformation. (8)

Since ga' b' was defined in a proper tensorial way it will leave all tensor equations invariant. Hence specifying ha' b' via the above equation will leave all results invariant as well Hat least to first orderL. The idea is to now choose a form of ha' b' to make the field equations (6) simpler. If we set ha' b' = hab - ! b ca - !a c b and recall that h mn = h mn - h/2 h mn then h m' n' = h m' n' - ha' a' /2 h m' n' = h mn - !n c m - ! m cn - ha' a' /2 h m' n' = h mn - !n c m - ! m cn + ( ha a - ha' a' ) h mn 2 and ha a - ha' a' = hab hab - hab Ihab - !a c b - ! b ca M = 2 !a ca hence

h m' n' = h mn - !n c m - ! m cn + h mn !a ca is the gauge transformation that we want for h mn .

(9)

In fact, if we choose c m = !u h !n h
m' n'

mn

then
mn mn

= !n h

mn

- c m = 0 ==> !n I! m x m' !n xn' h L = 0 ==> !n h

=0

to first order using (7)

!n h

mn

= 0 is the Lorentz gauge condition, which will simplify the field equations.

(10)

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 5

The Gravitational Wave Equation In the Lorentz gauge using (5), !n h mn = h mn !n h/2 = ! m h/2, then using this in (2) and (3) for R mn and R gives R mn =
1 1 1 1 1 (h - ha - ha + h mn ) = (h,mn - h,mn - h,mn + h mn ) = h mn m,na n,ma 2 ,mn 2 2 2 2 1 m h ! !mh = 2 2

R = h - h mn , mn = h Thus G mn =

1 1 1 ( h mn - h mn h) = h mn using (5) and finally using the Einstein field equation 2 2 2

h mn = 2 k T mn

This is the gravitational wave equation in the Lorentz gauge.

(11)

The vacuum solution to (11) can be expressed as a superposition of plane waves h mn = e mn ka x where the e mn are components of a constant symmetric (0,2) polarization tensor Substituting (12) into (11) with T mn = 0 implies: k m k m = 0 ==> if k m = (w/c, k) then Hw cL2 = k2 ==> this dispersion relationship implies that gravita
a

(12)

tional waves move at the speed of light. The Lorentz gauge condition !n h the polarization. Now the gauge condition !n h
mn mn

= 0 implies that e mn kv = 0 which means that the wave vector kn is orthogonal to

= 0 or c m = 0 still leaves degrees of freedom in the c m which may be specified to

further simplify e mn . It can be shown (see [2]) that the further conditions: e m m = 0 (traceless) and e m0 = 0 (transverse) can be derived from a subset of the allowed c m under the Lorentz gauge. Along with the symmetry requirement this gives, for a wave propagating in the z direction with k m = (k,0,0,k)

0 0 0 0 h+ h eTT mn = 0 h -h+ 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

This is the Transverse-Traceless or TT gauge polarization tensor.

(13)

Note that since the trace h = 0 then h mn = h mn Hsee H5LL and we can drop the bar over h in this gauge. A more illuminating way of writing the plane wave solution is to explicitly break out the two polarization states, h+ and h for a wave traveling in the z direction: h mn = Ih+ e+ mn + h e mn L ka x 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 -1 0
a

TT

where 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

e+ mn =

and

e mn =

Note that since the trace h = 0 then h mn = h mn Hsee H5LL and we can drop the bar over h in this gauge.
Grav Radiation Project.nb | 6

TT

A more illuminating way of writing the plane wave solution is to explicitly break out the two polarization states, h+ and h for a wave traveling in the z direction: h mn = Ih+ e+ mn + h e mn L ka x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0
a

where 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

e+ mn =

and

e mn =

Energy Density of Linearized Gravitational Waves In order to calculate the energy density of gravitational waves we must recognize that the gravity waves themselves carry energy and thus produce additional small amounts of curvature in background spacetime. Thus instead of (1) we should write g mn = gHbL + h mn where gHbL = h mn + OIh2 M is the new adjusted background metric

We can also decompose R mn as R mn = RHbL mn + R(1) mn + R(2) mn + ....... where RHnL mn is of order n in h mn Now in the vacuum, with T mn = 0, the Einstein equation gives R mn = 0. This must be true separately for all powers of RHnL mn . Thus RH1L mn = 0 and RHbL mn + RH2L mn = 0 since both of these terms are of order h2 . (14)

Call the energy-momentum tensor of the gravity wave t mn . Then t mn and RHbL mn are related through the Einstein equation: RHbL mn 1 h RHbL = k t mn 2 mn

