Foundations

Types of foundation

Shallow foundations Deep foundations

Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts. Deep foundations include piles, pile walls, diaphragm walls and caissons.

Types of foundation

Shallow foundations

Pad foundations Strip foundations Raft foundations

Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface; generally where the founding depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but merely guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a foundation it is 'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts. Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.

Shallow foundations

Pad foundations
Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as that due to a structural column. They may be circular, square or reactangular. They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or haunched if they are required to spread the load from a heavy column. Pad foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.

Shallow foundations

Strip foundations
Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a load-bearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where column positions are so close that individual pad foundations would be inappropriate.

Shallow foundations

Raft foundations
Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used when column loads or other structural loads are close together and individual pad foundations would interact. A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation. Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.

Types of foundation

Deep foundations

Piles

Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated foundations using deep basements and also deep pad or strip foundations. Deep

foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface. Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow foundations. In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces. Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed insitu in a deep excavation. Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson. Compensated foundations are deep foundations in which the relief of stress due to excavation is approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the foundation. The net stress applied is therefore very small. A compensated foundation normally comprises a deep basement.

Deep foundations

Piles

Types of pile Types of construction Factors influencing choice Pile groups

Piled foundations can be classified according to the type of pile (different structures to be supported, and different ground conditions, require different types of resistance) and the type of construction (different materials, structures and processes can be used).

Piles

Types of pile

End bearing piles Friction piles Settlement reducing piles Tension piles Laterally loaded piles Piles in fill

Piles are often used because adequate bearing capacity can not be found at shallow enough depths to support the structural loads. It is important to understand that piles get support from both end bearing and skin friction. The proportion of carrying capacity generated by either end bearing or skin friction depends on the soil conditions. Piles can be used to support various different types of structural loads.

Types of pile

End bearing piles

End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard, relatively impenetrable material such as rock or very dense sand and gravel. They derive most of their carrying capacity from the resistance of the stratum at the toe of the pile.

Types of pile

Friction piles

Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or adhesion. This tends to occur when piles do not reach an impenetrable stratum but are driven for some distance into a penetrable soil. Their carrying capacity is derived partly from end bearing and partly from skin friction between the embedded surface of the soil and the surrounding soil.

Types of pile

Settlement reducing piles

Settlement reducing piles are usually incorporated beneath the central part of a raft foundation in order to reduce differential settlement to an acceptable level. Such piles act to reinforce the soil beneath the raft and help to prevent dishing of the raft in the centre.

Types of pile

Tension piles
Structures such as tall chimneys, transmission towers and jetties can be subject to large overturning moments and so piles are often used to resist the resulting uplift forces at the foundations. In such cases the resulting forces are transmitted to the soil along the embedded length of the pile. The resisting force can be increased in the case of bored piles by under-reaming. In the design of tension piles the effect of radial contraction of the pile must be taken into account as this can cause about a 10% - 20% reduction in shaft resistance.

Types of pile

Laterally loaded piles

Almost all piled foundations are subjected to at least some degree of horizontal loading. The magnitude of the loads in relation to the applied vertical axial loading will generally be small and no additional design calculations will normally be necessary. However, in the case of wharves and jetties carrying the impact forces of berthing ships, piled foundations to bridge piers, trestles to overhead cranes, tall chimneys and retaining walls, the horizontal component is relatively large and may prove critical in design. Traditionally piles have been installed at an angle to the vertical in such cases, providing sufficient horizontal resistance by virtue of the component of axial capacity of the pile which acts horizontally. However the capacity of a vertical pile to resist loads applied normally to the axis, although significantly smaller than the axial capacity of that pile, may be sufficient to avoid the need for such 'raking' or 'battered' piles which are more expensive to install. When designing piles to take lateral forces it is therefore important to take this into account.

Types of pile

Piles in fill

Piles that pass through layers of moderately- to poorly-compacted fill will be affected by negative skin friction, which produces a downward drag along the pile shaft and therefore an additional load on the pile. This occurs as the fill consolidates under its own weight.

Piles

Types of pile construction

Displacement piles Non-displacement piles

Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as vertically as the pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground. With non-displacement piles (or replacement piles), soil is removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete or a precast concrete pile is dropped into the hole and grouted in.

Types of pile construction

Displacement piles

Totally preformed displacement piles Driven and cast-in-place displacement piles Helical (screw) cast-in-place displacement piles Methods of installation

Sands and granular soils tend to be compacted by the displacement process, whereas clays will tend to heave. Displacement piles themselves can be classified into different types, depending on how they are constructed and how they are inserted.

