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Palynology
Introduction
alynology ls Lhe sclence LhaL sLudles conLemporary and fossll palynomorphs lncludlng pollen spores
dlnoflagellaLe cysLs acrlLarchs chlLlnozoans and scolecodonLs LogeLher wlLh parLlculaLe organlc maLLer (CM) and
kerogen found ln sedlmenLary rocks and sedlmenLs
1he Lerm palynology was lnLroduced by Pyde and Wllllams ln 1944 followlng correspondence wlLh Lhe Swedlsh
geologlsL AnLevs ln Lhe pages of Lhe ollen Analysls Clrcular (one of Lhe flrsL [ournals devoLed Lo pollen analysls
and produced by aul Sears ln norLh Amerlca) Pyde and Wllllams chose palynology on Lhe basls of Lhe Creek
words paluno meanlng Lo sprlnkle and pale meanlng dusL (and Lhus slmllar Lo Lhe LaLln word pollen) 1hey used
Lhe Lerm palynology for Lhe sLudy of exLernal (morphologlcal) feaLures of maLure pollen gralns
alynology ls an lnLerdlsclpllnary sclence and ls a branch of earLh sclence (geology or geologlcal sclence) and
blologlcal sclence (blology) parLlcularly planL sclence (boLany) SLraLlgraphlcal palynology ls a branch of
mlcropalaeonLology and paleoboLany whlch sLudles fossll palynomorphs from Lhe recambrlan Lo Lhe Polocene
History
Mohl (1833) classlfled Lhe pollen gralns accordlng Lo Lhelr aperLures aperLure membranes eLc Carl !ullus lrlLzsche
whose paper 'ueber den ollen' publlshed ln 1837 conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe sLudy of pollen gralns wlLh lllusLraLlons and
accuraLe descrlpLlons Pugo llscher (1890) descrlbed Lhe deLalls of exlne ln a number of planLs 1he modern era of
pollen analysls and Lhe subsequenL developmenL of palynology sLarLs wlLh LennarL von osL's lecLure on
CuaLernary deposlLs ln 1916 8oger Wodehouse's classlc 'ollen Cralns' was publlshed ln 1933 LrdLman's
'ollen Morphology and lanL 1axonomy' publlshed ln 1932 ls a monumenLal work ln palynology 1exL 8ook of
ollen Analysls" of laegrl and lvesen (1964) ls anoLher lmporLanL work on prlnclples of pollen analysls 1he advenL
of elecLron mlcroscopy puL new lmpeLus Lo Lhe sLudy of Lhe flner deLalls of Lhe enLlre pollen gralns and spores
Brancbes
alynology can be dlvlded lnLo 8aslc (lundamenLal) and Applled alynology 8aslc alynology deals wlLh pollen and
spore morphology Lhe physlcal and chemlcal properLles of sporoderm as well as Lhe correlaLlon beLween
palynology and cyLology lL also lncludes LheoreLlcal aspecLs of applled palynology
Applled alynology deals wlLh applled aspecLs of Lhe palynology lL lncludes
O alynoLaxonomy Lhe sLudy of pollen morphology wlLh relaLlon Lo Lhe planL Laxonomy
O Ceo or alaeopalynology Lhe sLudy of fossll pollen gralns or spores
O MellLLopalynology Lhe sLudy of pollen gralns found ln honey
O Aeropalynology Lhe sLudy of frequency and dlsLrlbuLlon of spores ln Lhe alr
O laLropalynology Lhe sLudy of medlcal aspecLs of palynology speclally Lhe allergles
O harmacopalynology Lhe sLudy of roles of pollen gralns and spores ln drugs
O Copropalynology Lhe sLudy of pollen gralns and spores ln excremenLs
O lorenslc palynology appllcaLlon of pollen gralns as an ald ln crlmlnology and crlme deLecLlon

