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Libyas Great Man-Made River and the Supply of Water during Libyas Conflict
Comprehensive Information on Complex Crises

Angelia Sanders, MPH November 2011 Mediterranean Basin Knowledge Manager angelia.sanders@cimicweb.org

This document examines the provision of water in Libya. Related information is available at www.cimicweb.org. Hyperlinks to source material are highlighted in blue and underlined in the text. A list of acronyms is provided on the final page.

eptember 2011 marked the 20th anniversary of the first time water was pumped from the southern deserts of Libya to the populated towns of the coast through the project called The Great Man-Made River (GMMR). According to the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), the GMMR is among the largest civil engineering projects in the world. However, despite this civil engineering marvel, Libyans experienced a water crisis as the Libyan conflict adversely impacted cities across Libya. This report will provide a background on Libyas water resources, with a special look at the GMMR. It will also provide information on the water emergency that occurred in Libya and how international agencies and actors worked to provide water to the people. Background Libya is 95% desert and has an extremely low annual rainfall with 93% of the land surface receiving less than 100 mm/year, reports the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). The countrys climatic conditions are influenced by the Sahara desert to the south and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. These conditions create an abrupt change in weather patterns between the two regions and most rainfall is concentrated in the northern Tripoli and Benghazi region. According to the FOA, Libya has no continuous water sources and historically, drinking water was obtained from aquifers located in the coastal areas and from desalinated sea water. These historical water management practices created challenges and impacted water resources within the country. One problem with the coastal aquifers was that as water was removed from the aquifer, it was replaced by salty sea water, causing increased salinity in the water table, according to a BBC News report. As a result of this contamination in the aquifers, the water became unusable for agriculture and unhealthy to drink, to the point that water in the city of Benghazi was non-potable. In the 1980s, in response to the growing water emergency, the Libyan government undertook a massive infrastructure project to build a man-made river. This project would tap into the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS) and other ground water sites. According to the UN International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the NSAS is one of the largest and most important underground aquifers in the world. The 2 million square kilometre (km2) water system holds twice the water of the Caspian Sea. This water is referred to as fossil water because it originated during the last ice age, approximately 210,000 to 1 million years ago, when the climate was wet and rich in rainfall. Due to the enclosed nature of the water system and limited rainfall since the last ice age, the aquifer is largely nonrenewable, states the IAEA.

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The distribution of the water within the NSAS is uneven, with some areas having more groundwater than others. The NSAS lies below the eastern parts of the Sahara in Libya, Sudan, Egypt and Chad. All four countries share the common geographical characteristics of extremely arid climates, low irregular rainfall, fragile ecosystems, persistent drought and scarce surface water sources. According to IAEA, the land is highly susceptible to desertification and land degradation; hence the population of those living directly above the NSAS is estimated to be only 763,000 with 37% in Sudan, 29% in Libya, 24% in Egypt and 10% in Chad.

Source: Adapted from The Economist, Plumbing the Sahara

Table 1. Estimation of Groundwater Storage in Nubian Aquifer of North Africa

Source: UNESCO 2006, Non-Renewable Groundwater Resources

During the oil exploration of the 1950s and 1960s, Libya discovered deep underground freshwater systems. According to the UNEP, three groundwater systems contribute to meet almost 95% of Libyas current water needs. The Murzuk1 Basin Aquifer System, located in Libya, Algeria and Niger; the North-Western Sahara Aquifer System (NWSAS) located in Libya, Algeria and Tunisia; and the NSAS which is comprised of the Hamada, Kufra and Sirte sub-basins.2 The Murzuk and Kufra groundwater basins located in the southern desert account for two-thirds of the groundwater reserves used by Libyans. After the aquifers of the NSAS were discovered, the water was first utilized to develop several agricultural projects in remote desert areas close to the wells. However, there continued to be a need to provide potable water to the 90% of the Libyan population living in coastal areas that had been relying on desalination plants. Since moving the people to the water was deemed impractical, the GMMR project was initiated to move the water to the people.