Using (14) we can solve for t mn in terms of RH2L mn and use k = -

8G c4

t mn =

c4 1 (RH2L mn - h mn RH2L ) 8 G 2

A subtlety which must be recognized is that it is possible to always transform to a frame of reference where at a single point spacetime is flat and hence R mn and t mn vanish. Thus one cannot not talk about gravitational energy density at a single point in spacetime. Instead we must look at an average over a spatial volume which is greater than the relevant gravitational wavelength to obtain:

t mn =

c4 1 [YRH2L mn ] - h mn YRH2L ]] This is the energy momentum tensor for the gravity wave. 8 G 2

(15)

Our goal is to find t00 , the energy density. For a simple plane wave moving in the z direction, using (12) and (13) we have: 0 h mn = 0 0 0 h+ h 0 h -h+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 with h+ = h+ cos[w (t - z/c)] and h = h cos[w (t - z/c)] (16)

Grav Radiation Project.nb | Our goal is to find t00 , the energy density. For a simple plane wave moving in the z direction, using (12) and (13) 7 we have:

0 h mn =

0 0 0 h+ h 0 h -h+ 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 with h+ = h+ cos[w (t - z/c)] and h = h cos[w (t - z/c)] (16)

The related metric for the h+ polarization state is to first order: -1 0 0 0 1 + h+ cos@w Ht - z cLD 0 0 0 1 - h+ cos@w Ht - z cLD 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 1 - h+ cos@w Ht - z cLD 0 0 0 1 + h+ cos@w Ht - z cLD 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

g mn

h mn + h mn =

and the inverse g mn =

(17)

Using this metric we may now calculate the Christoffel symbols Ga mn . For example: G1 10 = 1 11 1 g Hg11,0 + g10,1 - g10,1 L = ( !0 h+ - h+ !0 h+ ) 2 2

As shown in [3], the other non-zero terms are: G1 10 = G1 01 = G0 11 = 1 ( !0 h+ - h+ !0 h+ ) 2 and G1 13 = G1 31 = -G3 11 = 1 ( !0 h+ - h+ !0 h+ ) 2

Now R m nrs is of the form !G - !G + GG - GG and from H15L t mn includes only time-averaged second order terms in h mn . The second order condition implies that the h+ !0 h+ only enter into the !G terms, producing elements " X! sin[2w (t-z/c)]\ " Xcos[2w (t-z/c)]\ = 0. Hence there are no !G contributions to the Ricci tensor. Only the GG contribution enters into the Ricci tensor and only via the !0 h+ element of G. Using YRH2L mn ] = XGa al Gl mn - Ga ml Gl an \ then for example, RH2L 00 = Ga al Gl 00 - Ga 0 l Gl a0 = 0 - G1 0 l Gl 10 - Ga 01 G1 a0 = -2G1 01 G1 10 = Similarly RH2L 33 = 2 1 I! h M 2 0 + and RH2L 11 = RH2L 22 = 0 2 1 I! h M 2 0 +

And the curvature scalar is: RH2L = h mn RH2L mn = -RH2L 00 + RH2L 11 + RH2L 22 + RH2L 33 = 0 Now if we include the same contribution from the h polarization state, and take the positive value for energy density we find using (15) that t00 = 2 2 c4 ZI! h M + I!0 h M ^ 16 G 0 + (18) TT = 0. Also define h = ! hTT so that

Writing h as hTT = - hTT and h as hTT = hTT and note that hTT

And the curvature scalar is: RH2L = h mn RH2L mn = -RH2L 00 + RH2L 11 + RH2L 22 + RH2L 33 = 0
Grav Radiation Project.nb | 8

Now if we include the same contribution from the h polarization state, and take the positive value for energy density we find using (15) that t00 = 2 2 c4 ZI! h M + I!0 h M ^ 16 G 0 + (18)

TT Writing h+ as hTT 11 = - hTT 22 and h as hTT 21 = hTT 12 and note that hTT 3 j = 0. Also define h ij = !t hTT ij so that TT TT 2 2 1 ZI!0 h+ M + I!0 h M ^ = 2 X h ij h ij \. Then the flux (f), defined here as energy per unit area per unit time, is
2c

equal to ct00 , and can be written as: TT TT c3 X h ij h ij \ 32 G

f=

This is the flux (per unit time) of gravitational radiation energy.