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\\ications
lmporLance of pollen ln Lhe lmprovemenL of planLs was recognlzed as early as 717 8C by Assyrlan arLlsans AnclenL
lndlan classlcs conLaln some reference abouL Lhe refreshlng pollen baLh of lndlan laburnum (Cassla flsLula) 1he
cosmeLlc chesLs of LgypLlan queens are belleged Lo have conLalned pollen powder for faclal care ollen culL was
developed by Amerlcan lndlans who consldered pollens of caLLall (1ypha) and corn as an emblem of peace
happlness and prosperlLy
ollens are also used as human food by some people Amerlcan lndlans use pollens of 1ypha for preparlng pollen
soup or gruel lew Lrlbes of new Zealand lndla and aklsLan use 1ypha pollens as food by mlxlng wlLh waLer Lo
form cakes and baked 1he medlclnal lmporLance of pollen and spores was long recognlzed MenLlon may be made
of Lycopodlum spores used by Lhe anclenL Arablan physlclans Lo cure sLomach dlsorders spores of AdlanLum
hlllpplnes used ln leprosy and skln dlseases pollens of 1ypha laxmanll used as asLrlngenL Cycas clrclnalls as
narcoLlc 8ee collecLed pollens mlxed wlLh coffee mllk honey poLaLoes and chocolaLes are prescrlbed Lo cure
many dlsorders ln chlldren
Slgnlflcance of pollen ln agrlculLure has been recognlzed ln recenL Llmes SelecLlon of pollen wlLh Lhe deslred
poLenLlal from deslred lndlvlduals of any one crop populaLlon ls consldered as an essenLlal prerequlslLe for planL
breedlng SLorage of pollen ls as lmporLanL as sLorage of seeds ln malnLalnlng planL geneLlc resources ln many
research lnsLlLuLes Lhe haplold planLs are used for Lhe malnLenance of geneLlc sLock lL ls clalmed by Chlnese and
!apanese sclenLs LhaL haplold planLs of rlce (Cryza saLlva) developed from pollens have been Lransferred from LesL
Lubes Lo fleld condlLlons ln some counLrles sLored pollens are dlssemlnaLed over crop flelds by means of sprayers
drawn by LracLors or by breaklng ollen bombs or by hand on days wlLh moderaLely hlgh wlnds Successful
polllnaLlon ensures abundanL frulL sulL and lncreased seed producLlon
ollens are ldeal maLerlal for experlmenLally conLrolllng Lhe geneLlc behavlor of planLs L produce more and more
useful hybrlds ollen lrradlaLlon ls used Lo meeL Lhe problems of lnLraspeclflc or lnLerspeclflc lncompaLlblllLy by
lnduclng deslred muLaLlonal changes ln Lhe pollen genome lnducLlon of male sLerlllLy becomes a boon ln crosslng
self polllnaLed planLs llke grapes
Aeropalynologlcal sLudles of aeropollens have new vlsLa ln conLrolllng Lhe weed and has been pracLlced
successfully ln Lngland
SLudy of honey pollens provldes lnformaLlon abouL Lhe planLs from whlch Lhe necLar and pollens have been
gaLhered Such sLudles can deLecL adulLeraLlon ln honey Sharma and nalr (1963) sLaLed LhaL lf honey conLalns 30
percenL of more pollens of one planL lL should be called unlfloral honey oLherwlse lL should be referred Lo as
MulLlfloral honey
alynology ls used for a dlverse range of appllcaLlons relaLed Lo many sclenLlflc dlsclpllnes
O 8losLraLlgraphy and geochronology CeologlsLs use palynologlcal sLudles ln blosLraLlgraphy Lo correlaLe
sLraLa and deLermlne Lhe relaLlve age of a glven bed horlzon formaLlon or sLraLlgraphlcal sequence
O alaeoecology and cllmaLe change alynology can be used Lo reconsLrucL pasL vegeLaLlon (land planLs)
and marlne and freshwaLer phyLoplankLon communlLles and so lnfer pasL envlronmenLal
(palaeoenvlronmenLal) and palaeocllmaLlc condlLlons
O Crganlc palynofacles sLudles whlch examlne Lhe preservaLlon of Lhe parLlculaLe organlc maLLer and
palynomorphs provldes lnformaLlon on Lhe deposlLlonal envlronmenL of sedlmenLs and deposlLlonal
palaeoenvlronmenLs of sedlmenLary rocks