1 2

This report will use the UNESCO spelling for Murzuk. Another common form of spelling for the word is Murzuq. This information is taken from a map provided in The Economist.

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The Great Man Made River The GMMR project officially began implementation in 1984 at an estimated cost of over USD 30 billion. Unlike most large scale projects in developing countries, Libya did not have to rely on significant loans from international banks or funds. According to BBC, the Libyan government instead has been able to pay for the project with funds taken mostly from Libyas nationalised oil sector. Additionally, in the initial stages of the project, foreign companies from Germany, Japan, Philippines, South Korea, Turkey and the United Kingdom were brought in to provide the technical and engineering expertise. Since 1990, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has contributed to the training of Above: A map of the GMMR water project in Libya, as seen on the 20 engineers and technicians, the setting up of a dinar currency training centre and the establishment of a technical documentation centre. Today Libyan workers comprise 70% of the manufacturing jobs and the majority of the manufacturing that supports the GMMR is done in Libya. The GMMR construction project consists of five main phases. The first three phases have been completed.3 1. Phase one began in 1984 in the arid southeastern region. Water can be transported 1,600 km from the well fields into two coastal areas (Benghazi and Sirte). Two reservoirs were established with a capacity of 20 million cubic metres of water. Transport capacity reached 2 million cubic metres per day. 2. Phase two brought water along a 1,227 km long pipeline from the northwest Sahara Basin, located in the western part of Libya, to Tripoli. This pipeline can transport 2.5 million cubic metres of water per day. 3. Phase three extended the first phase pipeline deeper into the desert by 383 km and added 7 new pumping stations which transport an additional 1.68 million cubic metres of water per day. To be completed: 4. Phase four will extend the distribution network and involve the construction of a 621 km pipeline between the Ajdadiya coastal reservoirs to Tobruk city on the northeast coast. 5. Phase five will comment the western and

Above: Image of changes in agricultural production as a result of irrigation from the GMMR. Source: UN Environment Programme, Global Resource Information Database
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Maps and descriptions from the UN Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), the Economist, and the BBC each describe a different third stage phase being completed. For purposes of this paper the information used in regards to the 5 phases is taken from BOINC, a mostly volunteer program funded by the National Science Foundation.

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eastern transporting systems into a single network in Sirte. According to the FAO, the General Water Authority (GWA) was established in 1972 and is responsible for all water resource assessment and monitoring, and supervising irrigation and drainage projects within Libya. The GWA comprises six General Directorates: Planning; Follow-up and Statistics; Water Resources; Dams, Irrigation and Drainage; Soils; and Finance and Administration. The GMMR Authority (GMRA) was established in 1983 to implement and manage the GMMR. The Secretariat of Municipalities supervises the supply of water to urban settlements and a special authority called the Great Manmade River Water Utilization Authority was established to oversee the use of water transported on the GMMR for agricultural purposes.4 Water for Agriculture Agriculture accounts for 80% of Libyas overall water usage and uses 65-70% of the GMMRs water supply. Need for water provided through irrigation is expected to increase from 1.4 million cubic metres per day to 2.2 million cubic metres per day over the next three years. According to the FAO, irrigated farming systems are crucial in generating much of the countrys agricultural output. Almost 90% of the fruit and vegetable production and 50% of the cereal production originates from irrigated agriculture. In 2006, agriculture accounted for 5% of employment and 9% of Libyas GDP. The Libyan irrigation sub-sector has three different categories of farming: 1. Private irrigation receives substantial state support for water equipment, energy and agricultural inputs and is mostly located in the traditional development areas of the Jifarah Plain, the Jabal al Akhdar and the Murzuk Basin area. Farming plots range from 1-5 hectares. 2. Large-scale state farming mostly located in the southern areas and supplied by the deep wells that connect the water in the aquifers to the farms. Blocks of land are divided into small plots which are cultivated by small-scale farmers. 3. Large-scale state farming which is located in the desert areas and is based on water pivot systems and operated by state technicians and workers.5 The FAO reported that the origin of water used for irrigation is 99% groundwater and 1% primary surface and treated waste water; highlighting the importance of groundwaters role in Libyas food security. Additionally the need to irrigate farms from water deep in the ground and the challenge of growing crops on shallow coarse soils that have high erosion risks, results in it being cheaper for Libya to import agricultural products rather than use limited water sources for crop production. However, Libya has consistently sought to have a degree of food security and has taken steps to develop irrigated agriculture for this reason. This decision could be attributed to the unpredictability of international sanctions on the country and, therefore, Libyas desire to be able to Source: UNEP Africa Water Atlas (2010) maintain a high level of food security amidst sanctions. Agricultural self-sufficiency became an issue during the current conflict when the public food distribution system began to be disrupted and the need for emergency food assistance increased.
4

