Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003) 14631487

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Recuperator considerations for future higher eciency microturbines

Colin F. McDonald
*

McDonald Thermal Engineering, 1730 Castellana Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA Received 3 December 2002; accepted 20 March 2003

Abstract First-generation microturbines are based on the use of existing materials and proven technology, and with low levels of compressor pressure ratio and modest turbine inlet temperatures, have thermal eciencies approaching 30% for turbogenerators rated up to 100 kW. For such small machines the goal of advancing beyond this level of performance is unlikely to include more complex thermodynamic cycles, but rather will be realised with higher turbine inlet temperatures. Advancing engine performance in this manner has a signicant impact on recuperator technology and cost. In the compact heat exchanger eld very ecient heat transfer surface geometries have been developed over the last few decades but further improvements perhaps using CFD methods will likely be only incremental. Automated fabrication processes for the manufacture of microturbine recuperators are in place, and on-going developments to facilitate ecient higher temperature operation are primarily focused in the materials area. Based on the assumptions made in this paper it is postulated that in the 100 kW size the maximum thermal eciency attainable for an all-metallic engine is 35%. To achieve this the recuperator cannot be designed in an isolated manner, and must be addressed in an integrated approach as part of the overall power conversion system. In this regard, temperature limitations as they impact the recuperator and turbine are put into perspective. In this paper there is strong focus on recuperator material selection and cost, including a proposed bi-metallic approach to establish a cost-eective counterow primary surface recuperator for higher temperature service. If indeed there is a long-term goal to achieve an eciency of 40% for small microturbines, it can only be projected based on the utilisation of ceramic hot end components. Alas, the high temperature component that has had the minimum development in recent years to realise this goal is the ceramic recuperator, and eorts to remedy this situation need to be undertaken in the near future. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Microturbine; Turbogenerator; Recuperator; Gas turbine performance; Metals and ceramics

Tel.: +1-858-459-9389; fax: +1-858-459-6626. E-mail address: kmcdona1@san.rr.com (C.F. McDonald).

1359-4311/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S1359-4311(03)00083-8

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1. Introduction The beauty of current microturbines is their simplicity, particularly the use of single-shaft radial ow turbomachinery. However, after over six decades of development compressor and turbine aerodynamic eciencies are near plateauing, and further gains even using CFD methodology are likely to be only incremental. Combustion, mechanical and generator eciencies are already at high levels, so in what areas can changes be made to advance microturbine performance? The two parameters that have potential for eciency advancement are increased values of turbine inlet temperature and higher recuperator eectiveness. Unlike larger axial ow turbines, the cooling of small metallic radial ow turbines is dicult, and increased temperatures will be paced by materials technology, hopefully leading to the eventual utilisation of ceramic rotors. The two aforementioned parameters have a strong impact on the recuperator. Even with a modest increase in compressor pressure ratio, a higher turbine inlet temperature means that the recuperator hot gas inlet temperature increases, this necessitating the use of higher cost superalloys for a component that is already the most expensive in the system. Increasing the eectiveness is straightforward but results in a dramatic increase in recuperator size and weight, again aggravating the cost situation. In light of the above it is clear that innovativeness on the part of both materials scientists and heat exchanger designers will play a signicant role, not only for higher eciency microturbines, but also for other gas turbines that can benet from the use of a recuperated cycle for improved eciency and reduced emissions. There are no established industrial guidelines to categorise small gas turbines for electricity generation and for combined power and heat system operation. It is arbitrarily assumed that machines in the 5200 kW range are classed as microturbines, and in the 200500 kW range are miniturbines. This paper addresses recuperator considerations for future higher eciency microturbines (the example selected being a 100 kW unit) that could be realised by increasing the turbine inlet temperature. Background discussions are included on heat exchanger surface geometries and construction types, with emphasis placed on primary-surface units. The impact on turbogenerator performance and recuperator cost by utilising superalloys in the heat exchanger, use of a bi-metallic approach, and the eventual use of a ceramic recuperator to enable the performance potential of small gas turbines to be fully realised are discussed. 2. Microturbine state-of-the-art technology 2.1. Turbogenerator congurations There are several engineering and packaging considerations regarding the utilisation of a recuperator in small gas turbines with radial ow rotating machinery, and since they have been discussed previously [1,2] they are only summarised here. It is not the purpose of this paper to recommend an installation approach, since this is done by the turbogenerator designer, nevertheless it is germane to mention this topic in the context of the recuperator. There are basically two major types, the rst being the close coupling of the recuperator, and the other an arrangement where the heat exchanger is positioned behind, above or alongside the rotating machinery. An example of the coupled approach is shown in Fig. 1. A high degree of integration can be realised with an annular wrap-around recuperator. Advantages of this approach include the

