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Running head: Motivation

Literature Review: Theories of Motivation

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Running head: Motivation Abstract Motivation can be defined as the inner driving force behind all the actions of an individual to accomplish personal and organizational goals. The influences of an individuals behavior, need and desire have a strong impact on the direction of their motivation. This paper will discuss the theories and practices of motivation from known theorists. The processes of designing and implementing behavior based, need based and desire based motivation has been studied throughout the years to help managers and organizations reach their goals and missions; however, not without the interest of their employees. The processes also focus on the different forms of motivation such as extrinsic, intrinsic, physiological, and achievement motivation. The importance of knowing the negative forms of motivation is just as important as building and design a learning program for motivating individuals.

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Running head: Motivation Overview of Motivation Motivation can be defined as the driving force behind all the actions of an individual. The importance of an individual's needs and desires both have a strong impact on the direction of their behavior. Motivation is based on the emotions and achievement that one relates to their goals and is the drive for all their actions. Extrinsic, intrinsic, physiological, and achievement motivation are just a few of the different forms of motivation. Through achievement motivation people believe they have a need to succeed or to reach their highest level they can. Individuals will go through different mean to satisfy their needs. They are driven to succeed for many reasons ranging from both internal and external factors. Motivation refers to the energy or force of individuals behavior, which can be influenced by needs, desires, or ambitions in life. Basic physiological motivation drives each individuals natural forms of behavior in different environments. To reach ones goals that are incentive- based and can vary from the basic need for love to the establishment of mature a relationship. Motivation is important because it affects each persons life, every day. Without a basic understanding of motivational drives, people can be susceptible to negative forms of motivation. Behavioral Based Motivation Edward Lee Thorndikes theoretical statement of the law of effect explains that a reinforced result will ultimately determine the effect on an individual. The situation evokes a variety of responses; one response happens to be followed by satisfaction; the satisfier stamps in a connection or bond between the situation and the response; and as a result, when the same situation is presented, the response is more likely to occur (Nevin, 1999, p. 447). However,

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Running head: Motivation Thorndikes explanation of the bond is important for two reasons. The first reason is that it proposes a mechanism for understanding the history of the individuals reinforcement from previous experimental situations into a possible new response in the next experiment. Thorndikes law suggests that the duration of an individuals experiment should at least have maintained its same level of performance because the same pattern has continuously been used and has developed a previous reinforce. Others believe that performance should continue to improve. Thorndike has found that the length of training is another variable that should affect the strength of the S-R bond. This means that when training with responses, a possible reinforcement can select the response but still make responding more resistant to change in the training situation. Response-specific reinforce devaluation both reflects the current reinforcer value and tests resistance to change based on the redevaluation history of reinforcement (Nevin, 1999, p.450). Basically, resistance to change reflects the strength of the S-R bond. B.F. Skinners Behavior Modification was a lot like Thorndikes Law of Effect but Skinner focused on reinforcement, punishment and extinction. To understand Skinners research, one must understand his attempt to solve the psychology problem with mind-body dualism in the conceptual scheme of everyday mentalism; explanatory and experiential. Dualism is the concept that our mind is more than our brain. In Skinners theory, dualism weakens the connection between which sciences differ from one another through multi levels of observation but share an assumption of lawfulness and set methods. Skinner interprets the mentalistic language as referring to, representing, reducible to, translated as, or implying physical variables rather than the implied mental states (Zuriff, 2003, p.347). This is Skinners correct meaning of the verbal behavior. His theory suggests that a set of variables control the meaning of