Displacement piles

Totally preformed displacement piles

These can either be of precast concrete; full length reinforced (prestressed) jointed (reinforced) hollow (tubular) section or they can be of steel of various section.

Displacement piles

Driven and cast-in-place displacement piles

This type of pile can be of two forms. The first involves driving a temporary steel tube with a closed end into the ground to form a void in the soil which is then filled with concrete as the tube is withdrawn. The second type is the same except the steel tube is left in place to form a permanent casing.

Displacement piles

Helical (screw) cast-in-place displacement piles

This type of construction is performed using a special type of auger. The soil is however compacted, not removed as the auger is screwed into the ground. The auger is carried on a hollow stem which can be filled with concrete, so when the required depth has been reached concrete can be pumped down the stem and the auger slowly unscrewed leaving the pile cast in place.

Displacement piles

Methods of installation

Dropping weight Diesel hammer Vibratory methods of pile driving Jacking methods of insertion

Displacements piles are either driven or jacked into the gound. A number of different methods can be used.

Methods of installation

Dropping weight
The dropping weight or drop hammer is the most commonly used method of insertion of displacement piles. A weight approximately half that of the pile is raised a suitable distance in a guide and released to strike the pile head. When driving a hollow pile tube the weight usually acts on a plug at the bottom of the pile thus reducing any excess stresses along the length of the tube during insertion. Variants of the simple drop hammer are the single acting and double acting hammers. These are mechanically driven by steam, by compressed air or hydraulically. In the single acting hammer the weight is raised by compressed air (or other means) which is then released and the weight allowed to drop. This can happen up to 60 times a minute. The double acting hammer is the same except compressed air is also used on the down stroke of the hammer. This type of hammer is not always suitable for driving concrete piles however. Although the concrete can take the compressive stresses exerted by the hammer the shock wave set up by each blow of the hammer can set up high tensile stresses in the concrete when returning. This can cause the concrete to fail. This is why concrete piles are often prestressed.

Methods of installation

Diesel hammer
Rapid controlled explosions can be produced by the diesel hammer. The explosions raise a ram which is used to drive the pile into the ground. Although the ram is smaller than the

weight used in the drop hammer the increased frequency of the blows can make up for this inefficiency. This type of hammer is most suitable for driving piles through noncohesive granular soils where the majority of the resistance is from end bearing.

Methods of installation

Vibratory methods of pile driving

Vibratory methods can prove to be very effective in driving piles through non cohesive granular soils. The vibration of the pile excites the soil grains adjacent to the pile making the soil almost free flowing thus significantly reducing friction along the pile shaft. The vibration can be produced by electrically (or hydraulically) powered contra-rotating eccentric masses attached to the pile head usually acting at a frequency of about 20-40 Hz. If this frequency is increased to around 100 Hz it can set up a longitudinal resonance in the pile and penetration rates can approach up to 20 m/min in moderately dense granular soils. However the large energy resulting from the vibrations can damage equipment, noise and vibration propagation can also result in the settlement of nearby buildings.

Methods of installation

Jacking methods of insertion

Jacked piles are most commonly used in underpinning existing structures. By excavating underneath a structure short lengths of pile can be inserted and jacked into the ground using the underside of the existing structure as a reaction.

Types of pile construction

Non-displacement piles

Small diameter bored cast-in-place piles Large diameter bored cast-in-place piles

Partially preformed piles Grout or concrete intruded piles

With non-displacement piles soil is removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete or sometimes a precast concrete pile is dropped into the hole and grouted in. Clays are especially suitable for this type of pile formation as in clays the bore hole walls only require support close to the ground surface. When boring through more unstable ground, such as gravels, some form of casing or support, such as a bentonite slurry, may be required. Alternatively, grout or concrete can be intruded from an auger rotated into a granular soil. There are then essentially four types of non displacement piles. This method of construction produces an irregular interface between the pile shaft and surrounding soil which affords good skin frictional resistance under subsequent loading.

Non-displacement piles

Small diameter bored cast-in-place piles

These tend to be 600mm or less in diameter and are usually constructed by using a tripod rig. The equipment consists of a tripod, a winch and a cable operating a variety of tools. The basic tools are shown in this diagram. In granular soils, the basic tool consists of a heavy cylindrical shell with a cutting edge and a flap valve at the bottom. Water is necessary to assist in this type of excavation. By working the shell up and down at the bottom of the bore hole liquefaction of the soil takes place (as low pressure is produced under the shell as the liquified soil is rapidly moved up) and it flows into the shell and can be winched to the surface and tipped out. There is a danger when boring through granular soil of over loosening the material at the sides of the bore. To prevent this a temporary casing should be advanced by driving it into the ground.