(19)

Emission of Gravitational Radiation Following the same procedure as in electromagnetism when a source exists, the solution to (11): h mn = 16 G T mn (in the TT gauge ) is c4 4G c4

h mn (t, x) = -

T mn HtR , x'L x-x'

3 x '

where tR is the time at the source, or the retarded time, tR = t - x-x/c

To simplify the solution, we assume we are in the radiation zone far away from the source. Then we can replace x-x ==> x = r h mn (t, x) 4G c4 r

and tR = t - x-x/c ==> tR = t - r/c

Then (20)

T mn HtR , x'L 3 x'

We now want to simplify (20) so that it can be used to evaluate the flux via (19). Recall that energy-momentum conservation requires that ! m T mn = 0. Setting n = 0, differentiating by !0 one more time and expanding we obtain

!2 T 00 !2 T i0 !2 T i0 2 2 = i = c !t c !t !x c !xi !t
Now if we use the continuity equation again with n = i we have !0 T 0 i + ! j T ji = 0 and then

!2 T 00 !2 T ij 2 2 = c !t !xi !x j

Now multiply both sides by xk xl and integrate over the source volume:

!2 !2 T ij k l 3 !T ij k l + !T ij k l 3 00 k l 3 x di x 2 T x x x = i j x x x = j x x - - 2 c !t !x !x !x !x j
2

= -2

!T ij k l 3 x d i x = 2 T ij dk j dl i 3 x = 2 T kl 3 x !x j

(21)

The surface terms in the above integration by parts vanish since the source Tij is assumed to extend to only finite range. Now combining (20) and (21) we find that: hij (t, x) = -

!2 2G c4 r c2 !t2

T 00 xi x j 3 x

!2 !2 T ij k l 3 !T ij k l + !T ij k l 3 00 k l 3 x di x 2 T x x x = i j x x x = j x x - - 2 c !t !x !x !x !x j
2

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 9

= -2

!T ij k l 3 x d i x = 2 T ij dk j dl i 3 x = 2 T kl 3 x !x j

(21)

The surface terms in the above integration by parts vanish since the source Tij is assumed to extend to only finite range. Now combining (20) and (21) we find that: hij (t, x) = -

!2 2G c4 r c2 !t2

T 00 xi x j 3 x

If we assume the energy density is related only to the mass, then T 00 = rc2 (i.e. non - relativistic case for the source). The second mass moment is Iij Hx, tRL = rHx, tR L xi x j 3 x , then

hij (t, x) = -

2 G .. I ij Hx, tR L c4 r

The linear gravitational wave is proportional to the second time derivative of the second mass moment - or the quadrupole mass moment. (22)

As we are working in the transverse and traceless (TT) gauge, we define Qij as a traceless version of Iij Qij = 3 Iij - dij Ik k where Ik k is the trace of Iij (23)

Clearly Q j j = 0, hence Qij is traceless. Writing (22) in terms of Qij we obtain: hij = .. 2G !2 H Qij + dij 2 Ik k ) 4 3c r !t

(24)

Total Power Radiated by a Gravitational Source

In order to calculate the Energy flux we see from (18) and (19) that we need: 2 2 I!t h+ M + I!t h M = H!t h11 L2 + H!t h12 L2 We want this in terms of Qij then

We now do some algebra. Since h11 = - h22 then (h11 - h22 L2 = h11 2 + h22 2 - 2h11 h22 = 4 h11 2 H!t h+ L2 + H!t h L2 = !t h12 = -

1 H! h - !t h22 L2 + H!t h12 L2 Now use (24) with hij = hij in the TT gauge 4 t 11

... 2 G ... 2 G ... 4 Q12 and !t h11 - !t h22 = 4 (Q11 - Q22 ) so we have 3c r 3c r ... ... 2 2 4 G2 1 ... 8 2 BJQ12 N + 4 JQ11 - Q22 N F 9c r

H!t h+ L2 + H!t h L2 =

Using (18) for the flux (per unit time) = ct00

... 2 ... 2 1 ... JQ11 - Q22 N ^ 4

fz =

G 1 36 c5 r2

ZJQ12 N +

This is the flux per unit time in the z direction.

(25)

This expression for the flux in the z direction will need to be generalized to any direction, so that we can then integrate it over all directions to find the total flux. This will take some algebra. Since Qij is traceless Q33 = - Q11 - Q22 and Qij = Q ji from the symmetrical definition of Iij . Then
1 H2 Qij Qij - 4 Qi3 Qi3 + Q33 Q33 L = 1 (2 (Qi1 Qi1 + Qi2 Qi2 + Qi3 Qi3) - 4 Qi3 Qi3 + Q33 Q33 L 4 4

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 10

This expression for the flux in the z direction will need to be generalized to any direction, so that we can then integrate it over all directions to find the total flux. This will take some algebra. Since Qij is traceless Q33 = - Q11 - Q22 and Qij = Q ji from the symmetrical definition of Iij . Then
1 H2 Qij Qij - 4 Qi3 Qi3 + Q33 Q33 L = 1 (2 (Qi1 Qi1 + Qi2 Qi2 + Qi3 Qi3) - 4 Qi3 Qi3 + Q33 Q33 L 4 4

= = = =

1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4

(2 (Qi1 Qi1 + Qi2 Qi2 - Qi3 Qi3 ) + Q33 Q33 L (2 IQ11 2 + 2 Q12 2 + Q22 2 ) - Q33 2 M (2 IQ11 2 + 2 Q12 2 + Q22 2 ) - HQ11 + Q22 L2 M (Q11 2 + Q22 2 + 4Q12 2 - 2 Q11 Q22 )
1 4

= Q12 2 + Therefore fz =
... ... G 1 1 Z2 Qij Qij 5 2 36 c r 4 ... ...