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Running head: Motivation a verbal response. Thru verbal response, Skinners approach to mentalism is not to just interpret such language in its terms of behavioral meaning. If one simply interprets the language it allows talk about explanatory fictions. Skinners theory provides little that would give meaning the behavior science. If statements [about the intention of an act] are useful for scientific purposes, they must be based upon observable events, and we may confine ourselves to such events exclusively in a functional analysis (Zuriff, 2003, p.348). Skinner was an explicator that interpreted many mentalistic descriptions by showing that verbal behaviors are mostly under the control of a set of environmental variables. The environmental variables control the verbal behavior and the behavior being described. Skinner believed these variables are useful in a functional analysis. Skinner was able to justify how many of the concepts impact an individuals everyday mentalistic conceptual scheme such as intention, purpose, and meaning without having their dualistic implication. He did feel that this justification may not be possible for all descriptive mentalism (Zuriff, 2003). Skinners approach to explanatory mentalism (consequences that follow ones behavior) is to replace the total mentalistic conceptual schemes (consequences from past behaviors) with the behaviorist one. Thru these changes, one would experience radical change in their verbal behavior. Finally, Skinners strategy was to suggest an alternative argument of behaviorist explanations for complex behavior based on a behavioral theory. Victor Vrooms primary research is the expectancy theory of motivation. Vrooms theory provides explanation of why people follow a course of actions from their motivations. According to Vrooms theory an individual will be motivated to do a particular task depending upon on three forces. Vrooms called these three forces valence, expectancy and instrumentality (Walkley,

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Running head: Motivation 2008). He believed that the combination of these forces will determine an individual's overall level of motivation. Valence is a measure of how much an individual wants in return form the outcome of a situation. The valence will be positive as long as the outcome is desirable. Praise, promotion, recognition and pay rises are examples of positive valence. These are valences that people generally want to happen. However, the valence can be negative if an individual believes that the outcome will lead to something they don't want such as stress, undesired emotions or tiredness (Walkley, 2008). In a work environment, manages must understand the significance of valence and learn what their employees values. Not everyone wants the same rewards. Managers learn that a reward for one employee may have a high valence but the same reward does not appeal to another employee. Understanding Vrooms theory, managers also learn that there are ranges of rewards and not specifically at a cost. Often, individuals want rewards that don't cost in terms of money but at a cost of recognition. Just by saying 'thank you' or 'well done' may be a significant reward for many people. In addition, giving employees special consideration in personal circumstances such as family emergencies or anything involving loved one may have a strong valance for that employee. Recognizing the growth and want for growth in employees and allowing them the opportunity to attend training courses form a positive valence. The second element in Vroom's theory is expectancy which measures how much an employee believes they can complete a given task satisfactorily or matching the right task to the right person. Employees will have different expectations and level of confidence about what they are able to do. Managers will need to realize if an employee feels they can satisfactorily complete a task. If their expectancy is low, their motivation will be low. To improve motivation, a manager will need to work the right resources, training or supervision an employee needs and

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Running head: Motivation communicate with employees so they know that these are provided to them (Walkley, 2008). In addition, it is important to pair an individual with tasks that they are capable of doing. To avoid boredom and frustration from an employee, managers want to pair them with tasks that are reasonably challenging. However, if the task is too challenging an employee may still have a low expectancy, reducing their overall motivation. If this were to happen, the task should be modified and the necessary support given. There are employees that may suffer low self-esteem. Managers need to know how to be a mentor to their employees to reassure them of their capabilities. Maintaining a relationship with employees allows managers to recognize what motivates their employees or lack thereof. The last concept in Vrooms theory is instrumentality which measures the extent to which an employee believes that with a successful completion of a task, they will receive an expected outcome. With this view in the mind of employees, managers need to ensure that promises of rewards will be fulfilled. Reward systems that are implemented and followed through, employees will put in more effort knowing their hard work will lead to a desired outcome. They will not try as hard if they think that the promised rewards will not be available. Vrooms theory shows that instrumentality helps to explain why it is important not to raise employees' expectations unnecessarily because expectations can be huge motivators. Need Based Behavior Maslow is best known for his hierarchy of human needs which he called this theory of motivation. First, individuals must understand that there is a difference between learning and motivation. Learning is permitting a change in behavior with experience, whereas motivation,

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Running head: Motivation thru Maslows hierarchy of needs, is understanding what causes a person to want to change their behavior. Maslows theory explains that every person is born with a basic set of needs; physiological, safety needs, belongingness (love), self-esteem and self-actualization (Madden & Wilson, 2008). As the lower needs are met or satisfied, the individuals higher needs emerge/become active. A basic understanding is that in the levels of Maslows five basic needs, a person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the second has been satisfied, and soon. If motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worth it for a manager to understand which needs are the more important for each individual employee to help fulfill their motivation. With this in mind, Abraham Maslow developed a model where low-level needs such as physiological and safety requirements must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-esteem and selfachievement are approached. In Maslows hierarchical model, when a need is mostly satisfied it is no longer a motivation and the next need in order takes its place. Maslows hierarchy of needs, individuals must satisfy theirs needs in the following order: physiological, safety, social needs, self-esteem and self-actualization. Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as air, water and food. These are basic needs an individual needs for their body to function. Without providing the body its need, the higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not even attempted. Once physiological needs are met individuals then embark on a quest to satisfying their safety needs in order to free their needs from any form of threat which may come from physical or emotional harm. These needs are satisfied by living in a safe area, the right insurance, job security or even financial savings. According to Maslow's hierarchy, if a person feels that they are in any way in harm that their higher needs will not