Only the Great Man Made River Project has a functioning website. The GMMR Water Utilization Authority and the General Water Authority do not have functioning websites. Information gathered was taken from the FOA link provided. 5 Pivot systems are farms developed in a circular pattern to allow for water to be distributed more efficiently. Sprinkler heads are close to plants which help decrease evaporation and water drifting in the breeze. This system also causes the plants to receive water on a regular, consistent basis which promotes deep root growth.

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Agriculture is not the only consumer of the GMMRs water. According to Global Water Intelligence, a company which provides high-value business information for the water industry, the water demand in Libya is expected to continue growing, especially in the area of municipal consumption. In 2010 the GWA forecasted a volumetric increase of about 10% every five years up to 2025 if government spending and development plans continue in sectors such as housing, health and education. The Libyan Conflict and Its Impact on Water Supply According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the water infrastructure suffered light structural damages during the fighting. However, because of the interconnectedness of the fuel, electric and water systems, a problem in one sector impacted other systems. Fuel scarcities affect the energy supply which in turn affects the water supply from the GMMR and the desalination plants. This is because the large water-treatment plants rely on electricity to move the water from the wells to the reservoirs and to the tap. According to Reuters, Libya uses its gas and diesel supplies to generate electricity for domestic consumption and imports petrol to supply vehicles with fuel. However, over Source: Global Water Intelligence the course of the conflict, the supply of diesel was impacted by anti-Gaddafi forces shutting off oil supplies at refinery stations, damages sustained to refinery stations as a result of fighting, and the smuggling of diesel out of the country.6 In July 2011, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) cluster7 was concerned about the impact that fuel and electricity shortages would have on the GMMRs ability to continue to supply water. The WASH sectors ability to respond to the water needs of citizens was hampered by the sheer magnitude of the problems which included the extensive damage to the power structure, lack of maintenance of the systems and the high demand for spare parts. Regions throughout the country experienced varying degrees of water shortages at different points throughout the conflict amidst concerns that control over the GMMR could be used as a humanitarian weapon. In April 2011, previous Gaddafi government officials warned that a human and environmental disaster could occur if NATO-led airstrikes damaged the GMMR system. An official from the GMMR Authority (GMRA) in Benghazi stated that a water crisis was an unavoidable result of fighting in Tripoli. The combination of attacks on the water network staff, power outages, and a reservoir being held hostage by pro-Gaddafi fighters led to water shortages in Tripoli. Additionally, power outages stopped the pipeline pumps from bringing supplies of new water. According to OCHA, Tripoli and surrounding areas began to experience a shortage of water on 22 August. Some regional water reservoirs, originally kept full by water pumped through the GMMR, became empty. This forced people to rely upon a limited, local bottled-water supply. The disruption to the GMMR left 4 million residents of Tripoli without potable tap water. Residents began to haul water into town in tanker trucks and distribute it outside of mosques, in parking lots and on the
6

The shortage of petrol for vehicles led to the smuggling of Libyan diesel out of Libya into neighbouring countries so that it could be exchanged for petrol. Petrol was then brought back into Libya and sold for vehicle use at high rates. 7 The Cluster Approach is used if a major new emergency requires a multi-sector response with participation of a wide range of international humanitarian actors. In Libya the clusters include: Food Security; Logistics; Multi-Sector; Health; Information Management; Emergency Shelter; Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH); Protection; Education; Emergency Telecommunications; and Early Recovery Working Group.

