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Mechatronics Systems Design Assignment

Nanda Kishore M R 09M206 V Semester October 25, 2011

Contents
0.1 0.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurand: Acceleration . . . . . . . . . Capacitive Accelerometer . . . . . . . . ADXL330 Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurand: Angular Position and Speed Hall Eect Rotational Speed Sensor . . Honeywell SS461A sensor . . . . . . . . Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurand: Temperature . . . . . . . . Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor . LM35 Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 3 4 5 7 7 8 9 10 10 12 12 14 15

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List of Figures
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Types of Capacitive Accelerometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principle of ADXL330 Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADXL330 Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application of ADXL330 Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hall Eect Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simple Hall Eect sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Signal Conditioning Block Diagram of SS461A . . . . . . . . . . Application of Hall eect Angular Position Sensors in Brushless DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linearity of Silicon Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The LM35 Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IC Temperature Sensor used in PC cooling fan system . . . . . . 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

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Introduction

A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical signal. Sensors are widely used to provide an interface between the physical world and the world of electrical devices. They mainly provide signals for actuators which perform a certain desired operation based on the value of the quantity sensed. However, a sensor can also be used just to measure the value of a physical quantity. There are many measurands in the physical world that need sensing. Any system comprises of a number of these measurands. Therefore, sensors are required to sense all these measurands if a high performance system is to be designed. This report is intended to discuss only three of these measurands and accordingly, only one way to sense each of these measurands is discussed.

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Measurand: Acceleration

Acceleration measurement has become an important part of a lot of engineering systems. It form an integral part of vibration monitoring systems used in a variety of applications like vehicles, industries, buildings, electronic devices, physical training equipment and a number of other areas. Acceleration sensors are used to sense and/or measure the acceleration of an object in motion or experiencing vibration. Measurement of this acceleration helps us gain a better understanding of the dynamic characteristics that govern the behavior of the object. Accelerometers are sensing transducers that provide an output proportional to acceleration, Vibration and shock. Dierent accelerometers work on dierent transduction eects. In this study, three such transduction eects are discussed, viz. Piezoelectric, Piezoresistive and Capacitance.

Capacitive Accelerometer
Theory Capacitive Accelerometers measure a change in capacitance across a bridge. The output signals of these accelerometers are analog voltages that are proportional to the acceleration. The capacitive accelerometers are capable of measuring both static acceleration forces such as that generated by a gravitational pull and dynamic acceleration forces such as that generated by vibrations from movement. A capacitive accelerometer consists of a movable plate paired with one or more stationary plates. These plates act as the plates of capacitor and help in storing capacitance which charges an electrical circuit. Based on the number of plates used, a capacitive accelerometer can be single capacitor or dierential capacitor type. In a single capacitor type accelerometer, the capacitance varies based on the gap or area between the plates. In a dierential capacitor type, the capacitance of one capacitor increases while that of the other decreases. 3

(a) Single Capacitor type

(b) Dierential Capacitor type

Figure 1: Types of Capacitive Accelerometers

ADXL330 Accelerometer
The ADXL330 is a product of the company Analog Devices. It is a small, thin, low power, complete 3-axis accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage outputs, all on a single monolithic IC. It measures acceleration with a minimum full-scale range of 3 g. It can measure the static acceleration of gravity in tilt-sensing applications, as well as dynamic acceleration resulting from motion, shock, or vibration. Working The sensor is a polysilicon surface micromachined structure built on top of a silicon wafer. Polysilicon springs suspend the structure over the surface of the wafer and provide a resistance against acceleration forces. Deection of the structure is measured using a dierential capacitor that consists of independent xed plates and plates attached to the moving mass. Acceleration deects the moving mass and unbalances the dierential capacitor resulting in a sensor output whose amplitude is proportional to acceleration.

Figure 2: Principle of ADXL330 Accelerometer

Signal Conditioning The sensor has in-built signal conditioning circuitry to implement an openloop acceleration measurement architecture. Since the voltage change is small, it requires amplication and further conditioning so that it can appreciably

utilized. One main advantage of the ADXL330 sensor is that quantization errors and temperature hysteresis are negligible as there is no additional circuitry required for temperature compensation. The block diagram is provided in the following page.