HQ11 - Q22 L2
... ...

- 4 Qi3 Qi3 + Q33 Q33 ^

(26)

... ` If we would like the flux in an arbitrary direction n = Hn1 , n2 , n3 L which is quadratic in Qij then the most general

form of (26) is: fn =

G 1 36 c5 r2

Z aJQik ni nk N + bJQij Q jk ni nk N + gJQij Qij N ^

...

...

...

...

...

(27)

` Now we must solve for a, b and g matching (27) to (26) for the case that n = H0, 0, 1 L. By inspection we see that a=
1 4

b = -1
G 1 36 c5 r2
1 4 ...

g=

1 2

which gives
2 ... ...

fn =

JQik ni nk N - JQij Q jk ni nk N +

1 ... ... JQ Q N ^ 2 ij ij
E

Define Intensity (I) as energy flux area per unit time = - t . Therefore the infinitesimal amount of Intensity ` per unit time, In , flowing through the infinitesimal surface area element r2 W in the direction n is
... 2 ... ... ... ...

In =

G 36 c5

Z 4 JQik ni nk N -JQij Q jk ni nk N + JQij Qij N ^W This is the differential Intensity in direction n through solid angle W.
^

1 2

(28)

The total Intensity per unit time (or power) is found by integrating (28) over the solid angle W = sinq q f. To perform the integration over all directions of a sphere we make use of: W = 4 nk nl W = 3 dkl ni n j nk nl W = 15 Idij dkl + dkj dil + dik d jl ) The above integration results can be shown explicitly by using spherical polar coordinates with nx = sinq cosf , ny = sinq sinf and nz = cosf. For example:
3 nx ny W = sin q sinf cosf q f = 0 and

(29)

 W = 4 nk nl W = 3 dkl ni n j nk nl W =
4 Id d 15 ij kl 4
Grav Radiation Project.nb | 11

+ dkj dil + dik d jl )

(29)

The above integration results can be shown explicitly by using spherical polar coordinates with nx = sinq cosf , ny = sinq sinf and nz = cosf. For example:
3 nx ny W = sin q sinf cosf q f = 0 and

3 2 nx nx W = sin q cos f q f = 3

Using (28) and (29) the total power radiated is then: I =

G 36 c5

Z 4 JQik ni nk N - JQij Q jk ni nk N +
1 ... ...

...

...

...

1 2

JQij Qij N ^ W
... ...

...

...

= =

G 36 c5 G 9 c5
...

4 Y 60 (dij dkl + dkj dil + dik d jl )Qij Qkl - Qij Q jk I

... 2 1 1

dik M 3

+ 2 JQij Qij N^

...

...

ZQij Qij ^@ 60 - 3 + 2 ] using the traceless and symmetry properties of Qij

I =

... ... G ZQ Q ^ 45 c5 i, j ij ij

This is the total power radiated by a gravitational source with quadrupole Qij . (30)

This expression compares with side-Lorentz units.

E t

= I =

... ... 1 i, 5 j ZQij Qij ^ 720 c

in the electromagnetic field case using Heavi-

Angular Momentum and Gravitational Radiation

Just as a gravitational system loses energy via radiation it also loses angular momentum, L. Now L = S (r p) assuming a group of discrete particles, therefore L = S ( r p) , since r p = 0. Hence L =S (r fgr ), where fgr is the damping force from gravitational radiation. We actually are interested in the time weighted average loss of momentum, hence we need: XL\ = S Xr fgr \ ===> XLa \ = S Yeabg r b fg \ To find fgr we note that Egr = S fgr r hence
(31)

Egr t
...

^ = X fgr v \ = ... ...

... ... G 5 ZQij Qij ^ 45 c

using (30)

And

(32)

ZQij Qij ^ = k Qij Qij t then integrate by parts twice .. ... .. .... = k Qij Qij + - k Qij Qij t = k Qij QH5L ij t where the surface terms vanish at -
... ... ZQij Qij ^ = YQij QH5L ij ] with QH5L representing the fifth time derivative

...