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Fig. 1. Microturbine concept with annular wrap-around recuperator (courtesy C. Rodgers ITC).

following: (1) good aerodynamic gas ow paths resulting in low pressure losses, (2) lower acoustic signature, (3) built-in rotor burst shield, and (4) eliminates the need for external ducts and thermal expansion devices. An attractive turbogenerator package can also be achieved using a conventional cube-shaped recuperator installed behind and inline with the rotating machinery as shown in Fig. 2. This type

Fig. 2. Microturbine concept with rear-mounted recuperator (courtesy C. Rodgers ITC).

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of installation is adaptable to either a single can or annular combustor. There are applications where this installation has advantages and these include: (1) ease of recuperator hot gas bypass for cogeneration, (2) use of an external combustor or heat exchanger for burning biomass or low grade dirty fuels, and (3) perhaps the most important being the ease of coupling a recuperated microturbine with a high temperature solid oxide fuel cell [3] to give a very high eciency hybrid power generation system with near zero emissions. 2.2. Performance of rst-generation microturbines Some of the major parameters that impact thermal eciency and specic power are shown in Fig. 3. This performance array is based on assumed component eciencies [3] for a microturbine

Fig. 3. Performance array for recuperated microturbine.

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with a power output of about 100 kW. Based on state-of-the-art technology and existing materials the thermal eciency of representative rst-generation microturbines with a compressor pressure ratio of about 4 is shown as approaching 30%. 2.3. Higher temperature operation for improved performance The most important parameter in the quest for higher eciency is turbine inlet temperature. The shape of the curves and data displayed in Fig. 3 reect the assumptions made, and it recognised that other analysts may show slightly dierent data, nevertheless the trends are felt to be representative enough for the scope of this paper. Superimposed on the basic plot are lines of recuperator hot gas inlet temperature, and this parameter has a strong eect on heat exchanger material selection. Based on the assumptions made for a 100 kW turbogenerator it is postulated that a thermal eciency of about 35% is near to the maximum that could be realised with an all-metallic singleshaft low pressure ratio engine. This point will be addressed in more detail in a later section covering materials selection. A long-term microturbine eciency goal of 40% has been mentioned in many papers and articles, but to achieve this an engine with ceramic hot end components (i.e. combustor, turbine, and recuperator) would be required, but such technology is not commercially foreseen for several years.

3. Gas turbine recuperator technology 3.1. Heat transfer surface geometries There is a wide variety of ecient surface geometries that can be considered for compact high eectiveness counterow heat exchangers, but discussion here is limited to only types that are considered representative for small gas turbine recuperators. 3.1.1. Primary-surface geometry The main attributes of primary-surface types are that the surface geometry is 100% eective (i.e. no secondary surface n eciency eects), and sealing can be accomplished by welding without the need for an expensive and time consuming high temperature furnace brazing operation. The recuperator that has been produced in the largest quantity (i.e. over 15,000) is the primarysurface heat exchanger for the AGT 1500 engine in the US Army M1 main battle tank. This annular recuperator embodies a multiplicity of embossed wavy plates that are laser cut and welded to give a compact assembly [4]. Caterpillar and Solar Turbines developed a compact primary-surface recuperator that has been fabricated in platular and annular forms [5]. Produced in signicant quantities for several microturbines these recuperators have demonstrated good performance and structural integrity. Examples of primary-surface recuperators are shown in a later section of this paper, where emphasis is placed on this type of construction for future higher eciency microturbines.

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Fig. 4. Compact plate-n microturbine recuperator (courtesy Toyo Radiator Co.).