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street. Amidst rumours that Gaddafi forces poisoned water sources at water plants, the minister for capacity building in the National Transitional Council (NTC), Farage Sayeh, said in an interview in late August that the rebels had turned off the citys water supply. However he stated that water is the priority No. 1 for usthe first meeting this morning was about providing a fresh water supply to the people. The Humanitarian Response and Restoration of Services In response to water shortages, the NTC requested assistance from the international community in the form of bulk water to be distributed as a stop-gap measure until the water system could be fully restored. At the end of August and into September, UN agencies and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) delivered over 200,000 litres of bottled water to Tripoli. UNICEF, the lead agency for water, sanitation and hygiene in the Libyan crisis response, worked to procure approximately five million litres of water from neighbouring countries to be trucked or shipped into Tripoli. Greece airlifted 48,000 bottles of water to Tripoli at the beginning of September. Greeces Prime Minister George Papandreou stated that Greece was in a position to transport up to 175,000 cubic metres of water every ten days in an effort to increase Tripolis potable water reserves by 50%. Malta sent a tanker carrying 300 tonnes of potable water to Tripoli in coordination with the NTC and a Malta based NGO I-Go Aid Foundation. During this time the NTC planned to establish a reservoir of potable water to be used by residents in the event of further delays in repairing the water network.8 Due in part to the fact that the looting of GMMR Authority offices and supplies resulted in an urgent need for water quality surveillance equipment and water treatment chemicals, the Arabian Gulf company AGECO provided 200 tonnes of Belgard Antiscalant chemicals to be distributed to all of the eastern desalination plants. During the month of September, the water situation began to improve. By 05 September, 90% of water supplies were restored to residents in Tripoli and the surrounding areas. The NTC reported that anti-Gaddafi forces had control of much of the GMMR though some parts of the system were still controlled by proGaddafi forces. Later in September, locally bottled drinking water became available on the market though production was at a reduced level. Eight of 25 bottled water companies were able to resume production though their capacity was limited due to their inability to procure product inputs. UNICEF worked with local authorities to facilitate an assessment of water wells and identify alternative water sources. Despite these moves to bring the GMMR back to full capacity, UN Security Council, international organisations and country sanctions imposed on Libya during the beginning of the conflict have impacted the ability of Libya to access the pumps, motors, generators, and spare parts needed to maintain, repair and rebuild the water network. Discourse Surrounding the GMMR There continues to be debate on the usefulness and viability of the GMMR. In 2000, a Libyan hydrologist with the NSAS Programme, Mohamed Bakhbakhi, stated that The difficult choice is between two development options. Do we want large-scale extraction of ground water for maximum benefit of the present generation or limited extraction that ensures sustainable development and conservation of the resource base? According to the UN IAEA, the challenge in evaluating the GMMRs impact in the region is the inability to fully assess the water reservoirs from which it draws. For example, hydrologists do not know how water is distributed throughout the underground systems both vertically and laterally and whether current technologies will continue to have the ability to access the various levels of water. It is also difficult to determine the criteria on how best to rationally use the water. A report by the Christian Science Monitor cites critics who believe that water sources feeding the GMMR could be depleted in as soon as 60 to 100 years. Ecologists have objections to the removal of water from non-renewable water resources and the potential for unknown environmental impacts.
8

As of 29 September UNICEF had 1.3 million litres of the total 10 million litres of water stored in warehouses in Tripoli and Misrata.