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Running head: Motivation receive attention. Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level needs then become important. The first of the higher needs is social needs. Social needs include interaction with other people and may include the need for friends, the need for belonging, or the need to give and receive love. Once an individual fulfills their need to belong, they then have the need to want to be important. This is the next level higher needs; self-esteem. Self-esteem needs can be classified as internal or external. Internal esteem needs are self-respect and achievement. External esteem needs are social status and recognition. Maslow later refined his model to include a level between esteem needs and self-actualization: the need for knowledge and aesthetics (Madden & Wilson, 2008). The final basic need and the highest need is selfactualization. Self-actualization is the need to reach one's full potential. Unlike lower level needs, self-actualization is never fully satisfied. As an individual grows psychologically they will always have new opportunities to continue to grow. People meeting their self-actualization needs tend to want truth, justice, wisdom and meaning. Self-actualized people have reached moments of happiness and harmony which are displayed through peak experiences. Job Based Behavior The attitudes of individuals capture the extent of which they will favorably evaluate their own behavior. With the individuals evaluation of their behavior and the combination of instrumental and valence beliefs, their behavior will lead to favorable outcomes. The main assumption of equity theory is that employees are motivated when their efforts, knowledge, skill and loyalty (inputs) are matched by pay, bonuses, benefits and recognition (outputs) that helps to create a sense of equity or fairness within the organization (Grant & Shinn, 2011). When

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Running head: Motivation employees feel that their outputs do not equal their inputs, they become unvalued and distressed causing them to reduce their inputs. The behavior of employees that are distressed can have an effect on others within their work group and can cause a ripple effect on co-workers behaviors. On the other hand, employees who feel they receive high outputs, tend to increase their inputs which are visible to others in the organization. Issues have been acknowledged in the equity theory on how employees and organizations handle inconsistencies from the different perceptions of high equity with star performers and low equity with low performers. The research has shown that the perceived low equity can outweigh the performance of the high equity. Goal-setting theory focuses on motivation to effectively reach ones goals or to reach a target thru the expectancy theory. It has been found in research that depending upon the task, the motivation of the employee may differ. More complex tasks deferred the employees from wanting to attempt the task due to the fear of failure. Starting with simple tasks and working with the employee and building them up to attempt the harder task is more prominent in motivating the employee. One of the main approaches to motivation based on job need is job enrichment that is based on the Job Characteristics Model, which proposes that motivation, satisfaction, performance quality, and withdrawal behaviors such as absenteeism and turnover are a function of three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of results (Grant & Shinn, 2011, p.13). Experienced meaningfulness is the variety of skills an individual has, the ability to complete a task from start to finish and the

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Running head: Motivation ability to impact others. Experienced responsibility is having the freedom to on how to complete ones work and understanding the results of the information from the task. These can vary from individual to individual depending upon their need to grow their job strengths. In addition, selfdetermination theory has helped organizations understand the basic psychological needs of their employees. It has also been used to resolve controversies on how rewards and incentives have more of a positive effect than a negative effect on employees (Grant & Shinn, 2011). Fredrick Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation suggests that circumstances make people unsatisfied at work, also known as hygiene factors and circumstances that make people satisfied, also know n as motivating factors. Through hygiene individuals and organizations can promote physical, mental, and emotional health. If either one lack one of these it presents them with dissatisfying situations. In working environments, hygiene satisfies employees through policies, safety, relationships and compensation. Organizations who maintain this environment help employees to be less stressed, more open and feel valued; helping to build their motivation in the organization. One question Herzberg asked in his research was What makes you feel bad about your job? (Tokarev, 2010). This questioned helped to find the reasons for peoples pain and frustration in their job and how to avoid the pain. How one views their job and their satisfaction is the key motivator. Factors that create unhappiness will promote unhappiness. If an employee does not feel they are being compensated or treated the same as their co-workers who are doing the same job, they may become dissatisfied. On the other hand, factors that create happiness will promote happiness. Employees value recognition, achievements, work environments and advancement. Motivators intrinsically promote satisfaction, and according to Herzberg, managers encourage these factors in order to increase profitability through greater

