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WanderBots A Multi Robot Framework for Research Purposes

Final Year Project Report Presented By

Qazi Awais Tahir


CIIT/ SP07-BET-086/ISB

Yasir Mehboob
CIIT/ SP07-BET-119/ISB

Zeeshan-Ul-Haq
CIIT/SP07-BET-122/ISB

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical (Telecommunication) Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ISLAMABAD


February 2011

WanderBots A Multi Robot Framework for Research Purposes

Final Year Project Report Presented By

Qazi Awais Tahir


CIIT/ SP07-BET-086/ISB

Yasir Mehboob
CIIT/ SP07-BET-119/ISB

Zeeshan-Ul-Haq
CIIT/SP07-BET-122/ISB

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical (Telecommunication) Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ISLAMABAD

February 2011

Declaration
We, hereby declare that this project neither as a whole nor as a part there of has been copied out from any source. It is further declared that we have developed this project and the accompanied report entirely on the basis of our personal efforts made under the sincere guidance of our supervisor. No portion of the work presented in this report has been submitted in the support of any other degree or qualification of this or any other University or Institute of learning, if found we shall stand responsible.
Signature: ______________
Qazi Awais Tahir

Signature: ______________
Yasir Mehboob

Signature: ______________
Zeeshan-Ul-Haq

COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ISLAMABAD


I

February 2011

WanderBots A Multi Robot Framework for Research Purposes


An Undergraduate project submitted to the Department of
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING As a Partial Fulfillment for the award of Degree
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering

by
Name Qazi Awais Tahir Yasir Mehboob Zeeshan-Ul-Haq Registration Number
CIIT/SP07-BET-086/ISB CIIT/SP07-BET-119/ISB CIIT/SP07-BET-100/ISB

Supervised by

Mr. Omar Ahmed Assistant Professor,


Department Of Electrical Engineering

CIIT Islamabad

COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ISLAMABAD


February 2011
II

Dedication
We dedicate this project to our parents and family whose prayer and encouragements leads us to our goal. We also dedicate our work to our respectable teachers whose support and efforts made us able to successfully complete the project.

IV

Acknowledgements
Bundle of thanks to Almighty Allah, the most beneficent and the most merciful, who enabled us to fulfill the task assigned to us.

We are thankful to our parents and family for their love, support and prayers without that this project would not be possible.

Our special thanks to our respected supervisor Mr. Omar Ahmed for his support (Technical, financial) and guidance throughout the project. The acknowledgements will be incomplete without the names of Mr. Salman Shah whose robotic model helped us in the completion of the project. We would also like to thank Mr. Tariq Mehmood who guided us through the project and departmental issues.

Qazi Awais Tahir Yasir Mehboob Zeeshan-Ul-Haq


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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................1 1.1 ROBOTICS...........................................................................................................................1 1.2 MULTI ROBOT SYSTEMS...........................................................................................................1 1.3 RESEARCH ROBOTS................................................................................................................2 1.4 COST COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL RESEARCH ROBOTS.....................................................................2 1.4.1 Seekur....................................................................................................................2 1.4.3 Pioneer 3-AT...........................................................................................................3 1.4.4 PIONEER 3-DX.........................................................................................................4 1.4.5 AmigoBot................................................................................................................5 1.4.6 PatrolBot.................................................................................................................6 1.4.7 PatrolBot.................................................................................................................6 1.5 INDIGENOUS DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH ROBOTS............................................................................7 CHAPTER 2: ANATOMY OF MOBILE ROBOT...........................................................8 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 AUTONOMOUS OR HUMAN CONTROLLED..........................................................................................8 ROBOT BODY.......................................................................................................................8 POWER AND MOTION CONTROL....................................................................................................8 SENSING CAPABILITIES.............................................................................................................9

CHAPTER 3: DRIVE MECHANISM........................................................................10 3.1 ACKERMAN STEERING ..........................................................................................................10 3.1.1 Types of Ackerman...............................................................................................12
3.1.1.1 Zero Ackerman............................................................................................................. 12 3.1.1.2 Pro-Ackerman............................................................................................................... 12 3.1.1.3 Anti-Ackerman.............................................................................................................. 13

3.2 DIFFERENTIAL STEERING.........................................................................................................14 3.2.1 Cases....................................................................................................................14 3.2.2 Mechanical structure............................................................................................16 3.2.3 Mathematical expressions....................................................................................18 CHAPTER 4: SENSORS AND NAVIGATION DEVICES..............................................20 4.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................20 4.2 ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER....................................................................................................20 4.2.1 Ultrasound............................................................................................................20 4.2.2 Working principle..................................................................................................20 4.2.3 Comparison with Other Range Finders.................................................................24 4.2.4 Application and Uses............................................................................................25 4.3 GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION)....................................................................25 4.3.1 GSM Overview......................................................................................................25
4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.3 4.3.1.4 Services........................................................................................................................ 25 Quality of service and security..................................................................................... 26 Radio Frequency utilization.......................................................................................... 26 Network........................................................................................................................ 26