3.1.2. Plate-n geometry Plate-n heat exchanger technology is well known, and units of this type have been used for several decades in many aerospace and industrial applications. The performance and structural integrity of plate-n recuperators have continually improved over the last three decades [6,7] and they have been used for a variety of dierent gas turbine applications. A compact plate-n recuperator used in a 75 kW microturbine is shown in Fig. 4. Advancements continue to be made [8] and plate-n recuperators remain a viable option for future microturbines. 3.1.3. Tubular geometry While thin-walled small diameter tubes are known to have a high cost, tubular geometries have excellent pressure containing capability, and it would be remiss not to mention them since recuperators of this type are considered suitable for some future gas turbine applications. A compact matrix utilising small hydraulic diameter prole tubes is shown in Fig. 5. This type of construction has demonstrated high performance and structural integrity in a cyclic environment and has been discussed previously for the recuperator in the LV100 gas turbine tank engine [9,10]. With its proven high pressure retaining capability this type of light weight construction is being investigated for the recuperator in a high pressure ratio intercooled and recuperated (ICR) turbofan aeroengine development project underway in Europe [11]. 3.2. Recuperator specic size and weight Presenting actual recuperator size and weight data are beyond the scope of this paper, but a general discussion may be of benet to non-specialists. The impact of eectiveness on recuperator specic size and weight for low pressure ratio gas turbines is shown in Fig. 6. The data portrayed (based on heat exchanger information accumulated over many years by the author) are for the

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Fig. 5. Compact prole-tube recuperator core (courtesy MTU GmbH).

recuperator matrix only and do not include casings, connecting ducts or supporting structure that are all installation sensitive. The bands of data for counterow units reect several factors including variation in engine parameters, material type and thickness, and heat exchanger conguration (e.g. platular or annular). Discrete points are shown for existing hardware with the scatter surely reecting the many variables involved. Since preparing this plot [12] the author has received additional data points from industry on a condential basis that give further credence to the general validity of the curve bands. After over a half century of compact heat exchanger geometry development it has been suggested that further advancements, perhaps utilising CFD methodology [13] could result in a reduction in recuperator size and weight, but these are likely to be only incremental compared with the data shown in a simplistic form in Fig. 6. 3.3. Recuperator performance characteristics The performance of heat exchangers over a wide range of ow conditions is well understood, and a typical performance map is shown in Fig. 7. The portrayal of data in this form is useful for

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Fig. 6. Recuperator specic size and weight.

determining recuperator performance for applications where bleed or bypass ows are considered on one or both sides of the unit.

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Fig. 7. Typical recuperator performance map.

What is less well known is recuperator performance at very low ows. In many heat exchangers the assumption that heat conduction in the separating walls is only in the direction normal to ow is reasonably valid. However, in a high eectiveness counterow recuperator there is a longitudinal ow of heat from the hot to the cold end of the unit. This heat ow in the matrix metal in the longitudinal direction is undesirable since it tends to unify the wall temperature. This adverse eect on thermal performance is dependent on material thermal conductivity, conduction ow path length, and metal cross sectional area in the matrix. Longitudinal conduction impact on eectiveness is signicant at very low ows. This is shown in Fig. 8 [14], the plot being in a convenient form for inclusion in systems analysis codes to give engine part load performance. With the trend towards utilising ever increasing surface compactness, consideration must be given to longitudinal conduction eects, although they are likely to be less pronounced in surface geometries such as o-set ns, where there are periodic discontinuities in the heat conduction path.

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Fig. 8. Eect of longitudinal conduction on recuperator performance at low ows.

4. Primary-surface recuperator considerations While diering types of recuperator construction, as discussed above, will nd acceptance for gas turbine applications, the remainder of this paper focuses on primary-surface units. The rationalisation for this includes the following: (1) well established technology base, (2) simple construction amenable to dierent matrix shapes and sizes, (3) welded seals, this obviating the need for a high temperature furnace brazing operation and the cost of the braze alloy, (4) amenable to automated high volume fabrication, (5) potential for minimum cost, and (6) as will be outlined in the following section, primary-surface geometries are amenable to a proposed bimetallic approach to establish a cost-eective unit for higher temperature service. 4.1. Multiple element approach Starting with a thin-foil stock, a semi-automated process consists basically of the following steps: (1) folding to form the heat transfer surface geometry, (2) press and trim the individual sheets, (3) welding of the two sheets together to generate the basic air cell, and (4) pressure testing of the basic element for leak tightness. The cells can be formed in dierent shapes. Based on an involute form the individual cells can be welded together to yield an annular core as shown in Fig. 9. Several thousand recuperators of this type have been fabricated for microturbine service (30 and 60 kW units) and they have accumulated over a million operating hours without a failure [15].

