IT ASSIGNMENT

BASICS OF COMPUTERS AND DBMS

SUBMITTED TO: MRS.SANJANA ADHLAKHA

SUBMITTED BY: DEEPTI BHATTACHARYA ROLL NO.- 30(FW-FB1) October 26, 2011

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to our faculty Prof. Sanjana for her continous support and guidance in preparation of our IT assignment. Thank you maam

REGARDS Deepti Bhattacharya Roll No. 30 FW/FB#1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. COVER PAGE 2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

3. EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS 4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS 5. SOFTWARE 6. HARDWARE 7. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 8. DBMS BENEFITS 9. DBMS FEATURES 10. CONCLUSION 11. SUMMARY 12. BIBLOGRAPHY

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. An important class of computer operations on some computing platforms is the accepting of input from human operators and the output of results formatted for human consumption. The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface. Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control

element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from an external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent out. A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment. The first electronic digital computers were developed in the mid-20th century (19401945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modernpersonal computers (PCs).[1] In this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications. Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Types of computers: Generation 1 ( the first digital computer) Generation 2 Generation 3

 Generation 4 Generation 5

Generation 1
This is when the first digital computer was built It was started to be built in 1937 and finished in 1939 John Vincent Atanasoff, and Cliford Berry At Iowa State University This machine was not intended as general-purpose computer, it was built to solve physics equations that Atanasoff was working on at the time using electronic vacuum tubes, as the switching components

Generation 2
This invention of the transistor which was faster, smaller and required considerably less power to operate This was introduced in 1959

Generation 3
By the late 1960s devices which included more than one circuit on a single silicon chip became available

Generation 4
In about 1970 the technology was available to place an entire CPU on a single chip and the micro processor was born.

Positives
One positive that the computer has is that it makes it easier to find information and faster to find it. Another positive is that they are more efficient, then they used to be. Another positive is that it makes it easier to talk to friends on Aol or Yahoo.

Negatives
One negative is that they can be very slow Another negative is that it might not find the exact information you need, or it might give you something you dont need.

Reflection
One important thing we learned was that computers are a great way to find information on many topics. Our opinion is that we are glad that John Atanasoff and his colleague designed the computer. It was a great idea!

SOFTWARE
Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. In other words, software is a conceptual entity which is a set of computer programs, procedures, and associated documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. We can also say software refers to one or more computer programs and

data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation. Programsoftware performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched".[1] Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.

Types of software
Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes[citation needed] : system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred. System software System software provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following:

Device drivers Operating systems Servers Utilities Window systems

System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that they can work together harmoniously. Its purpose is to unburden the application software programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner. Programming software Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include:

Compilers Debuggers Interpreters Linkers Text editors

An Integrated development environm (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions. Application software

Application software is developed to aid in any task that benefits from computation. It is a broad category, and encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet browser being used to display this page. This category includes:

Business software Computer-aided design Databases Decision making software Educational software Image editing Industrial automation Mathematical software Medical software Molecular modeling software Quantum chemistry and solid state physics software Simulation software Spreadsheets Telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it) Video editing software Video games Word processing

HARDWARE
What is Hardware? Your PC (Personal Computer) is a system, consisting of many components. Some

of those components, like Windows XP, and all your other programs, are software. The stuff you can actually see and touch, and would likely break if you threw it out a fifth-story window, is hardware. Not everybody has exactly the same hardware. But those of you who have a desktop system, like the example shown in Figure 1, probably have most of the components shown in that same figure. Those of you with notebook computers probably have most of the same components. Only in your case the components are all integrated into a single book-sized portable unit.

Figure 1 The system unit is the actual computer; everything else is called a peripheral device. Your computer's system unit probably has at least one floppy disk drive, and one CD or DVD drive, into which you can insert floppy disks and CDs. There's another disk drive, called the hard disk inside the system unit, as shown in Figure 2. You can't remove that disk, or even see it. But it's there. And everything that's currently "in your computer" is actually stored on that hard disk. (We know this because there is no place else inside the computer where you can store information!).