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4.3.1.5 Cost.............................................................................................................................. 26

4.3.2 GSM Architecture..................................................................................................26


4.3.2.1 Network and switching system (NSS)........................................................................... 28 4.3.2.1.4 Authentication center (AUC) ................................................................................. 28 4.3.2.1.5 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) ......................................................................... 28 4.3.2.2 The Base Station System (BSS) and Mobile station (MS)...............................................28

4.3.5 GSM Modem SIM300.............................................................................................29 4.3.6 SIM Interface........................................................................................................31 4.3.7 Introduction to AT-Commands..............................................................................31 4.4 GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)..........................................................................................33 4.4.1 Background..........................................................................................................33 4.4.2 2D-Trilateration....................................................................................................34 4.4.3 3D-Trilateration....................................................................................................36 4.4.4 GPS Calculations...................................................................................................36
4.4.4.1 Pseudo Random Code................................................................................................... 37 4.4.4.2 Measuring Distance: Summary of Discussion............................................................... 38

4.4.5 The NMEA 0183 Protocol......................................................................................39


4.4.5.1 Electrical Interface........................................................................................................ 40 4.4.5.2 General Sentence Format............................................................................................. 40 4.4.5.2.1 Proprietary Sentences:.......................................................................................... 40 4.4.5.2.2 Query sentences:.................................................................................................. 40 4.4.5.3 NMEA Protocol for GPS:................................................................................................ 41

4.4.6 HOLUX M-89 GPS module.....................................................................................41


4.4.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 41 4.4.6.2 APPLICATON................................................................................................................. 42 4.4.6.3 Pictorial View of HOLUX M-89 GPS Module.................................................................... 43 ................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.4.6.4 Specification................................................................................................................. 43 4.4.6.5 Supported NMEA sentence by HOLUX M-89.................................................................. 45

CHAPTER 5: ACTUATIONS..................................................................................46 5.1 INTRODUCTION:...................................................................................................................46 5.2 MOTORS..........................................................................................................................46 5.3 TYPES OF MOTORS..............................................................................................................46 5.3.1 DC Motor..............................................................................................................46
5.3.1.1 Voltage ........................................................................................................................ 46 5.3.1.2 Current......................................................................................................................... 47 5.3.1.2.1: Operating Current................................................................................................ 47 5.3.1.2.2: Stall Current......................................................................................................... 47 5.3.1.2 Back EMF ..................................................................................................................... 47 5.3.1.3 Control Method............................................................................................................. 47

5.3.2 Stepper Motor.......................................................................................................47


5.3.2.1 Principle of Operation................................................................................................... 48 5.3.2.2 Types of stepper motors:.............................................................................................. 49 5.3.2.2.1 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor......................................................................... 49 5.3.2.2.2 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor...................................................................... 50 5.3.2.3Advantages................................................................................................................... 51 5.3.2.4 Disadvantages.............................................................................................................. 51

5.3.3 Servo Motor..........................................................................................................52 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................55

VII

VIII

List of figures
FIGURE3.1: ILLUSTRATING THE WHEELS RADIUS DIFFERENCE.............................10 FIGURE3.2: ILLUSTRATING THE ROTATION ARM ANGLE.......................................11 FIGURE3.3: CALCULATING THE ACKERMAN ANGLE..............................................11 FIGURE3.4: ORTHOGONALITY OF STEERING ARM................................................12 FIGURE3.5: ILLUSTRATING THE ARM ANGLE >90O..............................................13 FIGURE3.6: ILLUSTRATING THE ARM ANGLE<90O...............................................13 FIGURE3.7: TWO SEPARATE ACTUATORS...........................................................14 FIGURE3.8: THE ROBOT MOVING IN THE STRAIGHT LINE.....................................14 FIGURE3.9: ROBOT FOLLOWING CURVED PATH WITH BOTH WHEELS IN MOTION. .15 FIGURE3.8: THE ROBOT MOVING IN THE CURVED PATH WITH ONE WHEEL STILL. .15 FIGURE3.9: THE ROBOT IN ROTATOR MOTION....................................................16 FIGURE3.10: RICKSHAW DESIGN.......................................................................16 FIGURE3.11: THE DESIGN WITH TWO CASTER WHEELS.......................................17 FIGURE3.12: POWER IN ALL FOUR WHEELS........................................................17 FIGURE3.13: TANK TYPE DESIGN.......................................................................18 FIGURE3.14: CALCULATING THE DISTANCE COVERED BY DIFFERENTIAL DRIVE.....18 FIGURE 4.1: ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER WORKING PRINCIPLE...........................21 FIGURE 4.2: SOUND REFLECTION CASES............................................................21 FIGURE4.3: TIMING DIAGRAM............................................................................22 FIGURE4.4: ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER............................................................23 FIGURE4.5: PCB DIAGRAM USING EXPRESS PCB.................................................24 FIGURE4.6: THE SWITCHING SYSTEM:................................................................27 FIGURE 4.7: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SIM INTERFACE...........................................31 FIGURE 4.7(A): ILLUSTRATING THE COVERED AREA............................................34 FIGURE4.8 (A,B): 3D-TRILATERATION.................................................................36 FIGURE4.9: DISTANCE MEASUREMENT .......................................................................................................................38 FIGURE4.10: STEP BY STEP SYNCHRONIZATION.................................................39 FIGURE4.11: HOLUX M-89.................................................................................43