(33)

Using the definitions of Qij in (23) and Iij above, we have

Qij = @ m H3ri v j + 3vi r j - 2 dij r v)] (34)

Then using (32) - (34) we have

ZQij Qij ^ = k Qij Qij t then integrate by parts twice .. ... .. .... = k Qij Qij + - k Qij Qij t = k Qij QH5L ij t where the surface terms vanish at - ZQij Qij ^ = YQij QH5L ij ] with QH5L representing the fifth time derivative
... ...
Grav Radiation Project.nb | 12

(33)

Using the definitions of Qij in (23) and Iij above, we have

Qij = @ m H3ri v j + 3vi r j - 2 dij r v)] (34)

Then using (32) - (34) we have X fgr v \ = G XmH3ri v j 45 c5

+ 3vi r j - 2 dij r v)QH5L ij \

This implies (using Q jj = 0) that ( fgr M j = G mI3 ri + 3 r j )QH5L ij 45 c5

=-

2G 15 c5

mri QH5L ij

Substituting this into (31) gives 2G 2G 2G H5L H5L H5L XLa \ = 5 Yeabg r b m rl Q lg \ = 5 Yeabg 3 m r b rl Q lg ] = 5 Yeabg 3 I bl Q lg ]
15 c 45 c 45 c

=-

2G Ye AQ bl 45 c5 abg

+ d bl Ik k E QH5L lg ] = -

2G e YQ bl QH5L lg ] 45 c5 abg

Since

X eabg d bl QH5L lg \ = X eabg QH5L bg \ = 0 since XQab \ = k Qab t = k Qab + = 0 Therefore -

.. ... 2G 2G XLa \ = - 5 eabg YQ bl QH5L lg ] = - 5 eabg ZQ bl Qlg ^ This is the rate of loss of angular momentum. (35)

45 c

45 c

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 13

III. The PSR 1913+16 Binary Pulsar

Overview In 1974 Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor, using the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, completed a survey of pulsars. Among the 40 new pulsars that they discovered was the first to be located in a binary star system. The two stars orbited around each other once every 7.75 hours, as shown below in the highly eccentric velocity curve from Hulse and Taylors original Letter to the Astrophysical Journal in 1975 [6].
1975ApJ...195L..51H

The pulsar has a very short period of only about 0.059 seconds. The accuracy of this period is very high -- on the order of 10-14 seconds [5]. Since the pulsar is created by a neutron star with a mass of 1.4 M packed into a radius of only about 10 km, a very intense gravitational field I105 times as strong as the sun at its surface) is created in the region of interest. This combination of a very accurate clock and strong gravitational field creates a powerful laboratory to study the validity of Einsteins theory of General Relativity. The binary system can be analyzed using basic orbital equations from Keplerian mechanics. The two stars will move around their center of mass in an elliptical orbit as shown in the diagram below. Call the semi minor axis of the pulsar orbit a p and its eccentricity e. Label the mass of the pulsar m p and the companion star mc . The angle of inclination of the orbit to our line of site is i and the period of the orbit is Pb . There are additional Non-Keplerian parameters which are also relevant to this system. These arise out of General Relativistic effects. First, the orbits period will shrink over time due to gravitational radiation. The rate of change is Pb . Second, the orbit also precesses, just as Mercurys perihelion precesses about the sun due to the effects of GR. In this case, the pulsars periastron (the point of closest approach to the system center of mass) advances at a rate of 4.2 degrees per year! This is Xw0 \ in the table below. Finally, the arrival time of the pulses is affected by both relativistic Doppler effects and gravitational redshifts. This is captured by the parameter g shown in the table below.
Binary Pulsar System

ap Apastron Companion
!

Pulsar Periastron Apastron

The PSR 1913+16 system has been studied extensively over the last thirty years. In 2005 the most recent set of measured orbital parameters were reported as follows [7]:
Table 1 Fitted Parameter Value

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 14

The PSR 1913+16 system has been studied extensively over the last thirty years. In 2005 the most recent set of measured orbital parameters were reported as follows [7]:
Table 1 Fitted Parameter Ia p sin iM c HsL Value 2.3417725 (8)

e T0 (MJD) Pb HdL w0 (deg) Xw0 \ (deg/yr) g (s) Pb I10-12 s/s) m p (M) mc (M)
Circular Orbit Calculations

0.6171338 (4) 52144.90097884 (5) 0.322997448930 (4) 292.54487 (8) 4.226595 (5) 0.0042919 (8) -2.4184 (9) 1.4414 (2) 1.3867 (2)

As a first approximation we shall assume that the two stars of mass m1 and m2 follow circular orbits about their common center of mass, as shown below.

a1 a2

m1

m2

If the respective distances from the center of mass are a1 and a2 , then m1 a1 = m2 a2 = m a where a = a1 + a2 and the reduced mass m = m1 m2 / (m1 + m2 ) Each mass orbits in the (x,y) plane according to: xi = ai cos wt Keplers third law gives: w2 =
Gm a3

(36)

yi = ai sin wt

z=0

with m = m1 + m2

(37)

The total energy of the binary system is E = KE + PE. Using vi = w ai , (36) and (37) give E=J
m 1 a1 2 2