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Fig. 9. Annular primary-surface recuperator core (courtesy Capstone Turbine Corp.).

Fig. 10. Primary-surface recuperator (courtesy Rekuperator Svenska AB).

A platular or cube shaped core can also be fabricated for applications where there is no close coupling between the rotating machinery and the recuperator. An example of this type for a 100 kW microturbine is shown in Fig. 10 [16]. The at air cell is made of two plates stamped with the heat transfer geometry and laser welded at their periphery. The cells are then stacked and laser welded together to form the core. The recuperator is then completed by welding the air inlet and outlet manifolds to the core. 4.2. Spirally wrapped recuperator Spirally wrapped heat exchangers are used for a variety of industrial applications, and the merits of extending this technology to primary-surface recuperators have been discussed

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Fig. 11. Spirally wrapped recuperator (courtesy Rolls Royce plc).

previously [12]. In its simplest form the automated fabrication process would consist of two spools of thin-metal foil that are continuously formed into heat transfer surfaces and seal welded as the matrix is being spirally wrapped. Spirally wrapped recuperators with dierent types of headering have been proposed. A spirally wrapped annular recuperator of basically primary-surface geometry, together with a variant that has secondary surface ns on the gas side has been proposed in the UK [17]. The spiral wrapping operation for this type of unit is shown in Fig. 11. The completed annular matrix embodies integrally formed and seal welded air inlet and oulet headers. This attractive and compact recuperator is being developed for a range of gas turbine applications [18]. Development work in Belgium has progressed on an interesting high eectiveness spirally wrapped compact primary-surface recuperator with laser welded seals [19]. The unique headering of this unit involves locally opening air channels by a spark erosion process, and then welding the

Fig. 12. Spirally wrapped primary-surface microturbine recuperator (courtesy Acte S.A.).

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air side manifolds on to the two end faces of the core. Initially developed for a small microturbine (Fig. 12), this type of annular recuperator could be used for multi-megawatt gas turbines with the heat exchanger mounted at the rear of the engine. 4.3. Automated high volume fabrication With the projection that microturbines, perhaps as small as 5 kW [20], may be produced in large quantities, new recuperator manufacturing methods are needed, and these are being addressed in dierent parts of the world. Minimizing the number of parts in the matrix is mandatory, the ideal feedstock being just two spools of thin-foil material. An automated forming and welding process is needed to continuously make the matrix in high volume production. The all-welded primarysurface type meets these goals, with the spirally wrapped approach oering potential for low cost. Recuperator fabrication specialists can perhaps take advantage of high volume fabrication technology from the automotive industry where tens of millions of radiators are made in automated facilities each year, and where well established cost learning curves exist.

5. Quest for higher microturbine eciency 5.1. Thermodynamic cycle options Current low pressure ratio microturbines up to power ratings of about 100 kW utilise xedboundary recuperators to achieve thermal eciencies approaching 30%. This type of engine conguration is likely to be extended for microturbines rated up to say 200 kW. As will be discussed below, advancing to higher levels of eciency will require increasing the turbine inlet temperature. There is interest in miniturbines in the power range of 200500 kW, with an ambitious eciency goal of 40% based on using existing materials and state-of-the-art component technology. With these restraints it is unlikely that this level of performance can be realised in the near-term with just a recuperated cycle. For such larger machines, dierent approaches are being investigated, these including ICR cycles [8], and the use of organic uid Rankine bottoming cycles. These topics are beyond the scope of this paper, but it is suce to say that concepts in this power class will require high performance and low cost recuperators to achieve 40% eciency and meet demanding cost goals. 5.2. Temperature limitations The impact of turbine inlet temperature on thermal eciency is shown in Fig. 3. Using the same aforementioned cycle data it is convenient to replot it in a dierent manner (Fig. 13) to illustrate approximate temperature limitations in two of the major components. 5.2.1. Uncooled metallic radial ow turbine Unlike in larger axial ow engines where turbine blade cooling is commonplace, the very nature of the geometry in small radial ow turbines makes cooling of the nozzle and impeller dicult. It