Figure 3: ADXL330 Signal Conditioning

Specications The important specications of the accelerometer are given below: Measurement range: Minimum = 3 g Nonlinearity: 0.3% of full scale Sensitivity: 300 mV/g Sensitivity change due to temperature: 0.015 %o C Frequency Response: Bandwidth: X and Y: 1600 Hz ; Z: 550 Hz Sensor resonant frequency: 5.5kHz Power Supply: Voltage = 1.8 3.6 V ; Current = 320 A at 3V Operating Temperature Range = -25 - +70 o C

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Applications

Capacitive accelerometers are used in a wide range of applications. Automotive Applications include uses in Antilock Braking systems, Traction Control Systems, Vehicle Dynamics Control, Electronically Controlled Suspension, Tyre Pressure Monitoring, etc. They are also used for tilt monitoring in mobile 5

phones, monitoring the health condition of patients, seismic monitoring, inclinometer instruments, biomedical applications and many other applications. The ADXL330 accelerometer, more specically, is used to measure the respiration of patients. It is mounted on the back side of the ECG electrode clip. It detects the rise and fall of the chest due to respiration and adjusts for patient movement. It is immune from other medical equipment leakage currents and poor electrode connections that can create measurement interference. This situation is particularly a problem in environments where multiple pieces of medical equipment are hooked up simultaneously to the patient.

Figure 4: Application of ADXL330 Accelerometer

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Measurand: Angular Position and Speed

Sensing of rotational speed becomes important in many applications where an actuation is to be performed based on the amount or speed of rotation of a certain component. In these applications, rotational speed sensors are used. A rotational speed sensor is a type of tachometer which reads the speed of rotation of a wheel. Most of these sensors give their output as voltages. To achieve this, a number of transduction eects may be utilized. Some of the commonly used ones are Inductive, Magnetoresistive and Hall eect. In this report, the Hall eect rotational speed sensors will be discussed.

Hall Eect Rotational Speed Sensor


Hall Eect occurs when a strip of conducting material carries current in the presence of a transverse magnetic eld. This results in the generation of a potential perpendicular to both the magnetic eld and the electric current. Hall eect sensors can be used as analog motion sensing devices. When a change in the magnetic eld or the electric current owing through the conductor occurs, the output voltage varies, thus producing the transduction. Theory Consider a thin sheet of semiconductor material through which current is passed. When no magnetic eld is present, current distribution is uniform and no potential dierence is seen across the output. But, when a perpendicular magnetic eld is present, a Lorentz force is exerted on the current. This force disturbs the current distribution, resulting in a potential dierence (voltage) across the output. This voltage is the Hall voltage (VH ).

Figure 5: Hall Eect Principle

In a simple Hall eect sensor, the Hall element through which current is passed is present. The magnetic eld is applied by means of an electromagnet or a permanent magnet which is external to the sensor housing. In a rotational speed measuring application, the magnet used is a permanent ring magnet. This ring magnet is rotated with the shaft whose rpm is to be measured. The Hall eect sensor is xed in close proximity and radially to the ring magnet so that the magnetic eld lines are strong enough to produce the Hall voltage. As the ring magnet rotates with the motor, its south pole passes the sensing face of the Hall sensor with each revolution. The sensor is actuated when the south pole approaches the sensor and deactuated when the south pole moves away. Thus, a single digital pulse will be produced for each revolution.

Figure 6: Simple Hall Eect sensor

Honeywell SS461A sensor


The SS461A sensor, a product of Honeywell, is a latching Hall eect digital position sensor. It is used to latch the output states like bipolar switches and uses both positive and negative magnetic eld, such as that from a ring magnet. This sensor can be used in rotary position or speed sensing applications. Specications Supply voltage = 3.8-30 V Magnetic Actuation type: Bipolar latch Operating Temperature Range: -40oC to 150oC Output Voltage = 0.4V max Supply current = 7.5 mA 8

Output current = 20 mA

Signal Conditioning The signal conditioning circuitry in built in the SS461A sensor contains temperature compensation circuitry so that a thermally balanced integrated circuit over the full temperature range is achieved. It also provides band gap regulation resulting in extremely stable operation. In addition to these, it has the basic sensor requirements like the voltage regulator, amplication circuitry, etc. The basic diagram is given below.

(a) Analog

(b) Digital

Figure 7: Signal Conditioning Block Diagram of SS461A

Applications
Hall Eect sensors nd applications wherever ferrous elements are involved and magnets can be incorporated. They are widely used for position sensing, gear tooth sensing, current sensing, mechanically operated solid state switches, velocity sensing, etc. In this section, a specic application in which the rotational speed has to be sensed is discussed. In the manufacturing industry, a Hall Eect rpm sensor is used in brushless DC motors. Brushless DC motors are essentially brush-type motors turned inside out. Power is fed directly to the armature windings while a permanent magnet rotor is the rotating member. This can be either an inner or outer rotating member, depending on the motor design. The brushes and commutator of a DC motor are replaced by position sensors and electronic switching. In brushless motors, a Hall eect position sensor senses the position of the rotating magnet and excites the proper windings through logic and driver circuitry. Three Hall eect sensors are used for eective operation. The rotating permanent magnet moving across the front of the sensor causes it to change state. When each south pole passes the sensor, the sensor operates. The following gure shows the detailed operation of the sensor system. 9