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O CeoLhermal alLeraLlon sLudles examlne Lhe colour of palynomorphs exLracLed from rocks Lo glve Lhe
Lhermal alLeraLlon and maLuraLlon of sedlmenLary sequences whlch provldes esLlmaLes of maxlmum
palaeoLemperaLures
O Llmnology sLudles lreshwaLer palynomorphs and anlmal and planL fragmenLs lncludlng Lhe
praslnophyLes and desmlds (green algae) can be used Lo sLudy pasL lake levels and long Lerm cllmaLe
change
O 1axonomy and evoluLlonary sLudles
O lorenslc palynology Lhe sLudy of pollen and oLher palynomorphs for evldence aL a crlme scene
O Allergy sLudles SLudles of Lhe geographlc dlsLrlbuLlon and seasonal producLlon of pollen can help
sufferers of allergles such as hay fever
O Mellssopalynology Lhe sLudy of pollen and spores found ln honey
O Archaeologlcal alynology examlnes human uses of planLs ln Lhe pasL 1hls can help deLermlne seasonallLy
of slLe occupaLlon presence or absence of agrlculLural pracLlces or producLs and planLrelaLed acLlvlLy
areas wlLhln an archaeologlcal conLexL 8onflre ShelLer ls one such example of Lhls appllcaLlon
8ecause Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of acrlLarchs chlLlnozoans dlnoflagellaLe cysLs pollen and spores provldes evldence of
sLraLlgraphlcal correlaLlon Lhrough blosLraLlgraphy and palaeoenvlronmenLal reconsLrucLlon one common and
lucraLlve appllcaLlon of palynology ls ln oll and gas exploraLlon
alynology also allows sclenLlsLs Lo lnfer Lhe cllmaLlc condlLlons from Lhe vegeLaLlon presenL ln an area Lhousands
or mllllons of years ago 1hls ls a fundamenLal parL of research lnLo cllmaLe change
etbods of Study
lor Lhe sLudy of Lhelr exLernal morphology pollen slldes are prepared by aceLolysls as suggesLed by LrdLman
(1932)
lolyoomotpbs ote btooJly JefloeJ os otqoolcwolleJ mlctofosslls betweeo 5 ooJ 500 mlctomettes lo slze 1bey ote
exttocteJ ftom tocks ooJ seJlmeots botb pbyslcolly by wet slevloq ofteo oftet olttosoolc tteotmeot ooJ
cbemlcolly by osloq cbemlcol Jlqestloo to temove tbe ooootqoolc ftoctloo lot exomple polyoomotpbs moy be
exttocteJ osloq byJtocblotlc oclJ (ncl) to Jlqest cotbooote mloetols ooJ byJtoflootlc oclJ (nl) to Jlqest slllcote
mloetols lo soltoble fome copbootJs lo speclollst lobotototles
Samples are Lhen mounLed on mlcroscope slldes and examlned uslng llghL mlcroscopy or scannlng elecLron
mlcroscopy Cnce Lhe pollen gralns have been ldenLlfled Lhey can be ploLLed on a pollen dlagram whlch ls Lhen
used for lnLerpreLaLlon ollen dlagrams are useful ln glvlng evldence of pasL human acLlvlLy (anLhropogenlc
lmpacL) vegeLaLlon hlsLory and cllmaLlc hlsLory
alynology uses many Lechnlques from oLher relaLed flelds such as geology boLany paleonLology archaeology
pedology and geography
oen or\boogy
ollen morphology deals malnly wlLh Lhe walls of pollen gralns and spores and noL wlLh Lhelr llvlng conLenLs
1he pollen wall has a very complex sLrucLure LhaL ls reflecLlve of LhaL speclflc specles funcLlonal adapLaLlons 1he
exlne ls Lhe ouLer layer of a llvlng pollen graln lL ls composed of sporopollenln wlLh small quanLlLles of