In cohesive soils, the borehole is advanced by repeatedly dropping a cruciform-section tool with a cylindrical cutting edge into the soil and then winching it to the surface with its burden of soil. Once at the surface the clay which adheres to the cruciform blades is paired away.

Non-displacement piles

Large diameter bored cast-in-place piles

Large boreholes from 750mm up to 3m diameter (with 7m under-reams) are possible by using rotary drilling machinery. The augering plant is usually crane or lorry mounted. A spiral or bucket auger as shown in this diagram is attached to a shaft known as a Kelly bar (a square section telescopic member driven by a horizontal spinner). Depths of up to 70m are possible using this technique. The use of a bentonite slurry in conjunction with bucket auger drilling can eliminate some of the difficulties involved in drilling in soft silts and clays, and loose granular soils, without continuous support by casing tubes. One advantage of this technique is the potential for under reaming. By using an expanding drilling tool the diameter at the base of the pile can be enlarged, significantly increasing the end bearing capacity of the pile. However, under-reaming is a slow process requiring a stop in the augering for a change of tool and a slow process in the actual under-reaming operation. In clay, it is often preferable to use a deeper straight sided shaft.

Non-displacement piles

Partially pre-formed piles

This type of pile is particularly suitable in conditions where the ground is waterlogged, or where there is movement of water in an upper layer of the soil which could result in cement being leached from a cast-in-place concrete pile. A hole is bored in the normal way and annular sections are then lowered into the bore hole to produce a hollow column. Reinforcement can then be placed and grout forced down to the base of the pile, displacing water and filling both the gap outside and the core inside the column.

Non-displacement piles

Grout- or concrete-intruded piles

The use of continuous flight augers is becoming a much more popular method in pile construction. These piles offer considerable environmental advantages during construction. Their noise and vibration levels are low and there is no need for temporary borehole wall casing or bentonite slurry making it suitable for both clays and granular soils. The only problem is that they are limited in depth to the maximum length of the auger (about 25m). The piles are constructed by screwing the continuous flight auger into the ground to the required depth leaving the soil in the auger. Grout (or concrete) can then be forced down the hollow shaft of the auger and then continues building up from the bottom as the auger with its load of spoil is withdrawn. Reinforcement can then be lowered in before the grout sets. An alternative system used in granular soils is to leave the soil in place and mix it up with the pressured grout as the auger is withdrawn leaving a column of grout reinforced earth.

Piles

Factors influencing choice of pile

Location and type of structure Ground conditions Durability Cost

There are many factors that can affect the choice of a piled foundation. All factors need to be considered and their relative importance taken into account before reaching a final decision.

Factors influencing choice of pile

Location and type of structure

For structures over water, such as wharves and jetties, driven piles or driven cast-in-place piles (in which the shell remains in place) are the most suitable. On land the choice is not so straight forward. Driven cast-in-place types are usually the cheapest for moderate loadings. However, it is often necessary for piles to be installed without causing any significant ground heave or vibrations because of their proximity to existing structures. In such cases, the bored cast-in-place pile is the most suitable. For heavy structures exerting large foundation loads, large-diameter bored piles are usually the most economical. Jacked piles are suitable for underpinning existing structures.

Factors influencing choice of pile

Ground conditions
Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground containing boulders, or in clays when ground heave would be detrimental. Similarly, bored piles would not be suitable in loose water-bearing sand, and under-reamed bases cannot be used in cohesionless soils since they are susceptible to collapse before the concrete can be placed.

Factors influencing choice of pile

Durability
This tends to affect the choice of material. For example, concrete piles are usually used in marine conditions since steel piles are susceptible to corrosion in such conditions and timber piles can be attacked by boring molluscs. However, on land, concrete piles are not always the best choice, especially where the soil contains sulphates or other harmful substances.

Factors influencing choice of pile

Cost
In coming to the final decision over the choice of pile, cost has considerable importance. The overall cost of installing piles includes the actual cost of the material, the times required for piling in the construction plan, test loading, the cost of the engineer to oversee installation and loading and the cost of organisation and overheads incurred between the time of initial site clearance and the time when construction of the superstructure can proceed.