Figure 8: Application of Hall eect Angular Position Sensors in Brushless DC Motors

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Measurand: Temperature

Temperature is one of the most common measurands that is encountered in the industry. Temperature sensing becomes a crucial part in an automated system because of the signicant eect it can have on materials and processes in the molecular level. Temperature sensors sense changes in the temperature of a system so that a suitable actuation can be performed. These sensors detect a change in a physical parameter such as resistance or output voltage that corresponds to the temperature change. The most commonly used temperature sensing techniques are RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors and sensor ICs. The choice depends on the required temperature range, linearity, accuracy, cost, features, and ease of designing the necessary support circuitry. In this report, IC temperature sensors are discussed.

Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor


Theory The Integrated Circuit temperature sensor is a silicon bandgap based temperature sensor that is very commonly used in electronic equipment. It works on the principle that the forward voltage of a silicon diode is temperature dependent. So, when the temperature varies, the forward voltage of the diode also

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Figure 9: Linearity of Silicon Temperature Sensors varies. Therefore, this type of temperature sensor is sometimes referred to as thermodiode. When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the mobility of their charge carriers changes and this aects the rate at which electrons and holes diuse across a p-n junction. Thus, when the p-n junction has a potential dierence V across it, the current I through the junction is a function of temperature. If we keep the current constant, the voltage becomes a function of temperature. This concept is made use of in an IC temperature sensor and the required transduction is obtained. This type of sensors are limited to applications where the temperature is within a range of -55oC to 150oC range. They generally come with in-built signal conditioning circuitry. They have the added advantage that no linearization or cold-junction compensation is required. The following graph compares the linearity of thermistors and thermodiodes. Equation The IC temperature sensor is based on the following equation:

VBE : Base Emitter Voltage T : Absolute Temperature

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LM35 Temperature Sensor


LM35 Temperature sensor is a product of National Semiconductor. It is a three terminal device that produces output voltages proportional to the temperature. It is an analog sensor that is calibrated directly in Celsius, thus making it easier to use. It does not require any external calibration or trimming and maintains an accuracy of +/-0.4 oC at room temperature and +/- 0.8 oC over a range of 0 oC to +100 oC. A standard LM35 sensor and its equivalent circuit are given below.

(a) Sensor

(b) Equivalent Circuit

Figure 10: The LM35 Temperature Sensor

Specications Supply Voltage = +35V to 0.2V Ouput Voltage = +6V to 1.0V Output Current = 10 mA Operating Temperature Range = 55C to +150C Accuracy = 0.2 at room temperature Sensitivity = 10mV/o C Non- linearity = 0.3

Applications
Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensors are widely used in electronic equipment for monitoring the temperature providing the signal for any required compensation operation. One such example is the use of these sensors in the CPU of personal computers to detect the temperature and accordingly turn on or turn o the cooling fan.

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Recent generations of personal computers dissipate a lot of power, which means they tend to run hot. The microprocessor and the hard disk drive are notable hot spots. Cooling fans help to keep heat under control, but if a fan fails, or if ventilation paths become blocked by dust or desk clutter, the temperature inside a computers case can get high enough to dramatically reduce the life of the internal components. High-performance personal computers and servers use temperature sensors on their motherboards to monitor system temperatures and avert system failure. The sensor senses the system temperature and turns a cooling fan on when the sensors temperature exceeds a preset value. The following circuit shows a simple temperature sensor operated PC fan.

Figure 11: IC Temperature Sensor used in PC cooling fan system

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Conclusion

In this report, we have seen the principle, working and application of three types of sensors used to sense three dierent measurands. There are numerous other measurands which are encountered regularly in the industry. Keeping this in mind, the complexity of any automatic mechatronic system can be comprehended. The three measurands discussed, viz. Acceleration (Vibration), Angular Position and Temperature, are some of the most important and crucial measurands in most systems. One transduction eect for each of these measurands has been discussed.

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References

Acceleration, Shock and Vibration Sensors, Newnes Sensor Technology Handbook, Dec. 2004 Small, Low Power, 3-Axis 3 g i MEMS Accelerometer ADXL330, Datasheet by Analog Devices Patient Respiration Measurement using a 3-Axis Accelerometer, Resources from www.analog.com Sensors and Transducers, Mechatronics System Design, Devdas Shetty and Richard Kolk, 1997 Honeywell Datasheet SS461A Honeywell Application Note Low Gauss Bipolar Eect Sensors Hall Eect Sensing and Control, Honeywell Application Note LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensors, Datasheet by National Semiconductor, Nov 2000 National Semiconductors Temperature Sensor Handbook Sensors and Transducers, Mechatronics, W. Bolton

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