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Fig. 13. Eect of recuperator temperature limitations on microturbine performance.

is recognised that research is underway on this topic, but today cooled metallic small radial ow turbines are not commercially available for microturbines. In this paper an assumption was made based on specialist input [21] that the upper temperature limit for a radial ow turbine in a 100 kW microturbine is about 1150 C (2100 F) and this is shown in Fig. 13. 5.2.2. Recuperator material limitations In rst-generation microturbines the selection of the recuperator material depends on the cycle conditions and user preference. Type 347 austenitic stainless steel is widely used based on its properties and cost, and is considered as the base case in this paper. As turbine inlet temperature is increased in low pressure ratio engines the attendant hot gas temperature entering the recu-

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perator reaches a value where heat exchanger life goal (typically 40,000 h) using 347 stainless steel can no longer be realised. Temperature limits for the recuperator are based on the magnitude of the materials tensile strength and its resistance to corrosion, oxidation, and creep deformation. The author views the portrayal of data in Fig. 13 as being representative, but recognises that other specialists may generate dierent data based on their assumptions. Nevertheless, at least in this simplistic form it represents a starting point for discussion regarding materials selection. Input was received from a materials specialist [22] on approximate temperature limits for candidate materials, and these are shown in Fig. 13. 5.3. Existing heat exchanger materials As mentioned above Type 347 stainless steel is used in some microturbine recuperators, but this has a temperature limit of about 675 C (1250 F). As shown in Fig. 13 an eciency approaching 30% is the highest that can be reached using this austenitic steel in the recuperator. For increased temperature service a higher nickel content alloy must be used. It is of interest to note that the primary-surface recuperator produced in the largest quantities for the AGT1500 engine in the M1 tank was fabricated from Inconel 625 [23], a much higher cost material than stainless steel as will be discussed below. 5.4. Proposed customized recuperator materials In support of advancing microturbine eciency a materials research programme investigating higher temperature recuperator materials is underway at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. This involves not only an evaluation of existing materials, but the identication of custom alloys for recuperator service [2428]. A much more comprehensive version of Fig. 13 could be generated when the properties of these new alloys become denitized and are commercially available in a thin foil form in the future. It is projected that an increase in recuperator hot gas inlet temperature to 750 C (1382 F) is possible with a customized super 347 stainless steel. Based on the assumptions made, it can be seen from Fig. 13 that this would increase a low pressure microturbine eciency to perhaps as high as 33%. By increasing the compressor pressure ratio slightly, and assuming a recuperator eectiveness of 91% it is projected that a thermal eciency of 35% could be realised with an Inconel 625 recuperator. It is interesting that this data point (Fig. 13) also corresponds to the maximum temperature limit for an uncooled metallic radial ow turbine. Again, based on the assumptions made it is projected that the maximum thermal eciency for an all-metallic microturbine in the 100 kW size is about 35%. By utilising an even higher grade (and much higher cost) superalloy (Haynes 214) in the recuperator, a thermal eciency of about 38% is projected, but since this necessitates a ceramic turbine it is viewed as a rather academic case, but is included for completeness. 5.5. Proposed bi-metallic counterow primary-surface recuperator The use of a multi-pass cross counterow modular recuperator has been suggested for small gas turbine applications [29]. Such a unit could be mechanically assembled using a superalloy in the rst high temperature pass, and then lower grade materials in the other modules towards the

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colder end of the heat exchanger. However, a novel monolithic counterow heat exchanger with high temperature capability and better performance is proposed below as being a more compact and cost-eective solution. Since the temperature gradient in a counterow recuperator is in the longitudinal direction as simply illustrated in Fig. 14, the notion of a bi-metallic approach has fascinated the author for more than three decades. As will be discussed below there is a strong economic case for using a costly superalloy only at the hot end of the recuperator core where it is really needed. From the economic standpoint this approach could perhaps be considered analogous to the fabrication of hack saw blades where only a thin strip of high quality steel for the teeth section is used. The bulk of the blade being a lower cost material, with bonding of the two metal strips done by a continuous butt welding operation. For a compact recuperator, two spools of thin-foil stock would be used with a continuous butt welding operation done prior to forming of the surface geometry. The two metals must be weldable and have similar coecients of thermal expansion to avoid raising thermal stresses in the matrix. At this point it is germane to mention the temperature conditions at the recuperator hot gas inlet face. Materials scientists use maximum metal temperature in their assessments, whereas in

Fig. 14. Simplistic temperature gradient through high eectiveness primary-surface recuperator for microturbine rated at 100 kW with an eciency of 35%.