Piles

Pile groups
Piles are more usually installed in groups, rather than as single piles. A pile group must be considered as a composite block of piles and soil, and not a multiple set of single piles. The capacity of each pile may be affected by the driving of subsequent piles in close proximity. Compaction of the soil between adjacent piles is likely to lead to higher contact stresses and thus higher shaft capacities for those piles. The ultimate capacity of a pile group is not always dependent on the individual capacity of each pile. When analysing the capacity of a pile group 3 modes of failure must be considered. Single pile failure Failure of rows of piles Block failure The methods of insertion, ground conditions, the geometry of the pile group and how the group is capped all effect how any pile group will behave. If the group should fail as a block, full shaft friction will only be mobilised around the perimeter of the block and so any increase in shaft capacity of individual piles is irrelevant. The area of the whole base of the block must be used in calculating the end bearing capacity and not just the base areas of the individual piles in the group. Such block failure is likely to occur if piles are closely spaced or if a ground-contacting pile cap is used. Failure of rows of piles is likely to occur where pile spacing in one direction is much greater than in the perpendicular direction.

Bearing capacity

Failure mechanisms and derivation of equations Bearing capacity of shallow foundations

Presumed bearing values Bearing capacity of piles

The ultimate load which a foundation can support may be calculated using bearing capacity theory. For preliminary design, presumed bearing values can be used to indicate the pressures which would normally result in an adequate factor of safety. Alternatively, there is a range of empirical methods based on in situ test results. The ultimate bearing capacity (qf) is the value of bearing stress which causes a sudden catastrophic settlement of the foundation (due to shear failure). The allowable bearing capacity (qa) is the maximum bearing stress that can be applied to the foundation such that it is safe against instability due to shear failure and the maximum tolerable settlement is not exceeded. The allowable bearing capacity is normally calculated from the ultimate bearing capacity using a factor of safety (Fs). When excavating for a foundation, the stress at founding level is relieved by the removal of the weight of soil. The net bearing pressure (qn) is the increase in stress on the soil. qn = q - qo qo = D where D is the founding depth and is the unit weight of the soil removed.

Failure mechanisms and derivation of equations

Bearing capacity

Upper and lower bound solutions Semi-circular slip mechanism Circular arc slip mechanism

A relatively undeformed wedge of soil below the foundation forms an active Rankine zone with angles (45 + '/2). The wedge pushes soil outwards, causing passive Rankine zones to form with angles (45 - '/2). The transition zones take the form of log spiral fans.

For purely cohesive soils ( = 0) the transition zones become circular for which Prandtl had shown in 1920 that the solution is qf = (2 + ) su = 5.14 su This equation is based on a weightless soil. Therefore if the soil is non-cohesive (c=0) the bearing capacity depends on the surcharge qo. For a footing founded at depth D below the surface, the surcharge qo = . Normally for a shallow foundation (D<B), the shear strength of the soil between the surface and the founding depth D is neglected. radius of the fan r = r0 .exp[ .tan ']. is the fan angle in radians (between 0 and /2) ' is the angle of friction of the soil ro = B/[2 cos(45+ '/2)]

Upper and lower bound solutions

Failure mechanisms and derivation of equations

The bearing capacity of a soil can be investigated using the limit theorems of ideal rigidperfectly-plastic materials. The ultimate load capacity of a footing can be estimated by assuming a failure mechanism and then applying the laws of statics to that mechanism. As the mechanisms considered in an upper bound solution are progressively refined, the calculated collapse load decreases. As more stress regions are considered in a lower bound solution, the calculated collapse load increases. Therefore, by progressive refinement of the upper and lower bound solutions, the exact solution can be approached. For example, Terzaghi's mechanism gives the exact solution for a strip footing.

Semi-circular slip mechanism

Failure mechanisms and derivation of equations

Suppose the mechanism is assumed to have a semi-circular slip surface. In this case, failure will cause a rotation about point O. Any surcharge qo will resist rotation, so the net pressure (q - qo) is used. Using the equations of statics: Moment causing rotation = load x lever arm = [(q - qo) x B] x [B] Moment resisting rotation = shear strength x length of arc x lever arm = [s] x [ .B] x [B]

At failure these are equal: (q - qo ) x B x B = s x .B x B Net pressure (q - qo ) at failure = 2 x shear strength of the soil This is an upper-bound solution.