Figure 2 The floppy drive and CD drive are often referred to as drives with removable media or removable drives for short, because you can remove whatever disk is currently in the drive, and replace it with another. Your computer's hard disk can store as much information as tens of thousands of floppy disks, so don't worry about running out of space on your hard disk any time soon. As a rule, you want to store everything you create or download on your hard disk. Use the floppy disks and CDs to send copies of files through the mail, or to make backup copies of important items. Random Access Memory (RAM) There's too much "stuff" on your computer's hard disk to use it all at the same time. During the average session sitting at the computer, you'll probably use only a small amount of all that's available. The stuff you're working with at any given moment is stored in random access memory (often abbreviated RAM, and often called simply "memory"). The advantage using RAM to store whatever you're working on at the moment is that RAM is very fast. Much faster than any disk. For you, "fast" translates to less time waiting and more time being productive. So if RAM is so fast, why not put everything in it? Why have a hard disk at all? The

answer to that lies in the fact that RAM is volatile. As soon as the computer is shut off, whether intentionally or by an accidental power outage, every thing in RAM disappears, just as quickly as a light bulb goes out when the plug is pulled. So you don't want to rely on RAM to hold everything. A disk, on the other hand, holds its information whether the power is on or off. The Hard Disk All of the information that's "in your computer", so to speak, is stored on your computer's hard disk. You never see that actual hard disk because it's sealed inside a special housing and needs to stay that way. Unlike RAM, which is volatile, the hard disk can hold information forever -- with or without electricity. Most modern hard disks have tens of billions of bytes of storage space on them. Which, in English, means that you can create, save, and download files for months or years without using up all the storage space it provides. In the unlikely event that you do manage to fill up your hard disk, Windows will start showing a little message on the screen that reads "You are running low on disk space" well in advance of any problems. In fact, if that message appears, it won't until you're down to about 800 MB of free space. And 800 MB of empty space is equal to about 600 blank floppy disks. That's still plenty of room! The Mouse Obviously you know how to use your mouse, since you must have used it to get here. But let's take a look at the facts and buzzwords anyway. Your mouse probably has at least two buttons on it. The button on the left is called the primary mouse button, the button on the right is called the secondary mouse button or just the right mouse button. I'll just refer to them as the left and right mouse buttons. Many mice have a small wheel between the two mouse buttons, as illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3

The idea is to rest your hand comfortably on the mouse, with your index finger touching (but not pressing on) the left mouse button. Then, as you move the mouse, the mouse pointer (the little arrow on the screen) moves in the same direction. When moving the mouse, try to keep the buttons aimed toward the monitor -- don't "twist" the mouse as that just makes it all the harder to control the position of the mouse pointer. If you find yourself reaching too far to get the mouse pointer where you want it to be on the screen, just pick up the mouse, move it to where it's comfortable to hold it, and place it back down on the mousepad or desk. The buzzwords that describe how you use the mouse are as follows:

Point: To point to an item means to move the mouse pointer so that it's touching the item. Click: Point to the item, then tap (press and release) the left mouse button. Double-click: Point to the item, and tap the left mouse button twice in rapid succession - click-click as fast as you can. Right-click: Point to the item, then tap the mouse button on the right. Drag: Point to an item, then hold down the left mouse button as you move the mouse. To drop the item, release the left mouse button.

Right-drag: Point to an item, then hold down the right mouse button as you move the mouse. To drop the item, release the right mouse button.

The Keyboard Like the mouse, the keyboard is a means of interacting with your computer. You really only need to use the keyboard when you're typing text. Most of the keys on the keyboard are laid out like the keys on a typewriter. But there are some special keys like Esc (Escape), Ctrl (Control), and Alt (Alternate). There are also some keys across the top of the keyboard labeled F1, F2, F3, and so forth. Those are called the function keys, and the exact role they play depends on which program you happen to be using at the moment. Most keyboards also have a numeric keypad with the keys laid out like the keys on a typical adding machine. If you're accustomed to using an adding machine, you might want to use the numeric keypad, rather than the numbers across the top of the keyboard, to type numbers. It doesn't really matter which keys you use. The numeric keypad is just there as a convenience to people who are accustomed to adding machines.

Figure 4 Most keyboards also contain a set of navigation keys. You can use the navigation keys to move around around through text on the screen. The navigation keys won't move the mouse pointer. Only the mouse moves the mouse pointer. On smaller keyboards where space is limited, such as on a notebook computer, the navigation keys and numeric keypad might be one in the same. There will be a Num Lock key on the keypad. When the Num Lock key is "on", the numeric keypad keys type numbers. When the Num Lock key is "off", the navigation keys come into play. The Num Lock key acts as a toggle. Which is to say, when you tap it, it switches to the opposite state. For example, if Num Lock is on, tapping that key turns it off. If Num Lock is off, tapping that key turns Num Lock on.