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Fig. 15. Microstructure of thin-foil bi-metallic weld sample (courtesy Toyo Radiator Co. Ltd.).

this paper the various curves show the hot gas temperature. Using the latters slightly higher value is felt to be reasonably representative since for a very high eectiveness recuperator the metal temperature is on the order of 2025 C below the maximum gas temperature at the hot end of the unit as shown in Fig. 14. To investigate the practicality of a bi-metallic approach samples of thin-foil austenitic 347 stainless steel and nickel-based alloy Inconel 625 (both materials of which have been used in recuperators) were laser welded together by Toyo Radiator Company in Japan. A microsection of the weld is shown in Fig. 15. From the metallurgical standpoint the welded joint looked satisfactory, namely good fusion, and with no cracks, voids or obvious defects in the microstructure [30]. With the recuperator currently being the highest cost component, an initial part of the investigation to advance microturbine eciency to say 35% would be to determine the impact on engine life cycle cost for a range of higher temperature recuperator superalloys, including the suggested bi-metallic approach. Assuming that the results were positive for the latter case, a research eort could then be initiated to establish the viability of the bi-metallic approach and this would include the following: (1) a survey of the range of higher nickel content alloys [31] and selection of the one most compatible with 347 stainless steel, (2) identify the best welding approach, (3) regarding the material form, would it be better for example to weld together thicker sections and then roll down to the required size? (4) determine whether the joint has sucient ductility to be formed in to representative compact primary surface geometries, and (5) fabricate and test a well instrumented counterow heat exchanger to determine the stability of the welded core in a thermally cyclic environment. In the quest for improved microturbine performance the impact of recuperator gas inlet temperature on thermal eciency for a 100 kW turbogenerator is shown in Fig. 16. The base case corresponds to the temperature limit of 347 stainless steel, and yields a state-of-the-art thermal eciency close to 30%. Based on the assumptions made, the upper temperature limit for a longlife Inconel 625 recuperator corresponds to an eciency of 35%. Considering a bi-metallic approach, only a portion of the counterow matrix needs to be made from Inconel 625. For the 35% eciency case it can be seen from Figs. 14 and 16 that a composite matrix would consist of 23% Inconel 625 and 77% 347 stainless steel. Clearly, this would have a signicant benecial impact on the matrix material cost as discussed below.

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Fig. 16. Impact of material selection on primary-surface recuperator matrix cost and performance for 100 kW microturbine.

5.6. Recuperator matrix cost Microturbine recuperator cost information within the industry is understandably regarded as being proprietary, thus direct comparisons between existing units cannot be made. It is widely recognised that the recuperator is the most expensive component, and eorts need to be expended to reduce its cost. This would include detailed analyses to study the eect of matrix type (e.g. primary surface, plate-n, tubular geometries), surface compactness, bonding and sealing processes (e.g. welding, brazing, diusion bonding), and material types and thicknesses. However, proprietary comprehensive data bases from the heat exchanger industry are needed to accomplish this. Lacking these, it has been assumed here that in high volume production the recuperator cost will be dominated by the material cost, and this aspect is addressed below. Data taken from the various curves in this paper are put into perspective in Table 1 for several candidate recuperator materials for a 100 kW microturbine. For the 347 stainless steel temperature limited base case, the thermal eciency is 29.5% and the estimated matrix material cost is $984. Now say for discussion purposes that a near-term goal is to advance the eciency to 35%. This can be achieved by increasing the recuperator eectiveness, and by increasing the turbine inlet

Table 1 Comparison of recuperator materials for 100 kW microturbine Material Material cost factor Maximum metal temperature, C Nickel content, % Relative thermal expansion coecient at 675 C Approximate thermal eciency, % Recuperator eectiveness Turbine inlet temperature, C Compressor pressure ratio Specic power, kW/kg s Air ow, kg/s Matrix specic weight, kg/kg s Matrix metal weight, kg Metal cost, $/kg Matrix metal cost, $ Notes Data source Ref. [22] Ref. [22] Ref. [24] Ref. [27] 347 stainless steel 1 675 11.2 1.0 Super 347 stainless steel 1.5 750 13.0 1.0 Inconel 625 5 800 61.2 0.85 Haynes 230 7 850 52.7 0.82 Haynes 214 9 900 76.5 0.78 Bi-metallic 77% 347, 23% Inconel 625 1.92 equiv. As for parent metals C.F. McDonald / Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003) 14631487