Circular arc slip mechanism

Failure mechanisms and derivation of equations

Consider a slip surface which is an arc in cross section, centred above one edge of the base. Failure will cause a rotation about point O. Any surcharge qo will resist rotation so the net pressure (q - qo) is used. Using the equations of statics: Moment causing rotation = load x lever arm = [ (q - qo) x B ] x [B/2] Moment resisting rotation = shear strength x length of arc x lever arm = [s] x [2 R] x [R] At failure these are equal: (q - qo) x B x B/2 = s x 2 R x R Since R = B / sin : (q - qo ) = s x 4 /(sin ) The worst case is when tan =2 at = 1.1656 rad = 66.8 deg The net pressure (q - qo) at failure = 5.52 x shear strength of soil

Bearing capacity of shallow foundations

Bearing capacity

Bearing capacity equation (undrained) Bearing capacity equation (drained) Factor of safety

The ultimate bearing capacity of a foundation is calculated from an equation that incorporates appropriate soil parameters (e.g. shear strength, unit weight) and details about the size, shape and founding depth of the footing. Terzaghi (1943) stated the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing as a three-term expression incorporating the bearing capacity factors: Nc, Nq and N , which are related to the angle of friction ( ). qf =c.Nc +qo.Nq + .B .Ng For drained loading, calculations are in terms of effective stresses; is > 0 and N c, Nq and N are all > 0.

For undrained loading, calculations are in terms of total stresses; the undrained shear strength (su); Nq = 1.0 and N = 0 c = apparent cohesion intercept qo = . D (i.e. density x depth) D = founding depth B = breadth of foundation = unit weight of the soil removed.

Bearing capacity equation (undrained)

Bearing capacity of shallow foundations

Skempton's equation is widely used for undrained clay soils: qf = su .Ncu + qo where Ncu = Skempton's bearing capacity factor, which can be obtained from a chart or by using the following expression: Ncu = Nc.sc.dc where sc is a shape factor and dc is a depth factor. Nq = 1, N = 0, Nc = 5.14 sc = 1 + 0.2 (B/L) for B<=L dc = 1+ (0.053 D/B ) for D/B < 4

Bearing capacity equation (drained)

Bearing capacity of shallow foundations

Bearing capacity factors Shape factors Depth factors

Terzaghi (1943) stated the bearing capacity of a foundation as a three-term expression incorporating the bearing capacity factors Nc, Nq and N . He proposed the following equation for the ultimate bearing capacity of a long strip footing: qf =c.Nc +qo.Nq + .B .N This equation is applicable only for shallow footings carrying vertical non-eccentric loading. For rectangular and circular foundations, shape factors are introduced. qf = c .Nc .sc + qo .Nq .sq + .B .N .sg Other factors can be used to accommodate depth, inclination of loading, eccentricity of loading, inclination of base and ground. Depth is only significant if it exceeds the breadth.

Bearing capacity factors

Bearing capacity equation (drained)

The bearing capacity factors relate to the drained angle of friction ( '). The c.Nc term is the contribution from soil shear strength, the qo.Nq term is the contribution from the surcharge pressure above the founding level, the .B. .Ng term is the contribution from the self weight of the soil. Terzaghi's analysis was based on an active wedge with angles ' rather than (45+ '/2), and his bearing capacity factors are in error, particularly for low values of '. Commonly used values for Nq and Nc are derived from the PrandtlReissner expression giving

Exact values for Ng are not directly obtainable; values have been proposed by Brinch Hansen (1968), which are widely used in Europe, and also by Meyerhof (1963), which have been adopted in North America. Brinch Hansen: N = 1.8 (Nq - 1) tan ' Meyerhof: N = (Nq - 1) tan(1.4 ')

Shape factors

Bearing capacity equation (drained) Terzaghi presented modified versions of his bearing capacity equation for shapes of foundation other than a long strip, and these have since been expressed as shape factors. Brinch Hansen and Vesic (1963) have suggested shape factors which depend on '. However, modified versions of the Terzaghi factors are usually considered sufficiently accurate for most purposes. sc sq s square 1.3 1.2 0.8 circle 1.3 1.2 0.6 rectangle (B<L) 1+ 0.2(B/L) 1+ 0.2(B/L) 1 - 0.4(B/L) B = breadth, L = length

Depth factors

Bearing capacity equation (drained) It is usual to assume an increase in bearing capacity when the depth (D) of a foundation is greater than the breadth (B). The general bearing capacity equation can be modified by the inclusion of depth factors. qf = c.Nc.dc + qo.Nq.dq + B. .d for D>B:

dc = 1 + 0.4 arctan(D/B) dq = 1 + 2 tan( '(1-sin ') arctan(B/D) d = 1.0 for D=<B: dc = 1 + 0.4(D/B) dq = 1 + 2 tan( '(1-sin ') (B/D) d = 1.0