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FIGURE5.1: OPERATION PRINCIPLE OF STEPPER MOTOR.....................................48 FIGURE5.2: THE PROCESS OF HALF-STEPPING................................................49 FIGURE 5.3: PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR...........................................50 FIGURE5.4: VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR.........................................51 FIGURE5.5: SERVO MOTOR................................................................................52 FIGURE7: RELATION BETWEEN PULSE WIDTH AND ANGLE...................................54

Abstract
Robotics is an engineering discipline that has tremendous application in various areas of everyday life. From common toys and entertainment robots to intelligent robots used for Surgery, automation, warfare and industrial purposes, robots are revolutionizing the way we live. To advance in this ever expanding field of applied engineering, availability of robots for X

research purposes is a must. The commercial research robots that are available in the market tend to be very expensive for a poor country like ours. The effects are that we are lagging behind in the field of autonomous robots. While countries like US and UK have developed specialized robots for combat purposes, and Japan has taken over the world with their recreational robots, we look at them as something beyond us. By building cheap and capable robots we intend to not only fulfill our needs for research robots, we also plan to make them common place so that robotics can be introduced to students at school level.

Motivation
To build a robot is not an easy task especially for countries like Pakistan. We are lagging behind in the field of robotics and Autonomous robots. The main issue faced is unavailability of components like motors, actuators etc. and High prices of research robots. A student cant afford an expensive research robot to advance in this field. A lot of time is always wasted in searching XI

and selecting the parts of a robot and a lot of equipment is shipped from abroad, so due to time and money problems at the end of the semester a student is capable of only making a simple robot like Line track. So we thought that there should be cheap research robots available in universities so that students dont waste their time in making the robot from zero level instead they should start further work on the research robot so that they can develop something better.

Overview
As described above that research robot are very expensive. So we have basically made a team of research robots to reduce the problems of the students regarding robotics. The team members have different capabilities like: They have drive mechanism of both Differential and Ackerman Can lift a load of 8 pound XII

Obstacle Avoidance Range Sensing GPS installed for Bearing GSM installed for far off Command Bump Sensing Temperature Sensing

The details of above things are given in incoming chapters.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Robotics
To laymen when we say the word ROBOT, they think that it is a machine that helps, entertains, and do the jobs as a man can do. The image of a ROBOT in their mind is same as a human being so that it can walk like us and talk to the people and do all jobs we do and it is called the Artificial Intelligence for a ROBOT. Actually the ROBOT is not the same as they think it can be of any structure and shape can do variety of jobs but not all. Now a days, we are witnessing that the researchers and roboticists competently emerging the intelligent machines and achieving their goals of artificial intelligence for ROBOT. Robots are one of the most interesting and vast outcome of todays advanced technology. This technology is being driven forward by independent researchers, roboticists, and hobbyists. It is a unique area of study because it encompasses many different disciplines such as electronics, computer science, mechanical design, control systems, programming, and biology, each of which requires certain expertise to master. Robotics is a vast field and it relates to the structure, design, electronics, mechanics, and sensing capabilities of a ROBOT in the engineering and science terms. Their uses in the world like in industry, education, remote operations, and services.