Combination Keystrokes (Shortcut keys) Those mysterious Ctrl and Alt keys are often used in combination with other keys to perform some task. We often refer to these combination keystrokes as shortcut keys, because they provide an alternative to using the mouse to select menu options in programs. Shortcut keys are always expressed as: key1+key2 where the idea is to hold down key1, tap key2, then release key1. For example, to press Ctrl+Esc hold down the Ctrl key (usually with your pinkie), tap the Esc key, then release the Ctrl key. To press Alt+F you hold down the Alt key, tap the letter F, then release the Alt key.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A DBMS is a complex set of software programs that controls the organization, storage, management, and retrieval of data in a database. DBMS are categorized according to their data structures or types, sometime DBMS is also known as Data base Manager. It is a set of prewritten programs that are used to store, update and retrieve a\ Database. A DBMS includes: A modeling language to define the schema of each database hosted in the DBMS, according to the DBMS data model. The four most common types of organizations are the hierarchical, network, relational and object models. Inverted lists and other methods are also used. A given database management system may provide one or more of the four models. The optimal structure depends on the natural organization of the application's data, and on the application's requirements (which include transaction rate (speed), reliability, maintainability, scalability, and cost). The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded in SQL, despite the objections of purists who believe this model is a corruption of the relational model, since it violates several of its fundamental principles for the sake of practicality and performance. Many DBMSs also support the Open Database Connectivity API that supports a standard way for programmers to access the DBMS. Data structures (fields, records, files and objects) optimized to deal with very large amounts of data stored on a permanent data storage device (which implies relatively slow access compared to volatile main memory). A database query language and report writer to allow users to interactively interrogate the database, analyze its data and update it according to the users privileges on data. It also controls the security of the database. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However, it may not leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are customized for each data entry and updating function. A transaction mechanism, that ideally would guarantee the ACID properties, in order to ensure data integrity, despite concurrent user accesses (concurrency control), and faults (fault tolerance). It also maintains the integrity of the data in the database.

The DBMS can maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user to update the same record at the same time. The DBMS can help prevent duplicate records via unique index constraints; for example, no two customers with the same customer numbers (key fields) can be entered into the database. The DBMS accepts requests for data from the application program and instructs the operating system to transfer the appropriate data. When a DBMS is used, information systems can be changed much more easily as the organization's information requirements change. New categories of data can be added to the database without disruption to the existing system. Organizations may use one kind of DBMS for daily transaction processing and then move the detail onto another computer that uses another DBMS better suited for random inquiries and analysis. Overall systems design decisions are performed by data administrators and systems analysts. Detailed database design is performed by database administrators. Database servers are specially designed computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Connected to one or more servers via a high speed channel, hardware database accelerators are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. Sometimes DBMSs are built around a private multitasking kernel with built-in networking support although nowadays these functions are left to the operating system.

DBMS Benefits
Improved strategic use of corporate data Reduced complexity of the organizations information systems environment Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency Enhanced data integrity Application-data independence Improved security Reduced application development and maintenance costs Improved flexibility of information systems

Increased access and availability of data and information Logical & Physical data independence Concurrent access anomalies. Facilitate atomicity problem. Provides central control on the system through DBA.

Features and Capabilities of DBMS

A DBMS can be characterized as an "attribute management system" where attributes are small chunks of information that describe something. For example, "colour" is an attribute of a car. The value of the attribute may be a color such as "red", "blue" or "silver". Alternatively, and especially in connection with the relational model of database management, the relation between attributes drawn from a specified set of domains can be seen as being primary. For instance, the database might indicate that a car that was originally "red" might fade to "pink" in time, provided it was of some particular "make" with an inferior paint job. Such higher arity relationships provide information on all of the underlying domains at the same time, with none of them being privileged above the others. Throughout recent history specialized databases have existed for scientific, geospatial, imaging, and document storage and like uses. Functionality drawn from such applications has lately begun appearing in mainstream DBMSs as well. However, the main focus there, at least when aimed at the commercial data processing market, is still on descriptive attributes on repetitive record structures. Thus, the DBMSs of today roll together frequentlyneeded services or features of attribute management. By externalizing such functionality to the DBMS, applications effectively share code with each other and are relieved of much internal complexity.