Factor of safety

Bearing capacity of shallow foundations A factor of safety Fs is used to calculate the allowable bearing capacity qa from the ultimate bearing pressure qf. The value of Fs is usually taken to be 2.5 - 3.0. The factor of safety should be applied only to the increase in stress, i.e. the net bearing pressure qn. Calculating qa from qf only satisfies the criterion of safety against shear failure. However, a value for Fs of 2.5 - 3.0 is sufficiently high to empirically limit settlement. It is for this reason that the factors of safety used in foundation design are higher than in other areas of geotechnical design. (For slopes, the factor of safety would typically be 1.3 - 1.4). Experience has shown that the settlement of a typical foundation on soft clay is likely to be acceptable if a factor of 2.5 is used. Settlements on stiff clay may be quite large even though ultimate bearing capacity is relatively high, and so it may be appropriate to use a factor nearer 3.0.

Bearing capacity For preliminary design purposes, BS 8004 gives presumed bearing values which are the pressures which would normally result in an adequate factor of safety against shear failure for particular soil types, but without consideration of settlement. Category Types of rocks and soils Presumed bearing value Non-cohesive soils Dense gravel or dense sand and gravel >600 kN/m Medium dense gravel, <200 to 600 kN/m or medium dense sand and gravel Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel <200 kN/m Compact sand >300 kN/m Medium dense sand 100 to 300 kN/m <100 kN/m depends on Loose sand degree of looseness Cohesive soils Very stiff bolder clays & hard clays 300 to 600 kN/m

Presumed bearing values

Stiff clays Firm clay Soft clays and silts Very soft clay Peat Made ground

150 to 300 kN/m 75 to 150 kN/m < 75 kN/m Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable

Presumed bearing values for Keuper Marl

Weathering Zone Description Presumed bearing value as cohesive soil 125 to 250 kN/m 250 to 500 kN/m 500 to 750 kN/m 750 to 1000 kN/m Bearing capacity

Fully weathered IVb Matrix only Matrix with occasional pellets less than IVa 3mm Partially III Matrix with lithorelitics up to 25mm weathered Angular blocks of unweathered marl with II virtually no matrix Unweathered 1 Mudstone (often not fissured)

Bearing capacity of piles

Driven piles in non-cohesive soil Bored piles in non-cohesive soil Driven piles in cohesive soil Bored piles in cohesive soil Carrying capacity of piles in a layered soil Effects of ground water

The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile used in design may be one three values: the maximum load Qmax, at which further penetration occurs without the load increasing; a calculated value Qf given by the sum of the end-bearing and shaft resistances; or the load at which a settlement of 0.1 diameter occurs (when Qmax is not clear). For large-diameter piles, settlement can be large, therefore a safety factor of 2-2.5 is usually used on the working load. A pile loaded axially will carry the load: partly by shear stresses ( s) generated along the shaft of the pile and partly by normal stresses (qb) generated at the base. The ultimate capacity Qf of a pile is equal to the base capacity Qb plus the shaft capacity Qs.

where Ab is the area of the base and As is the surface area of the shaft within a soil layer. Full shaft capacity is mobilised at much smaller displacements than those related to full base resistance. This is important when determining the settlement response of a pile. The same overall bearing capacity may be achieved with a variety of combinations of pile diameter and length. However, a long slender pile may be shown to be more efficient than a short stubby pile. Longer piles generate a larger proportion of their full capacity by skin friction and so their full capacity can be mobilised at much lower settlements. The proportions of capacity contributed by skin friction and end bearing do not just depend on the geometry of the pile. The type of construction and the sequence of soil layers are important factors.

Qf = Qb + Qs = Ab . qb + (As . s)

Driven piles in non-cohesive soil

Bearing capacity of piles

Ultimate pile capacity Standard penetration test Cone penetration test

Driving a pile has different effects on the soil surrounding it depending on the relative density of the soil. In loose soils, the soil is compacted, forming a depression in the ground around the pile. In dense soils, any further compaction is small, and the soil is displaced upward causing ground heave. In loose soils, driving is preferable to boring since compaction increases the end-bearing capacity. In non-cohesive soils, skin friction is low because a low friction 'shell' forms around the pile. Tapered piles overcome this problem since the soil is recompacted on each blow and this gap cannot develop. Pile capacity can be calculated using soil properties obtained from standard penetration tests or cone penetration tests. The ultimate load must then be divided by a factor of safety to obtain a working load. This factor of safety depends on the maximum tolerable settlement, which in turn depends on both the pile diameter and soil compressibility. For example, a safety factor of 2.5 will usually ensure a pile of diameter less than 600mm in a non-cohesive soil will not settle by more than 15mm. Although the method of installing a pile has a significant effect on failure load, there are no reliable calculation methods available for quantifying any effect. Judgement is therefore left to the experience of the engineer.