1.2 Multi Robot Systems


Multi robot systems are designed to solve those problems that a single robot cant do individually and a team work is required. Multi robot system technology has progressed rapidly from simulation to implementation of real-world applications. Such type of systems are very much under considerations because they fascinates us by providing the benefits like maximum area coverage, error minimization, flexibility, effective functionality and sensing, increased potential. These multi robot framework can be used where human cant go and to do variety of sequential jobs. The manipulation of the multi robot systems includes the mapping, cooperative localization and collective decision making techniques. The sensing and the physical manipulation and ranging of objects in the domain like land, space, sea and air. Here comes the challenges like cost, efficiency, inter and intra-communication, relative position sensing, control, man and machine interfacing for supervision and interaction.

1.3 Research robots


The students of several universities, the roboticists and the independent researchers need a platform to research on and glitter their skills and knowledge. If a student starts designing and building robot structure its actuation, and electronics most of the time is wasted in that because the components he wants to be on the robot either he ordered from abroad or from local stores takes time to deliver and assembling them is also challenge for the researchers and students whose field spectrum is not related to the mechanical side, or hardware manipulation. To give that platform to the researchers and the students the research robots are to be made. There are many research robots available like Seekur, powerboat, research patrolbot, amigobot, and LEGO robotic kits etc.

1.4 Cost Comparison of Commercial Research Robots


Table 1.1 Robot Specification/Description Approx Price

1.4.1 Seekur

MAP warehouses, hangars and other spaces in minutes PLAN PATHS to goals AVOID OBSTACLES along the way NAVIGATE TIGHT SPACES for delivery or docking Laser mapping and navigation Inertial measurement unit Up to five onboard PCs Wireless radio communications Wireless joystick GPS/DGPS SENSORS SICK LMS200 and 220 Laser range2

$59,000

finder options Inertial accelerometer and tilt/yaw sensing option 380-tick per revolution Hall Effect sensors on traction motors Mobile Ranger outdoor stereovision system

2 .

1.4.2 PEOPLEBOT

PLAY sound files or synthesized speech LISTEN for phrases or sounds it recognizes RESPOND to requests or conditions it senses NAVIGATE without running over toes or into furniture FIND & FETCH objects it recognizes FOLLOW colors TRANSMIT video images to surveillance monitors COMMUNICATE with other robots CONNECT to PC's via the Internet or LAN RUN AUTONOMOUSLY

$31,995

3 .

1.4.3 Pioneer 3-AT

mapping navigation

$27,995 To

monitoring reconnaissance vision manipulation cooperation and other behaviors communication with a PC client, via one of the following: wireless radio modem robot-to-laptop connector robot-to-desktop tether or connection to an embedded computer 4 .

$99,995

1.4.4 PIONEER 3-DX

mapping teleoperation localization monitoring reconnaissance vision manipulation cooperation and other behaviors communication with a PC client, via one of the following: wireless radio modem

$17,495 to $60,995

robot-to-laptop connector robot-to-desktop tether or connection to an embedded computer

5 .

1.4.5 AmigoBot

Localization shortest-path calculation and path execution differential-drive 8 range finding sonar sensors twin 500-tick motor encoders

$2,225 to 18,995

6 .

1.4.6 PatrolBot

WANDER randomly, avoiding obstacles DRIVE controlled by keys or joystick COMMUNICATE SENSOR & CONTROL INFORMATION including sonar, motor encoder, motor controls, user I/O, and battery charge data SIMULATE BEHAVIORS OFFLINE with the simulator that accompanies each development environment CREATE 2D MAPS of rooms, labs or buildings in minutes PLAN PATHS to goals AVOID OBSTACLES along the way NAVIGATE TIGHT SPACES for delivery or docking

1.4.7 PatrolBot

Laser range-finder for 3D mapping and path planning, integrated in ARIA Tall extension for human interaction research, teleconferencing robots and guides Touch screen, also for human interface Red and green IR proximity sensors, for simple yes/no interface Choice of our Mobile Ranger or Standard Stereovision Systems Remote-control pan-tilt-zoom camera, tightly integrated, located on the robot or on the tall extension Additional auto-docking recharge 6

stations

1.5 Indigenous Development of Research Robots


As the university students, researchers roboticists, hobbyists need a platform the several universities started purchasing those costly research robots that are available in the market to educate their students. This results in the indigenous development of the research robots .Now a day several companies incorporated into dedicated field of research robots development and their supplies to the several education and defense departments.

Chapter 2: Anatomy of mobile robot


2.1 Autonomous or human controlled
In older times the people think that the robot is the thing thats works on human signal, what he say to him the robot will work accordingly. Means there will be always a human behind the curtain. But now a day the advancement of technology brings the artificial intelligence. The robot will have its own Brain, body, actuation, power and it will work according to the response of the environment after making self decisions. So first of all we have to decide the intelligence of the robot that either it will totally rely on human commands or the human can give him a hierarchy of commands to operate or it have its own sensing capabilities, brain to execute and evaluate the corresponding response to the environment.