Gmm m 2 a2 2 1 N w2 - G ma m2 = - 1 a 2 2
2 , w

(38)
1 Pb 1 w 3 a 3 E == =Pb t w t 2 a t 2 E t

With the orbital period Pb =

the rate of orbital decay is

(39)

Thus the rate of orbital decay = -

3 E E and we can use (30) to find . Hence we need to calculate the 2 E t t

a3

The total energy of the binary system is E = KE + PE. Using vi = w ai , (36) and (37) give E=J
m 1 a1 2 2

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 15

Gmm m 2 a2 2 1 N w2 - G ma m2 = - 1 a 2 2
2 , w

(38)
1 Pb 1 w 3 a 3 E == =Pb t w t 2 a t 2 E t

With the orbital period Pb =

the rate of orbital decay is

(39)

Thus the rate of orbital decay = -

3 E E and we can use (30) to find . Hence we need to calculate the 2 E t t

quadrupole moments for this orbit.

Quadrupole Calculations

Using the definition of Qij in (23) with a sum over two point masses replacing the integral in Iij gives: Qxx = 2 H3 xi xi mi L - dx x I k k i=1 with

I k k = 2 Hxi xi + yi yi + zi zi )mi = 2 ai 2 Icos2 wt + sin2 wt)mi = a1 2 m1 + a2 2 m2 = m aHa1 + a2 L = m a2 i=1 i=1 Then Qxx = 3 Ia1 2 m1 + a2 2 m2 M cos2 wt - m a2 = 3 m aHa1 + a2 ) cos2 wt - m a2 = m a2 (3cos2 wt -1) Qyy = m a2 (3sin2 wt -1) and Qzz = - m a2
3

Similarly

Qxy = Qyx = 2 H3 xi yi mi L = 3 Ia1 2 m1 + a2 2 m2 M coswt sinwt = m a2 sin2wt i=1 2 The derivatives are as follows: Qxx = - Qyy = - 12 m a2 w3 sin 2 wt and Qxy = Qyx = - 12 m a2 w3 cos 2 wt Using Ysin2 x] =
... ...

...

...

...

...

1 , 2
...

the average squared values over one period are:

... ... ...

ZQxx Qxx ^ = ZQyy Qyy ^ = ZQxy Qxy ^ = 72 m2 a4 w6

Circular Orbit Decay Rate Using (30) we can calculate I = ... ... E G = ZQ Q ^ 45 c5 i, j ij ij t

... ... ... ... ... ... E G =5 JZQxx Qxx ^ + ZQyy Qyy ^ + 2 ZQxy Qxy ^N t 45 c

E t

=-

32 G 2 4 6 32 G4 = m2 m3 using (37) 5 m a w 5c 5 c5 a5

(40)

Then using (38) and (39) the circular orbit decay rate is:
1 Pb 3 2 a 32 G4 2 3 = m m Pb t 2 G m m 5 c5 a5

or

1 Pb 96 G3 m m2 = Pb t 5 c5 a4

This is the circular orbit decay rate.

(41)

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 16

1 Pb 96 G3 m m2 = Pb t 5 c5 a4

This is the circular orbit decay rate.

(41)

Elliptical Orbits In 1963 Peters and Mathews [8] showed that for a general orbital eccentricity, e, that E (e) = E (e=0) f(e). The form of f(e) will developed below. The basic Keplerian orbital equations [9] are: r=
aI1-e2 M 1 + e cos q

with angular momentum l = m r2 q =

m G Hm1 m2 L a I1 - e2 M . This gives

q =

G Hm1 +m2 L a I1-e2 M r2

(42)

The quadrupole terms are the similar to the circular forms shown above, with a replaced by r and wt replaced by q. Qxx = m r2 (3 cos2 q -1) Then the derivatives are:
2 m sinHqL He + 3 cosHqLL Qxx = ..

Qyy = m r2 (3 sin2 q -1)

Qzz = -m r2

Qxy = Qyx = m r2 3sinq cosq

a H1-e2 L G Hm1 +m2 L

e cosHqL+1

Qxx =
...

1 G m Hm1 + m2 L H13 e cosHqL + eH4 e + 3 cosH3 qLL + 12 cosH2 qLL 2 a Ie2 -1M 1 a4 Ie2 -1M
4

and

Qxx =
...

m sinHqL He cosHqL + 1L2 HeH9 cosH2 qL + 11L + 24 cosHqLL Ia I1 - e2 M G Hm1 + m2 LM

32

or

Qxx = b sinHqL He cosHqL + 1L2 (e(9 cos(2q)+11)+24cos(q)) b2 =

G3 Hm1 m2 L2 Hm1 +m2 L a5 I1-e2 M
5

with

G 3 m2 m3 a5 I1-e2 M
5

Similarly Qyy = - b sinHqL He cosHqL + 1L2 He H9 cosH2 qL + 13L + 24 cos HqLL Qzz = 2be sinHqL He cosHqL + 1L2 Qxy = Qyx = - b He cosHqL + 1L2 H5 e cosHqL + 3 e cosH3 qL + 8 cosH2 qLL Using (30) the total power is:
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... E G =5 JZQxx Qxx ^ + ZQyy Qyy ^ + ZQzz Qzz ^ + 2 ZQxy Qxy ^N t 45 c

...