Ultimate pile capacity

Driven piles in non-cohesive soil

The ultimate carrying capacity of a pile is: Qf = Qb + Qs The base resistance, Qb can be found from Terzaghi's equation for bearing capacity, qf = 1.3 c Nc + qo Nq + 0.4 B N The 0.4 term may be ignored, since the diameter is considerably less than the depth of the pile. The 1.3 c Nc term is zero, since the soil is non-cohesive. The net unit base resistance is therefore

qnf = qf - qo = qo (Nq -1)

and the net total base resistance is

Qb = qo (Nq -1) Ab
The ultimate unit skin friction (shaft) resistance can be found from qs = Ks . 'v .tan where 'v = average vertical effective stress in a given layer = angle of wall friction, based on pile material and Ks = earth pressure coefficient Therefore, the total skin friction resistance is given by the sum of the layer resistances:

Qs = (Ks . 'v .tan .As)

The self-weight of the pile may be ignored, since the weight of the concrete is almost equal to the weight of the soil displaced. Therefore, the ultimate pile capacity is:

Qf = Ab qo Nq + (Ks . 'v .tan .As)

Values of Ks and can be related to the angle of internal friction ( ) using the following table according to Broms. Material steel concrete timber 20 3/4 2/3 Ks low density high density 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.0 2.0 4.0

It must be noted that, like much of pile design, this is an empirical relationship. Also, from empirical methods it is clear that Qs and Qb both reach peak values somewhere at a depth between 10 and 20 diameters. It is usually assumed that skin friction never exceeds 110 kN/m and base resistance will not exceed 11000 kN/m.

Standard penetration test

Driven piles in non-cohesive soil The standard penetration test is a simple in-situ test in which the N-value is the mumber of blows taken to drive a 50mm diameter bar 300mm into the base of a bore hole. Schmertmann (1975) has correlated N-values obtained from SPT tests against effective overburden stress as shown in the figure. The effective overburden stress = the weight of material above the base of the borehole the wight of water e.g. depth of soil = 5m, depth of water = 4m, unit weight of soil = 20kN/m, 'v = 5m x 20kN/m - 4m x 9.81kN/m 60 kN/m Once a value for has been estimated, bearing capacity factors can be determined and used in the usual way. Meyerhof (1976) produced correlations between base and frictional resistances and Nvalues. It is recommended that N-values first be normalised with respect to effective overburden stress:

Normalised N = Nmeasured x 0.77 log(1920/ v) Ultimate base resistance Ultimate shaft resistance Pile type Soil type qb (kPa) qs (kPa) Driven Gravelly sand Sand Sandy silt Silt Bored Gravel and sands 40(L/d) N but < 400 N 20(L/d) N but < 300 N 13(L/d) N but < 300 N 13(L/d) N but < 300 N 2 Navg

Navg

Sandy silt Silt L = embedded length d = shaft diameter Navg = average value along shaft

Cone penetration test

Driven piles in non-cohesive soil

End-bearing resistance The end-bearing capacity of the pile is assumed to be equal to the unit cone resistance (qc). However, due to normally occurring variations in measured cone resistance, Van der Veen's averaging method is used: qb = average cone resistance calculated over a depth equal to three pile diameters above to one pile diameter below the base level of the pile. Shaft resistance The skin friction can also be calculated from the cone penetration test from values of local side friction or from the cone resistance value using an empirical relationship: At a given depth, qs = Sp. qc where Sp = a coefficient dependent on the type of pile Type of pile Sp Solid timber ) Pre-cast concrete ) 0.005 - 0.012 Solid steel driven ) Open-ended steel 0.003 - 0.008

Bored piles in non-cohesive soil

Bearing capacity of piles The design process for bored piles in granular soils is essentially the same as that for driven piles. It must be assumed that boring loosens the soil and therefore, however dense the soil, the value of the angle of friction used for calculating Nq values for end bearing and values for skin friction must be those assumed for loose soil. However, if rotary drilling is carried out under a bentonite slurry ' can be taken as that for the undisturbed soil.