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Running head: Motivation creativity and commitment in employees (Tokarev, 2010, p. 1). The underlying dynamic with motivation is psychological growth. People want to be happiness with what they do for a living and not complete miserable. Employees that feel they are chosen for a particular job may become stimulated knowing that the organization has much faith and confidence that they will perform the job to their expectations. Conclusion Motivation is part of our everyday life. Throughout the years, many forms of research have been conducted to understand the factors that cause an individual to be motivated. Motivation is a form that helps to satisfy a need in us and each need is linked to one another. To understand the needs motivator, we must understand the behavior behind the need. As well as with job based motivations, are better understood with knowing ones behavior and need motivators. The research over the years from great scholars has paved the way to understanding and providing perspectives into the multicultural communities. The work of Thorndike, Skinner, Vroom, Maslow and Herzberg have developed theories that acknowledge different types of motivation to understand what the minimum standards are to motivate people. Whether a persons understanding of motivation is from great scholars or current research, managers are and should continue to improve morale of their employees working environment. I have drawn much understanding of what motivates an individual to do what they do and why they do what they do. I have mostly come to understand my own based motivators. Vrooms expectancy theory has helped me to realize how high or low I should hold expectations for myself and others. If I have high expectations for someone and they are not holding up to them,

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Running head: Motivation now know that I need to look and understand their behavior needs. Not everything is cut and dry. There are reasons behind the actions of everyone and those reasons are motivators. Maslows higher hierarchical model provided a great understanding of what we put first and the order in which we put those needs. I have taken for granted that in order for all five needs to be satisfied that they start from basic needs to higher needs. Again through understanding Maslows research, I know how and why such needs must be satisfied. It was noted in the article that once one need was satisfied it ceased to motivate. This drew a question that I would like to continue to research. If one of the needs was disrupted, would the needs base higher hierarchical start over from the disrupted need? In todays economy, many people are experiencing the need to just provide the basic needs for their families. This leads to job based behavior. I have been able to relate job need behaviors to actual situations that I have experienced over the last few years with the down turn of the economy. Herzbergs theory gave insight to why people want reassurance and recognition for their work well done. Also, employees want to feel that their job is secure and with communication and feedback, they know what they need to do to grow in their position or if they need to look at different opportunities. Over the years people have had to take pay decreases and even though it may have caused dissatisfaction, organizations and managers can create satisfying motivators by providing a safe environment, recognition and possibilities for advancement. Most importantly, I have learned and can take with me for future circumstances is the understanding of behaviors from co-workers, subordinates, managers and even myself. To be an effect manager or leader, I will be able to use all the information from the literature to be

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Running head: Motivation proactive and reactive to situations that may arise in keeping all motivated not just for the benefit of my organization but for themselves.

References Used Grant, A. M., & Shin, J. 2011. Work motivation: Directing, energizing, and maintaining effort (and research). Forthcoming in R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of motivation. Oxford University Press. Madsen, S. & Wilson, I. (2008). The Influence of Maslow's Humanistic Views on an Employee's Motivation to Learn. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 4662. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/pqdlink Nevin, J. A. (1999). Analyzing Thorndikes Law of Effect: The Question of Stimulus-Response Bonds. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 72(3): 447450. Retrieve from http://rx9vh3hy4r.search.serialssolutions.com Tokarev, S. (2010). Two-Factor Theory of Motivation: American Business Retrieved from http://american-business.org/827-two-factor-theory-of-motivation.html

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Running head: Motivation Walkley, L. (2008). Vroom's expectancy theory: how to motivate employees is an important issue for managers. Not surprisingly, there are many different theories on the subject. Lisa Walkley examinees Vroom's expectancy theory. Business Review (UK). 14(4). 24. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/retrieve.do Zuriff, G.E. (2003). Science and Human Behavior, Dualism, and Conceptual Modification. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 2003 November; 80(3): 345352.