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According to the UN IAEA, a certain degree of over-abstraction has already begun and the depletion and dissection of interconnected sub-basins can leave large intermediate underground areas and oases dry. In Libyas Kufra sub-basin, the pumping of water for the GMMR has already reduced water levels. In areas at the fringes of the NSAS, where freshwater interfaces with saltwater, there is a higher potential for water abstraction to leave gaps underground that can become filled with saline water which compromises water quality. According to UNESCO, the part of the GMMR that draws from the north-western Sahara aquifer system (NWSAS) is expected to cause an 80 metre drop in water in the next 50 years if the GMMR system continues to operate at full capacity. The Economist additionally reports that the withdrawals from the NWSAS has increased nine fold between 1950 and 2008 resulting in some springs drying up and soil salinity to increase. Currently, only northern and northwest region aquifers have the ability to recharge. Other critics of the GMMR point to the possibility of future conflicts over the degree to which countries should have access to the aquifers that lie under multiple political borders. And finally, some economists criticise Libyas use of more expensive crop cultivations which rely on water pumped from the ground rather than using the less expensive method of importing food from abroad.

Source: UNESCO 2006, Non-Renewable Groundwater Resources

In response to the critics, IAEA shows that only a small fraction of the NSAS has been tapped and there continues to be a massive amount of water available for use. Some estimates put the depletion rate at 100 to 500 years while the Libyan government reported to the Christian Science Monitor that the water supplies will last 4,625 years according to current rates of use. GMMR supporters also assert that the water would have negligible usefulness if left untapped versus being used to support a population in need of reliable, affordable water. In regards to agriculture, state-of-the-art irrigation methods are used that are both economical and effective. This domestic agriculture also assists with developing food security and a stabilisation of food prices. According to The Economist, the economic cost of using non-renewable aquifers is approximately one tenth the cost of desalinated water production. For example, the cost of one cubic meter of GMMR water equates to 35 cents compared to USD 3.75 for one cubic meter of desalinised water. Water Management and International Cooperation Conflict mitigation and cooperation among countries using the NSAS, which supplies 70% of the water for Libyas GMMR, has already been addressed. The Joint Authority for the Management of the NSAS System was established in 1992 to enhance cooperation in managing the NSAS water resources between Egypt and Libya. In 1996, Sudan joined the Authority and was followed by Chad in 1999. Though there remains data and capacity gaps, the Nubian countries are planning to expand the monitoring and observation of the aquifer and well networks. From 1997 to 2002, a NSAS Regional Information System (NARIS) database draft was established with the goal of providing a computer-based display of hydrological maps, water-use scenarios and long-term projections. According to the UNEP, the three countries that share the North Western Sahara

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Aquifer System have also embraced an approach of joint management which includes an in-depth knowledge of the aquifer, including projections and simulations of the impacts of intensive water withdrawal. In 1999, Gaddafis government, in partnership with UNESCO, proposed and established the Great Man-Made River International Water Prize which annually recognised the achievements of an individual, a group of individuals or a research institution for making contributions in scientific research and discoveries in the field of exploration of groundwater and surface water usage in arid zones. Moving forward The GMMR is a remarkable example of modern civil engineering used to better the lives of Libyas citizens. It has helped expand Libyas agricultural sector and provided clean, affordable water to a population that is geographically far removed from its source. The majority of the water shortages that occurred during the recent conflict were a result of damages to the fuel and electrical systems that support the operation of the GMMR rather than a failure of the water system. Libya will face many challenges as it moves forward past the conflict and into the reconstruction phase. The restoration of the Libyan water supply to pre-conflict levels and attempts to expand the system in the future will be of notable interest to the world, the region and more importantly the local population who depend on the Great Man Made River for survival.

Acronym Glossary: FAO GMMR GMRA GWA IAEA ICRC NARIS NSAS NTC NWSAS OCHA UN UNEP UNESCO UNICEF WASH Food and Agricultural Organisation Great Man-Made River Great Man Made River Authority General Water Authority UN International Atomic Energy Agency International Committee of the Red Cross NSAS Regional Information System Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System National Transition Council North-Western Sahara Aquifer System United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs United Nations United Nations Environmental Program United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations Children Fund Water Sanitation and Hygiene

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