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polysaccharldes Sporopollenln ls very chemlcally sLable and lL ls reslsLanL Lo almosL all klnds of envlronmenLal
damage lL ls equlpped wlLh aperLures lL lL dlvlded lnLo Lwo sub layers Lhe ouLermosL sexlne and Lhe
unsculpLured underlylng nexlne 1he sexlne has surfaces LhaL are sculpLured ln elaboraLe ways wlLh reLlculaLely
arranged perforaLlons 1hese glve Lhe exlne and amorphous or granular appearance 1he lnner layer of a llvlng
pollen graln ls called Lhe lnLlne lL ls composed of cellulose and ls very slmllar ln consLrucLlon Lo ordlnary planL cell
walls A layer called Lhe endexlne separaLes Lhe sexlne and lnLlne 1he endexlne has a lamlnaLed appearance
ollen gralns are generally classlfled accordlng Lo Lhelr physlcal appearance 1here are Lhree crlLerla of
classlflcaLlon 1) Lhe number and poslLlon of Lhe aperLures 2) Lhe shape of Lhe pollen graln as a whole and 3) Lhe
flne elaboraLe sLrucLure on Lhe sexlne AperLures are any mlsslng parLs of Lhe exlne whlch are lndependenL of Lhe
exlne paLLern AperLures are blg and Lhey cuL across Lhe flne sLrucLure paLLern on Lhe surface of Lhe pollen graln
1here are Lwo Lypes of aperLures porl or pores are mosLly lsodlameLrlc aperLures alLhough Lhe can be sllghLly
elongaLed wlLh rounded ends colpl or furrows are long and boaL shaped wlLh polnLed ends Colpl are LhoughL Lo
be more prlmlLlve ln llvlng pollen gralns Lhese aperLures are noL acLually open lnsLead a very Lhln layer of exlne
covers Lhem Cralns wlLh porl are called poraLe Lhose wlLh culpl are called culpaLe and Lhose wlLh boLh porl and
culpl are called colporaLe lf Lhelr aperLures are arranged equldlsLanLly around Lhe equaLor of Lhe pollen gralns
Lhey are asslgned Lhe preflx zono lf Lhey are scaLLered all over Lhe surface of Lhe pollen graln Lhey are asslgned
Lhe preflx panLo 1he number of aperLures ls also lndlcaLed by preflxes mono for one aperLure dl for Lwo
aperLures Lrl for Lhree aperLures and so on

1he shape of a pollen graln refers Lo Lhe shape of Lhelr ouLllne ln polar and equaLorlal vlews 1he shape of a graln
can someLlmes be useful ln ldenLlfylng of pollen specles buL noL usually
1he sculpLure refers Lo Lhe flne sLrucLure and paLLern of Lhe sexlne lL ls composed of small radlally dlrecLed rods
lf Lhese rods supporL someLhlng (such as a plaLe or a small knob) Lhey are called columnellae lf Lhey do noL
supporL anyLhlng Lhey are called bacula 1he shape of Lhe rods can furLher classlfy Lhem lf Lhey are club shaped
Lhey are called clavae lf Lhey are sharply polnLed Lhey are called echlnae lf Lhey have swollen heads Lhey are
called plla and lf Lhey are shorL and globular Lhey are called gemmae 1here are many more classlflcaLlons for Lhe
shape of rods on Lhe surface of Lhe sexlne buL Lhese four are Lhe mosL common
ln general characLers of pollens are sLudled under Lhe dlvlslons pollen unlLs polarlLy symmeLry aperLures slze
and shape exlne sLraLlflcaLlon and exlne palynogram
oen Units
Slngle pollen gralns and spores whlch when maLure do noL remaln unlLed wlLh oLher polleng ralns and spores
whlch are referred Lo as monads lf pollen gralns are unlLed ln palrs Lhey are called dyas (Scheuchzerla palusLrls
podosLemonaceae) A LeLrad conslsLs of four pollen gralns An ocLad of elghL a polyad of more Lhan elghL pollen
gralns are also found
1eLrads can be caLegorlzed as follows
O 1eLrahedral one of polleng ralsn lylng cenLrally over Lhe oLher Lhree (urlmys)
O 1eLragonal (lsobllaLeral) all pollen gralns ln one plane blunLly quadrangular (MonocoLyledons)
O 8homboldal (Anona murlcaLa)
O uecussaLe (Cross) pollen gralns palrwlse aL rlghL angles Lo each oLher (Magnolla randlflora)

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O 1shaped Lhe flrsL dlvlslon of Lhe MC ls ransverse and a dyad cell ls formed elLher Lhe upper or Lhe
lower dyad cell undergles verLlcal or longlLudlnal Lo yleld lnverLed 1shaped conflguraLlon (ArlsLolochla)
O Llnear Lhe flrsL dlvlslon ls always Lransverse and glves rlse Lo dyad cells and second dlvlslon also
Lransverse Lo glve llnear arrangemenL (Mlmosa pudlca)

