Common Mode Voltage Limits

One of the practical op-amp limitations is that the inputs must stay within a certain voltage range (usually significanly less than the supply voltages) for proper operation. Op-amps are subject to drastic gain changes and bizarre behavior if these ranges are exceeded. For a 741 operating on +/-15 volts, the common mode input swing should be within +/-12 volts. Voltages over 15V may damage the op-amp, regardless of the supply voltage. Some opamps are designed to allow common mode voltages down to the negative supply voltage (LM358, 3130/3140) or up to the positive supply (301/307 or 355-357). Index Electronics concepts Op-amp concepts

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Op-amp Output Impedance

One of the practical op-amp limitations is that there is a finite output impedance. For the 741 it is about 75 ohms but can be as high as several thousand ohms for some low power op-amps. The effective output impedance is further lowered by the use of negative feedback, so the focus becomes not one of the number of ohms looking into the output, but what limitations are placed on the output current. Limiting the output current also limits the allowable output voltage swing: the lower the load resistance, the lower the allowable voltage amplitude. For a load >2K, the 741 can swing to within about 2 volts of the supply. This is about all that is permitted by common mode limits for a 15 volt supply so the output impedance is not a serious limitation. For lower load impedances, however, the safe output voltage swing will be progressively curtailed. Op-amps with MOS transistor outputs(CA3130 and CA3160) can swing all the way to positive and negative supply voltages. Index Electronics concepts Op-amp concepts

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Op-amp Voltage Gain Limitations

One of the practical op-amp limitations is that the open loop gain which is so high at frequencies in the kHz range (100,000 to a million or more) drops to a gain of one at some high frequency (say 1 to 10 MHz). Many op-amps contain internal compensation to cause a 6dB per octave rolloff of gain (like a low-pass filter) at some chosen frequency to stabilize the unit against high frequency oscillations. For the 741 this rolloff starts at 100 kHz. From the beginning of the rolloff the RC type filter action leads to phase shift starting at 90 and increasing to 120 to 160 as the gain approaches one. If the phase shift reaches 180 the feedback becomes positive and the system can oscillate. Index Electronics concepts Op-amp concepts

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Op-amp Input Offset Current

Index One of the practical op-amp limitations is that the input bias currents for the two inputs may be slightly different. Even though the inputs are designed to Electronics be symmetrical, slight differences which occur in the manufacturing process concepts may give slightly different bias currents. This offset current is typically on the order of a tenth of the input bias current, with 10nA being a Op-amp representative offset current for a 741. concepts Even with identical source impedances, this offset current will produce a slight voltage between the input terminals, contrary to the ideal voltage rule.

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NON-INVERTING AND INVERTING 741 AMPLIFIERS

V. Ryan 2002-09

PDF FILE - CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE WORKSHEET

1. An inverting amplifier - Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed or inverted. 2. A Non-inverting amplifier - Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed.

Opposite is a diagram of an INVERTING AMPLIFIER. This means that if the voltage going into the 741 chip is positive, it is negative when it comes out of the 741. In other words it reverses polarity (inverts polarity). Two resistors are needed to make the 741 work as an amplifier, R1 and R2. In most text books diagrams like this are used to represent the 741.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE 'GAIN'

An operational amplifiers purpose is to amplify a weak signal and this is called the GAIN. INVERTING AMPLIFIER GAIN (AV) = -R2 / R1 NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER GAIN (AV) = 1+(R2 / R1)

Example : if R2 is 100 kilo-ohm and R1 is 10 kilo-ohm the Example : if R2 is 1000 kilo-ohm and R1 is 100 kilo-ohm the gain would be : gain would be : -100 / 10 = -10 (Gain AV) If the input voltage is 0.5v the output voltage would be : 0.5v X -10 = -5v 1+ (1000/100) = 1 + 10 OR GAIN (AV) = 11 If the input voltage is 0.5v the output voltage would be : 0.5 X 11 = 5.5v

The polarity of a signal is reversed at the output, pin six. A negative input becomes a positive output.

A signal applied keeps its polarity at the output, pin six. A positive input remains a positive output.

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The Ideal Op-amp

The IC Op-amp comes so close to ideal performance that it is useful to state the characteristics of an ideal amplifier without regard to what is inside the package. Index 1. 2. 3. 4. Infinite voltage gain Infinite input impedance Zero output impedance Infinite bandwidth Electronics concepts Op-amp concepts

Compare to real op-amps Practical departures from ideal op-amp

5. Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero out if zero in).

These characteristics lead to the golden rules for op-amps. They allow you to logically deduce the operation of any op-amp circuit. HyperPhysics*****Electricity and magnetism
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The Op-amp Golden Rules

From Horowitz & Hill: For an op-amp with external feedback

I. The output attempts to The do whatever is necessary to Voltage Rule make the voltage difference between the inputs zero. II. The inputs draw no current.
The Current Rule

Index Electronics concepts Op-amp concepts Reference Horowitz and Hill

Comments on 1: The voltage gain of a real op-amp is so high that a fraction of a millivolt input will swing the output over its full range. Practically, that amounts to rule 1. Comments on 2: The input current is so low (0.08 microamps for the 741, picoamps for an FET-input op-amp) that rule 2 is practically correct. The ideal op-amp HyperPhysics*****Electricity and magnetism
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The 741 Op-amp Circuit

Index

Electronics The standard 741 Op-amp circuit contains 20 transistors and 11 resistors. It concepts starts with a differential input stage with a current mirror load. This is followed by an npn voltage amplification stage with an active output. A pnp Op-amp emitter follower drives a push-pull emitter follower output stage. The output concepts stage includes current limiting circuitry.

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Common-mode rejection ratio

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a differential amplifier (or other device) is the tendency of the devices to reject the input signals common to both input leads. A high CMRR is important in applications where the signal of interest is represented by a small voltage fluctuation superimposed on a (possibly large) voltage offset, or when relevant information is contained in the voltage difference between two signals. (An example is audio transmission over balanced lines.) Ideally, a differential amplifier takes the voltages V voltage Vo
+

and V

on its two inputs and produces an output

= Ad(V + V ), where Ad is the differential gain. However, the output of a real differential

amplifier is better described as

where Acm is the common-mode gain, which is typically much smaller than the differential gain. The CMRR is defined as the ratio of the powers of the differential gain over the common-mode gain, measured in positive decibels (thus using the 20 log rule):

As differential gain should exceed common-mode gain, this will be a positive number, and the higher the better. The CMRR is a very important specification, as it indicates how much of the common-mode signal will appear in your measurement. The value of the CMRR often depends on signalfrequency as well, and must be specified as a function thereof. It is often important in reducing noise on transmission lines. For example, when measuring the resistance of a thermocouple in a noisy environment, the noise from the environment appears as an offset on both input leads, making it a common-mode voltage signal. The CMRR of the measurement instrument determines the attenuation applied to the offset or noise.

[edit]Example:

operational amplifiers