Fig. 13 Fig. 13 Fig. 13

29.5 0.87 954 4

33.0 0.91 1070 4 156 0.64 160 102 18 1836 New stainless steel alloy under development

35.0 0.91 1150 45 178 0.56 160 90 60 5400 Upper limit for all-metallic engine

36.5 0.91 1205 45 200 0.50 160 80 84 6720 For ref. ceramic turbine required

38.0 0.91 1271 45 220 0.45 160 72 108 7776 For ref. maximum for superalloy recuperator with ceramic turbine

35.0 0.91 1150 45 178 0.56 160 90 23 equiv. 2070 Proposed lower cost recuperator approach

Figs. 3 and 13

122 0.82 100 82

Fig. 6 from Ref. [12]

Ref. [12] for base case

12 base case 984 Existing operating machines

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temperature, and having a slightly higher compressor pressure ratio the specic power is also improved. This case is beyond the capability of a stainless steel heat exchanger, and necessitates the use of a higher nickel content alloy. If an all Inconel 625 recuperator was used the matrix material cost would be $5400. If a bi-metallic unit was used with Inconel 625 only in the hot end of the recuperator where it was really needed the matrix material cost would be about $2070. This potential material cost saving of over 60%, while admittedly based on a simplistic model, is considered the motivation for an industrial programme to thoroughly investigate the viability of a bi-metallic recuperator for advanced higher eciency microturbines. Other recuperator alloys with higher temperature capability than Inconel 625 are shown in Table 1, but they are included for reference only since for the attendant higher thermal eciency projected, a ceramic turbine is necessary. For production of recuperators in very large quantities a factor of 1.5 times the material cost for the complete matrix cartridge has been suggested [12]. On-going recuperator development and production activities will determine if such a target can be realised.

5.7. System integration The various curve arrays presented in this paper clearly show that the recuperator cannot be treated as an isolated component, and must be included in the overall engine parametric evaluation. To facilitate the generation of the recuperator material-related cost curves as shown in Fig. 16, it was necessary to utilise previously derived engine and heat exchanger data based on the referenced sources given in Table 1. The shape of the cost curves for the diering alloys was not obvious at the onset of the study, and are rationalised as follows. As the turbine inlet (and exit) temperature is raised the turbogenerator specic power increases, hence for a given power (say 100 kW) the mass ow rate through the machine decreases resulting in a smaller and lighter weight recuperator. For a given eectiveness this manifests itself in a reduction of recuperator matrix material cost as shown in Fig. 16. Another interesting point from the parametric study was that with a superalloy recuperator, albeit at high cost, the thermal eciency potential is 38%, but this could not be realised today with an uncooled metallic radial ow turbine.

6. Long-term goal of a ceramic recuperator It is understandable that todays microturbines, and those planned in the foreseeable future utilise metallic recuperators, since the needed technology is available. However, the need for ceramic heat exchangers for a variety of gas turbine applications has been recognised for decades [32]. There has been interest in rotary regenerators for over half a century [33], and interesting comparisons have been made between rotary and xed-boundary heat exchangers [34,35]. In support of automotive gas turbines several decades of development were undertaken on rotary regenerators [36], initially operating experience with metallic discs [37], and later use of ceramic discs [38,39]. Many of these had materials related problems, and excessive leakage that degraded

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Fig. 17. Ceramic plate-n recuperator module (courtesy Garrett Corp.).