...

...

...

3 2

Squaring the quadrupole derivatives from above, but before taking the average over a period we have:

Qzz = 2be sinHqL He cosHqL + 1L2 Qxy = Qyx =

... ...
Grav Radiation Project.nb | 17

...

3 2

b He cosHqL + 1L H5 e cosHqL + 3 e cosH3 qL + 8 cosH2 qLL

Using (30) the total power is:

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... E G =5 JZQxx Qxx ^ + ZQyy Qyy ^ + ZQzz Qzz ^ + 2 ZQxy Qxy ^N t 45 c

Squaring the quadrupole derivatives from above, but before taking the average over a period we have:
4 G4 m2 m3 E 4 2 2 =- 5 5 5 Y He cosHqL + 1L I11 e cosH2 qL + 13 e + 48 e cosHqL + 24M ] t 15 c a I1-e2 M

(43)

In order to take the average over one period, t, we convert t to q using (42):
IaI1-e2 MM
32

t =

GHm1 + m2 L 2 p a32 GHm1 + m2 L I1-e2 M 1 t t = t 0 2p

1 q H1+e cosqL2

and

then

32

2p

H1+e cosqL2

so now

(44)

2p 2 G4 m2 m3 E = He cosHqL + 1L2 I11 e2 cosH2 qL + 13 e2 + 48 e cosHqL + 24M q 72 0 t 15 p c5 a5 I1-e2 M 32 G4 m2 m3 5 c5 a5 I1-e2 M

72

= -

I1 +

73 24

e2 +

37 96

e4 M

(45)

Comparing this with the circular result, (40), we finally have:

E E (e) = (0) f(e) t t J1 + 24 e2 + 96 e4 N I1-e2 M
72 73 37

where

f(e) =

Therefore, using (41), the orbital decay rate for the elliptical orbit with eccentricity e is:
1 Pb 96 G3 m m2 = f(e) Pb t 5 c5 a4

This is the elliptical orbit decay rate.

PSR 1913 +16 Decay Rate Results

Inserting the latest observed data from Table 1 (and using Keplers third law (37) to provide a from Pb ) gives a theoretical decay rate of: Ptheory = -2.4021 x 10-12 s/s or about -7 x 10-5 s/year The observed decay rate in Table 1 is -2.4184 .00009 x 10-12 s/s. A small correction should be applied to account for the relative acceleration between the binary pulsar and the solar system. Using the estimate of -.0128
.

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 18

Inserting the latest observed data from Table 1 (and using Keplers third law (37) to provide a from Pb ) gives a theoretical decay rate of: Ptheory = -2.4021 x 10-12 s/s or about -7 x 10-5 s/year The observed decay rate in Table 1 is -2.4184 .00009 x 10-12 s/s. A small correction should be applied to account for the relative acceleration between the binary pulsar and the solar system. Using the estimate of -.0128 .0050 x 10-12 s/s provided in [7] gives a net Pobs = - 2.4056 x 10-12 s/s. Therefore:
.

Pobs

Ptheory

= 1.0015 .0021

This is a measure of the accuracy of the theory of gravitational radiation.

Circularization of the Elliptical Orbit

From equations (30) and (35) we see that the radiating system will lose both energy and angular momentum (L). Since an orbits eccentricity is related to its angular momentum and energy via: e2 = 1 +
2 E L2 G 2 m3 m2

(46)

we can see that the radiating system will lose eccentricity over time and will eventually convert into a circular system. This will be shown below. Equation (46) implies:
. e L2 E + 2 E L L = t G 2 m3 m2 e

(47)

To compute

. e we must find L for an elliptical orbit. Following the same process as above for the elliptical t

energy calculation, starting with (35) and recognizing that in our case L is along the z direction. Then
.. ... 2G XL\ = - 5 ezbg ZQ bl Qlg ^

= = =

45 c .. ... .. ... 2G - 5 J ZQxl Qly ^ - ZQyl Qlx ^N 45 c .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... 2G - 5 J ZQxy Qyy ^ +ZQxx Qxy ^ - ZQyx Qxx ^ - ZQyy Qyx ^N 45 c .. ... ... ... .. .. 2G - 5 J ZQxy J Qyy - Qxx N^ +ZQxy JQxx - Qyy N^N 45 c