ln sedges (cyperaceae) monad llke LeLrads are formed wlLhouL dlvldlng walls beLween Lhe four componenLs Cne
nucleus ls normally developed whereas Lhe remalnlng Lhree are obllLeraLed Such Lype of degraded LeLrad ls called
pseudomonad
ln Mlmosaceae each of Lhe Lrad cells dlvldes once or Lwlce and Lhese arlses a massulae of elghL Lo 64 cells whlch
remaln LogeLher afLer maLurlLy (buL noL Lhe enLlre producL of one Lheca) 1hey consLlLuLe a small unlLs and also
called polyads

ln polllnlum a unlL of all gralns produced by one Lheca (locule lnslde Lhe anLher) aggregaLe LogeLher Lo form one
slngle unlL An enLlre pollen mass of a Lhecal chamber form Lhe polllnlum 1he polllnlum apparaLus ls Lhe funcLlonal
unlL of a corpusculum wlLh lLs Lwo aLLached arms and polllnla (CaloLropls Crchldaceae)
oarity
All pollen gralns have a LeLrad sLage durlng developmenL lL ls aL Lhls sLage LhaL polarlLy ls deLermlned AL Lhe
LeLrad sLage Lhe end of a pollen dlrecLed Lowards Lhe cenLre of LeLrad ls called proxlmal pole whlle opposlLe ls Lhe
dlsLal pole 1he dlsal pole faces perlpheral slde 1he polar axls ls always perpendlcular wlLh Lhe dlsLal pole aL Lhe
ape and Lhe proxlmal pole aL Lhe base 1he cenLre of each paL ls called pole and Lhe lmaglnary sLralghL llne Lhrough
Lhe poles ls called Lhe polar axls and each plane Lhrough Lhls axls ls a polar plane 1he border llne beLween Lhe
dlsLanL parL and Lhe proxlmal parL of Lhe polen graln ls Lhe equaLor and Lhe plane Lhrough Lhe equaLor ls called Lhe
equaLorlal plane



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ollen gralns may be
O Apolar pollen gralns wlLhouL dlsLlncL polarlLy for example spheroldal gralns LhaL ls wlLhouL dlscernlble
poles once Lhe gralns have been separaLed from Lhe pollen LeLrads
O olar pollen gralns wlLh recognlzable poles even afLer Lhe gralns have been separaLed from Lhe pollen
LeLrad
ln lsopolar gralns Lhe dlsLal and proxlmal poles look 'allke' ln heLeropolar Lhe Lwo faces are essenLlally dlfferenL
Cralns whlch have more or less curved equaLorlal plane and possess only sllghL dlfferences beLween Lhe dlsLal and
proxlmal faces (one conves and oLher concave) may be Lermed paralsopolar (sublsopolar) ln llnear LeLrad Lhere ls
no polarlLy ln Lhe usual sense of Lhe Lerm
Symmetry
lL ls Lhe quallLy lnherenL ln a body whlch ls capable of dlvlslon lnLo slmllar or equal halves Spores may be
symmeLry belng bllaLeral or radlal ln radlosymmeLrlc spores Lhe shape ls such LhaL any plane lncludlng Lhe polar
axls LhaL posses Lhrough wlll produce ldenLlcal halves 8llaLeral spores have Lwo verLlcal planes of symmeLry Some
spores are asymmeLrlc (wlLh no symmeLry aL all) Some spores possess flxed shape (flxlform) whlle some are
wlLhouL a flxed shape (nonflxlform)
Sba\e
Accordlng Lo LrdLman radlally symmeLrlcal pollen gralns are shaped llke a roLaLlon elllpsold wlLh Lhe polar axls as
Lhe axls of roLaLlon 1he shape ls calculaLed by Laklng measuremenLs of polar axls () and Lhe maxlmum breadLh (L)
ln Lhe equaLorlal vlew of Lhe graln and applylng Lhe formula /L x 100 1he vale obLalned glves Lhe shape
1he shape classes are as follows
Shape C|asses ]L k 100
erob|ate 30
Cb|ate 30 73
Subsphero|da| 73 133
Subob|ate 73 88
Cb|ate sphero|da| 88 100
ro|ate sphero|da| 100 114
Subpro|ate 114 133
ro|ate 133 200
erpro|ate 200

Confervold gralns (flllform fllamenLous) are descrlbed as long slmple one walled Lhreads arranged ln parallel
masses equallylng Lhe anLher ln lengLh and Lendlng Lo becoe very Langled when dlsLurbed (ZosLera sp)