Fig. 18. Compact plate-n ceramic recuperator (courtesy Ceramique & Composites S.A.).

engine performance. Even after many years of development their questionable durability essentially ruled them out for the majority of rst-generation microturbines due to life concerns. It should be pointed out that work continues on new regenerator concepts [4042] aimed at overcoming the problems associated with earlier variants. The ultimate performance potential of microturbines can only be realised with a high temperature ceramic heat exchanger [43], and this is apparent from studying Figs. 3 and 13. Alas, very little development is underway towards this goal. A compact plate-n ceramic recuperator module was fabricated in the late 1970s [44] and this is shown in Fig. 17. A programme was undertaken fairly recently in Europe [45,46] to develop a counterow ceramic plate-n recuperator (Fig. 18) in support of an automotive gas turbine, but this did not proceed beyond the initial development phase. When the gas turbine industry thinks the time is right to develop a ceramic recuperator for an advanced microturbine, it should seriously consider the primary-surface type. In the 1980s such a unit (Fig. 19) was partially developed for an automotive gas turbine [47]. Initial results for a cubeshaped matrix showed promise [48], but development was discontinued because of changes in the overall engine programme. It is the authors view that this approach should be seriously revisited based on using 21st century ceramics technology.

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Fig. 19. Elements from compact primary-surface ceramic recuperator (courtesy Golden Technologies).

7. Summary The microturbine performance data presented in this paper are based on assumptions that may dier from work by others, but put into perspective the results show in a reasonable manner how temperature limitations in the recuperator and turbine impact projected advancement in thermal eciency for future advanced small turbogenerators. To advance the eciency of say a 100 kW microturbine by several percentage points beyond the high twenties of rst-generation units, will require a multi-faceted eort involving changes to the cycle parameters and increased component eciencies. With radial ow compressor and turbine aerodynamic eciencies near plateauing, the most signicant factor for improved thermal performance will be higher turbine inlet temperatures. In retaining simple low pressure ratio single-shaft radial ow turbomachinery this will result in an increase in the recuperator hot gas inlet temperature to values that will necessitate material changes in the heat exchanger from those that are used today. For a long-life recuperator, approximate temperature limits have been based on the magnitude of the materials tensile strength and its resistance to corrosion, oxidation and creep resistance. In this paper focus has been on primary-surface units since they are amenable to high volume automated fabrication, and have the potential for minimum cost. In the evaluation of materials, Type 347 stainless steel was assumed as the base case since in current microturbines (having efciencies approaching 30%), the recuperator hot gas inlet temperature of 675 C (1250 F) is near to its operating limit. The results from initial metallurgical research to establish a customized version of this material (i.e. super 347) are encouraging, and its utilisation could raise the thermal eciency by two to three percentage points. However, it could be a while before a material of this type is completely denitized and commercially available in the necessary thin foil form. The next signicant value of eciency discussed in this paper is 35%, which represents the maximum achievable with an Inconel 625 recuperator and uncooled metallic radial ow turbine.

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If the recuperator was fabricated entirely from this nickel-based alloy the matrix material cost would be $5400, this being a reection of the much higher cost of Inconel 625 compared with Type 347 stainless steel. Based on the longitudinal temperature gradient characteristic in a counterow recuperator, a bi-metallic approach has been suggested in which only the hot end of the heat exchanger would have the higher temperature superalloy. Based on the assumed limits for the two candidate materials (i.e. Inconel 625 and 347 stainless steel) the primary-surface recuperator matrix material cost, based on simplistic economic model, was estimated as $2070. While much development work remains to be done to conrm the viability of the bi-metallic approach, the potential material cost savings of over 60% compared with an all Inconel 625 matrix (for a thermal eciency of 35%) would suggest that this approach is well worth investigating for a compact high eectiveness primary-surface recuperator for an advanced microturbine. This proposed cost-eective approach could provide the means of achieving higher temperature operation and bridge the span between rst-generation microturbines with austenitic steel recuperators and the eventual goal of utilising a ceramic recuperator to permit the full performance potential of microturbines to be realised.

Acknowledgements The author expresses his thanks to Colin Rodgers (ITC), a good friend for many years, for discussions and advice on the performance of small gas turbines. Thanks are also given to Dr. John Mason, Professor David Gordon Wilson (MIT) and Hubert Antione (Belgium) for their expertise and insight on heat exchanger technology, and to Dr. Phillip Maziasz (ORNL) and Fred Starr (UK) for guidance on various aspects of high temperature materials science. Special thanks are expressed to Kenjiro Takase and Yoichiro Yoshida (Japan) for their interest and pioneering eorts on the welding of a thin-foil bi-metallic joint. This paper has been enhanced by the inclusion of hardware photographs, and the author is appreciative to all concerned, with credits being duly noted.

References
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