Features commonly offered by database management systems include:

Query Ability Querying is the process of requesting attribute information from various perspectives and combinations of factors. Example: "How many 2-door cars in Texas are green?" A database query language and report writer allow users to interactively interrogate the database, analyze its data and update it according to the users privileges on data. It also controls the security of the database. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as

interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However it may not leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are customized for each data entry and updating function. Backup and Replication Copies of attributes need to be made regularly in case primary disks or other equipment fails. A periodic copy of attributes may also be created for a distant organization that cannot readily access the original. DBMS usually provide utilities to facilitate the process of extracting and disseminating attribute sets. When data is replicated between database servers, so that the information remains consistent throughout the database system and users cannot tell or even know which server in the DBMS they are using, the system is said to exhibit replication transparency. Rule Enforcement Often one wants to apply rules to attributes so that the attributes are clean and reliable. For example, we may have a rule that says each car can have only one engine associated with it (identified by Engine Number). If somebody tries to associate a second engine with a given car, we want the DBMS to deny such a request and display an error message. However, with changes in the model specification such as, in this example, hybrid gas-electric cars, rules may need to change. Ideally such rules should be able to be added and removed as needed without significant data layout redesign. Security Often it is desirable to limit who can see or change a given attributes or groups of attributes. This may be managed directly by individual, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. Computation There are common computations requested on attributes such as counting, summing, averaging, sorting, grouping, cross-referencing, etc. Rather than have each computer application implement these from scratch, they can rely on the DBMS to supply such calculations. All arithmetical work to perform by computer is called a computation. Change and Access Logging Often one wants to know who accessed what attributes, what was changed, and when it was changed. Logging services allow this by keeping a record of access occurrences and changes. Automated Optimization If there are frequently occurring usage patterns or requests, some DBMS can adjust themselves to improve the speed of those interactions. In some cases the DBMS will merely

provide tools to monitor performance, allowing a human expert to make the necessary adjustments after reviewing the statistics collected.

Uses Of Database Management Systems The four major uses of database management systems are: 1. Database Development 2. Database Interrogation 3. Database Maintenance 4. Application Development Database Development Database packages like Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach allow end users to develop the database they need. However, large organizations with client/server or mainframe-based system usually place control of enterprise-wide database development in the hands of database administrators and other database specialists. This improves the integrity and security of organizational database. Database developers use the data definition languages (DDL) in database management systems like oracle 9i or IBMs BD2 to develop and specify the data contents, relationships and structure each databases, and to modify these database specifications called a data dictionary. Database Interrogation The Database interrogation capability is a major use of Database management system. End users can interrogate a database management system by asking for information from a database using a query language or a report generator. They can receive an immediate response in the form of video displays or printed reports. No difficult programming ideas are required. Database Maintenance The databases of organizations need to be updated continually to reflect new business transactions and other events. Other miscellaneous changes must also be made to ensure accuracy of the data in the database. This database maintenance process is accomplished by transaction processing programs and other end-user application packages within the support of the database management system. End users and information specialists can also employ various utilities provided by a DBMS for database maintenance. Application Development Database management system packages play major roles in application development. Endusers, systems analysts and other application developers can use the fourth generational

languages (4GL) programming languages and built-in software development tools provided by many DBMS packages to develop custom application programs. For example you can use a DBMS to easily develop the data entry screens, forms, reports, or web pages by a business application. A database management system also makes the job of application programmers easier, since they do not have to develop detailed data handling procedures using a conventional programming language every time they write a program.

Models
The various models of database management systems are: 1. Hierarchical 2. Network 3. Object-oriented 4. Associative 5. Column-Oriented 6. Navigational 7. Distributed 8. Real Time Relational 9. SQL

List of Database Management Systems Software Examples of DBMSs include Oracle DB2 Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise FileMaker Firebird Ingres Informix

Microsoft Access Microsoft SQL Server Microsoft Visual FoxPro MySQL PostgreSQL Progress SQLite Teradata CSQL OpenLink Virtuoso

CONCLUSION Database management systems has continue to make data arrangement and storage to be much easier than it used to be. With the emergence of relational model of database management systems much of the big challenge in handling large database has been reduced. More database management products will be available on the market as there will be improvement in the already existing once.

SUMMARY A Database Management System (DBMS) is computer software designed for the purpose of managing databases based on a variety of data models. A DBMS is a complex set of software programs that controls the organization, storage, management, and retrieval of data in a database. When a DBMS is used, information systems can be changed much more easily as the organization's information requirements change. New categories of data can be added to the database without disruption to the existing system. Often it is desirable to limit who can see or change which attributes or groups of attributes. This may be managed directly by individual, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. A DBMS can be characterized as an "attribute management system" where attributes are small chunks of information that describe something. For example, "colour" is an attribute of a car. The value of the attribute may be a color such as "red", "blue" or "silver". Querying is the process of requesting attribute information from various perspectives and combinations of factors. Example: "How many 2-door cars in Texas are green?" As computers grew in capability, this trade-off became increasingly unnecessary and a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s there were a number of such systems in commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, IDS, founded the Database

BIBLOGRAPHY

http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/computer1.html The encyclopedia www.computerhistory.org/ http://ei.cs.vt.edu/history/ www.google.com www.ask.com

THANK YOU