Driven piles in cohesive soil

Bearing capacity of piles Driving piles into clays alters the physical characteristics of the soil. In soft clays, driving piles results in an increase in pore water pressure, causing a reduction in effective stress;.a degree of ground heave also occurs. As the pore water pressure dissipates with time and the ground subsides, the effective stress in the soil will increase. The increase in 'v leads to an increase in the bearing capacity of the pile with time. In most cases, 75% of the ultimate bearing capacity is achieved within 30 days of driving. For piles driven into stiff clays, a little consolidation takes place, the soil cracks and is heaved up. Lateral vibration of the shaft from each blow of the hammer forms an enlarged hole, which can then fill with groundwater or extruded porewater. This, and 'strain softening', which occurs due to the large strains in the clay as the pile is advanced,

lead to a considerable reduction in skin friction compared with the undisturbed shear strength (su) of the clay. To account for this in design calculations an adhesion factor, , is introduced. Values of can be found from empirical data previously recorded. A maximum value (for stiff clays) of 0.45 is recommended. The ultimate bearing capacity Qf of a driven pile in cohesive soil can be calculated from: Qf = Qb + Qs where the skin friction term is a summation of layer resistances Qs = ( .su(avg) .As) and the end bearing term is Qb = su .Nc .Ab Nc = 9.0 for clays and silty clays.

Bored piles in cohesive soil

Bearing capacity of piles Following research into bored cast-in-place piles in London clay, calculation of the ultimate bearing capacity for bored piles can be done the same way as for driven piles. The adhesion factor should be taken as 0.45. It is thought that only half the undisturbed shear strength is mobilised by the pile due to the combined effect of swelling, and hence softening, of the clay in the walls of the borehole. Softening results from seepage of water from fissures in the clay and from the un-set concrete, and also from 'work softening' during the boring operation. The mobilisation of full end-bearing capacity by large-diameter piles requires much larger displacements than are required to mobilise full skin-friction, and therefore safety factors of 2.5 to 3.0 may be required to avoid excessive settlement at working load.

Carrying capacity of piles in layered soil

Bearing capacity of piles When a pile extends through a number of different layers of soil with different properties, these have to be taken into account when calculating the ultimate carrying capacity of the pile. The skin friction capacity is calculated by simply summing the amounts of resistance each layer exerts on the pile. The end bearing capacity is calculated just in the layer where the pile toe terminates. If the pile toe terminates in a layer of dense sand or stiff clay overlying a layer of soft clay or loose sand there is a danger of it punching through to the weaker layer. To account for this, Meyerhof's equation is used.

The base resistance at the pile toe is qp = q2 + (q1 -q2)H / 10B but q1 where B is the diameter of the pile, H is the thickness between the base of the pile and the top of the weaker layer, q2 is the ultimate base resistance in the weak layer, q1 is the ultimate base resistance in the strong layer.

Effects of groundwater

Bearing capacity of piles The presence and movement of groundwater affects the carrying capacity of piles, the processes of construction and sometimes the durability of piles in service. Effect on bearing capacity In cohesive soils, the permeability is so low that any movement of water is very slow. They do not suffer any reduction in bearing capacity in the presence of groundwater. In granular soils, the position of the water table is important. Effective stresses in saturated sands can be as much as 50% lower than in dry sand; this affects both the endbearing and skin-friction capacity of the pile. Effects on construction When a concrete cast-in-place pile is being installed and the bottom of the borehole is below the water table, and there is water in the borehole, a 'tremie' is used. With its lower end lowered to the bottom of the borehole, the tremmie is filled with concrete and then slowly raised, allowing concrete to flow from the bottom. As the tremie is raised during the concreting it must be kept below the surface of the concrete in the

pile. Before the tremie is withdrawn completely sufficient concrete should be placed to displace all the free water and watery cement. If a tremie is not used and more than a few centimetres of water lie in the bottom of the borehole, separation of the concrete can take place within the pile, leading to a significant reduction in capacity. A problem can also arise when boring takes place through clays. Site investigations may show that a pile should terminate in a layer of clay. However, due to natural variations in bed levels, there is a risk of boring extending into underlying strata. Unlike the clay, the underlying beds may be permeable and will probably be under a considerable head of water. The 'tapping' of such aquifers can be the cause of difficulties during construction. Effects on piles in service The presence of groundwater may lead to corrosion or deterioration of the pile's fabric. In the case of steel piles, a mixture of water and air in the soil provides conditions in which oxidation corrosion of steel can occur; the presence of normally occurring salts in groundwater may accelerate the process. In the case of concrete piles, the presence of salts such as sulphates or chlorides can result in corrosion of reinforcement, with possible consequential bursting of the concrete. Therefore, adequate cover must be provided to the reinforcement, or the reinforcement itself must be protected in some way. Sulphate attack on the cement compounds in concrete may lead to the expansion and subsequent cracking. Corrosion problems are minimised if the concrete has a high cement/aggregate ratio and is well compacted during placement.