Inserting the derivatives from above, but before taking the average over the period, we have: 4 G72 m2 Hm1 +m2 L52 XL\ = X He cosq +1L3 Ie2 + 3 eHcos2q + 4 cosqL + 8) \ 72
5 c5 a72 I1-e2 M 1 t t from (44) gives: t 0

Taking the average over one period using

7

2 32 G72 m2 Hm1 +m2 L52 J1+ 8 e N XL\ = 5 72 2

5c a

I1-e2 M

(48)

Inserting the derivatives from above, but before taking the average over the period, we have: 4 G72 m2 Hm1 +m2 L52 XL\ = X He cosq +1L3 Ie2 + 3 eHcos2q + 4 cosqL + 8) \ 72
5c a
5 72

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 19

I1-e M

Taking the average over one period using

7

1 t t from (44) gives: t 0

2 32 G72 m2 Hm1 +m2 L52 J1+ 8 e N XL\ = 5 72 2

5c a

I1-e2 M

(48)

With L =

m G Hm1 m2 L a I1 - e2 M , E = -

G m1 m2 and using (45) through (48) gives 2a

e 304 m m2 G3 e =15 c5 a4 I1-e2 M52 t

I1 +

121 304

e2 M

This is the rate of change of eccentricity.

(49)

e 0, therefore the elliptical orbit will eventually decay into a circular orbit with e = 0. t e Once the circular orbit is reached = 0, and there are no further changes in eccentricity. However, as will be t

This equation shows that

shown below, by the time the orbit has circularized the separation between the two masses has been reduced to zero as well. The Evolution of Orbit Size

From the relation E = -

G m1 m2 we can easily find a from E: 2a

G m1 m2 E a = t 2 E2 t

2 a2 E G m1 m2 t
73 24

then using (45) we have:

64 G3 m m2 a =72 I1 + t 5 c5 a3 I1-e2 M

e2 +

37 96

e4 M

(50)

We can now find an interesting relationship between a and e by taking the ratio of (50) and (49):
2 4 a 12 a J1 + 24 e + 96 e N = e 19 e I1-e2 M J1 + 121 e2 N 304 73 37

(51)

The exact solution to (51) is given in Peters [10], where these ideas are developed : a(e) =
Ic0 e1219 M I1-e2 M

(1 +

121 304

e2 M

8702299

with c0 determined by initial conditions a0 and e0

(52)

A log plot of this function follows on the next page.

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 20

Separation vs. Eccentricity

a@eD 100.0 50.0

10.0 5.0

1.0 0.5

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 e

If we insert a(e) from (52) into (49) we obtain:

-2919 I1-e2 M e 304 m m2 G3 e =11812299 121 t 15 c5 c0 4 J1+ 304 e2 N 32

(53)

The lifetime (from gravitational radiation decay alone) THa0 , e0 ) can be found by integrating (53):
11812299

THa0 , e0 ) =

15 c5 c0 4 304 m m2 G3

2919 J1+ 304 e2 N e0 e 0 32 I1-e2 M

121

e This is the lifetime of the binary system. (54)

In the case of the PSR 1913+16 system we have a0 = 1.949 109 m and e0 = .6171. With these values we can determine c0 from (52) as 1.552 109 and then we have the lifetime of our binary system as:
2919 J1+ 304 e2 N .6171 e 0 32 I1-e2 M 121 11812299

T1913+16 = 5.244 10

16

e seconds

After evaluating the integral numerically we find that: T1913+16 = 9.489 1015 seconds or 3.009 108 years.

Grav Radiation Project.nb | 21

IV. References

[1] Taylor, J.H., 1994, Binary pulsars and Relativistic Gravity, Reviews of Modern Physics 66, 711. [2] Belusevic, R., 2008, Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, Volume 2, (Wiley). [3] Cheng, T., 2005, Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology, (Oxford U. Press). [4] Landau, L.D. and Lifshitz, E.M., 1975, The Classical Theory of Fields, (Butterworth-Heinemann). [5] Taylor, J.H. and Weinberg J.M., 1989, Further Experimental Tests of Relativistic Gravity Using the Binary Pulsar PSR 1913+16, Astrophysical Journal 345, 434. [6] Hulse, R.A. and Taylor, J.H., 1975, Discovery of a Pulsar In a Binary System, Astrophysical Journal 195, L51. [7] Taylor, J.H. and Weinberg, J.M., 2005, The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16: Thirty Years of Observations, ASP Conference Series 328, 25. [8] Peters, P.C. and Mathews, J., 1963, Gravitational Radiation from Point Masses in a Keplerian Orbit, Physical Review, 131, 435. [9] Goldstein, H., 2002, Classical Mechanics, (Addison Wesley). [10] Peters, P.C., 1964, Gravitational Radiation and the Motion of Two Point Masses, Physical Review, 136, p1224B.