Finally, participants completed additional measure of their current and

their psychological well-being. Result indicated that those in the forgiven

condition (participants led to believe that they had forgiveness the offender)
reported higher self-esteem and lower level of negative affect than those in the
no-forgiveness condition. Other findings showed that the benefits of forgiveness
were stronger for relationships to which individuals are strongly committed. In
other words, the closer we are to those who offend us, the more beneficial it is to
forgive them for doing things that offend us.
Why are some people able to forgive more readily than other? In part,
because of their own traits. Research finding indicate that forgiving people differ
from nonforgiving people with respect to two aspect of personality we examined
in detail in chapter 10: They are higher in agreeableness-a tendency to trust
others and want to help them-and the higher in emotional stability-they show low
vulnerability to negative moods or emotions (Berry et al,2001)
How, precisely, does forgiveness work? What do people do to forgive
people? One technique involves empathy-they try to understand the feelings,
emotions, and circumstances that caused the offending person to harm them.
Similarly, they make generous attributions about the causes of their enemies’
behavior, concluding that they had good reasons for it, even past transgressions;
once these over, they put them out of their minds(McCullough et al, 2001)
In sum, given the benefits that forgiveness may confer, it seems to be one
social skill we should all try to develop. When we do, we may learn that there is a
large grain of truth in the proverb, “to err is human; to forgive, divine.
 SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF KEY POINTS.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON AGGRESSION: IN SEARH OF

THE ROOTS OF VIOLENCE.

• Aggression is the intentional infliction of harm on others. Although

most social psychologist reject the view that human aggression is
strongly determined by genetic factors, many now accept an
evolutionary perspective that recognizes the potential role of such
factors.
• Drive theories suggest that aggression stem from externally
elicited drives to harm or injure others. The frustration-aggression
hypothesis is the most famous example.
• Modern theorist of aggression, such as the general aggression
model, recognize the important in aggression of learning, various
eliciting input variables, individual differences, affective states, and
especially, cognitive processes.

CAUSES OF HUMAN AGGRESSION: SOCIAL, CULTURAL, PERSONAL, AND

SITUATIONAL.

• Contrary to the famous hypothesis, all frustration-aggression does

not stem from frustration, and frustrations does not always lead to
aggressions only under certain limited conditions.
• In contrast, provocation from others is a powerful elicitor the
aggressions. We rarely turn the other cheek; rather, we match or
slightly exceed the level of aggressions we receive from others.
• Heightened arousal can increase aggressions if it persists beyond
the situation in which it was induced and it falsely interpreted as
anger.
• Exposure to media violence has been found increase aggressions
among viewers. This is due to several factors, such as the priming
of aggressive thoughts and the weakening of restraints against
aggression.
• Exposure to violet pornography appears to increase the
willingness of some to engage in similar behavior and to generate
callous attitudes towards various forms of sexual violence.
• In cultures of honor, norms requiring aggression as response to
threats to one’ honor exist and exert powerful effects.
• Sexual jealousy poses a major threat to male honor in cultures of
honor, with the result that aggression in response to sexual
infidelity is condoned to a greater extent, and women who are
accepting of such aggression are viewed more favorably.
• Persons shoeing the Type A behavior pattern are more irritable
and aggression than person with the Type B behavior pattern.
 • Individuals high in hostile attribution bias attribute others’ actions
to hostile intent. As the result, they are more aggressive than
persons low in this characteristic.
• Persons high in narcissism hold an over inflated view of their own
worth. They react with exceptionally high level of aggression to
feedback from others than threatens their inflated egos.
• Persons high in sensation seeking tend to be more aggressive
because they are attracted to aggression-eliciting situation and
because they experience anger and hostile thoughts more often.
• Males are more aggressive overall than females, but this different
decreases in the context of strong provocation. Males are more
likely to use direct forms of aggression, but female are more likes
to use indirect.
• High temperatures tend to increase aggression up to the point.
Beyond some level, aggressions declines as temperature rise.
• Consuming alcohol can increase aggression, especially by
individuals who normally show low level of aggression.
• Alcohol may exert these effects by reducing individual’s capacity
to process some kinds of information and by chancing their
reactions to unexpected behavior by others.

Aggression in long-term relationships: bullying and workplace violence

• Bullying involves repeated aggression against individuals who, for

various reasons, are unable to defend themselves. bullying occurs
in many con texts, including schools, workplace and prisons. Few
people are solely bullies or victims; more play both roles. Bullies
and bully –victims appear to have lower self-esteem than people
who are not involved in bullying.
• Workplace aggression takes different forms but is usually covert in
nature. It stems from a range of factor, including perception of
having been treated unfairly and the many disturbing change that
have occurred in workplaces recently.

The Prevention and Control of Aggression:

Some useful; Techniques

• Punishment can be effective in reducing aggression but only when it is

delivered under certain conditions.
• The catharsis hypothesis appears to be mainly false. Engaging in vigorous
activities may produce reductions in arousal, but these are only temporary.
Similarly, aggression is not reduced by engaging in apparently ” safe”
forms of aggression.
• Aggression can be reduced by apologies admissions of wrong doing that
includes a request forgiveness- and by overcoming the cognitive deficits
produced by strong anger.
• Forgiveness- surrendering the desire revenge. – is also effective in
reducing aggression. In addition, it may contribute to our physic logical
well-being.