2.2 Robot body


Without the body there is no existence of both the human and the Robot. It is the basic building block and one of the very initial steps in the robot building. Robot body consists of the chassis, the main structure. While constructing the robot body we have to keep in mind the stability parameters, speed, material, hardness etc. First we select the material fro which to built the robots body e.g. wooden, metallic, plastic or fiber. Then second consideration is the shape, in which shape the frame to be made so that it becomes robust, stable and weight bearing. The size also have a value relative to material, weight, and other parameters.

2.3 Power and motion control


The batteries are needed to empower the robot because the power cord looks to awkward with an autonomous robot. It seems like a toy that is moving through a rope or something. So we have to select the batteries through their current and the voltage parameters after calculating the required voltage and current of the all components e.g. actuators, servos, sensors, trancievers, GPS, and other sensing modules. The mobile robot needs the actuators like motors, solenoids, magnetic sticks etc for their movements. So selection of motors for the motion of the robot according to the required weight 8

bearing capacity, the torque needed, the speed requirements etc. the drive mechanism also have importance for the mobility of robot. Many types of drives we can achieve like differential drive, the most commonly used drive for steering the robot because it is efficient, easy to build, inexpensive, powerful, stable and sturdy, and agile. Addition to that the Ackerman steering, the hexapod (legged robots) are also used. The arms, forks, hands also need actuators for their movement and mostly servos are used for this purpose

2.4 Sensing capabilities


To make the robot autonomous and to add the artificial intelligence the sensing capabilities are the right hand. We have to consider and select the sensory devices keeping in mind the budget, the required tasks that to be done by the robot. Those sensing capabilities can contain the temperature sensing and responding accordingly, the fog or humidity sensors, the ultrasonic sensors for range finding of obstacle, the GPS for exact localization of the robot, the radio frequency transceivers for inter or intra-communication, the bump sensors for obstacle detection etc.

Chapter 3: Drive Mechanism


3.1 Ackerman steering
Rudolf Ackerman discovered and defined the relationship between the front inside tire and front outside tire in a corner or curve. While turning around a point the inner wheel of the robot is near to the point since following the path of shorter radii and hence getting more sharp curved track where as the outer is farther apart the axial point of rotation hence following a path of comparatively larger radii hence getting comparatively less sharper curved path to be traversed.

Figure3.1: Illustrating the wheels radius difference Hence as from the figure it is clear that the inner wheel path is more sharper than the outer wheel path because r1<r2 To implement the Ackerman principle the we have to design the axle rotation arms their angles and length so that all wheels axles angles got arranged such that their traversed path radii meets at a same point. Steering arms and the wheel axle have an angle greater than 90o as shown in figure

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Figure3.2: Illustrating the rotation arm angle

Practically the exact Ackerman steering wheel angles cannot be achieved due to human error, Instruments precision errors and approx calculations. The Ackerman angle can be approximated by drawing the straight lines from the kingpins of the steering wheel to the centre of rear axle length. So the rotation arms can be kept and implemented parallel to those lines.

Rear axle point l

Figure3.3: Calculating the Ackerman angle Mathematically the Ackerman angle and RAA are derived as under. =tan-1(l/d) =90o- Where l is the distance between the front wheel kingpin and rear axle and d is the kingpin centre to centre distance. RAA is directly proportional to the torque because = RAA * F hence the RAA can be designed by considering the servos torque and the structure limitations. Another relation of the wheel turning angles and the structure parameters is cot i-cot o = d/l Where i is the inner wheel turn angle and the o is the outer wheel turn angle. o =cot-1 {cot i (d/l)}

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so the outer wheels turn can be calculated according to Ackermans principle by putting the inner wheel turn angle and other parameters.

3.1.1 Types of Ackerman


There are three basic types of Ackerman. 1. zero Ackerman 2. pro-Ackerman 3. anti-Ackerman

3.1.1.1 Zero Ackerman


The zero Ackerman drive can also be called the drive with one to one relation of the wheel angles. In this drive the inner wheel skids In trying to maintain its path.

Figure3.4: Orthogonality of steering arm As shown in the figure the axle rotating arms make an angle of 90o hence when the motor tries to turn the wheels both wheels turn the same angle. Hence results in wheel scrubbing, traction losses, wheel wear, and heat produced.

3.1.1.2 Pro-Ackerman
Pro Ackerman can also be called the normal Ackerman and is used when the smooth drive and bearing heavy loads is required. Track rod length is shorter than the wheel axle pivot pointskingpins distance and is Used to avoid slip of wheels while turning.

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Figure3.5: Illustrating the arm angle >90o No traction losses and heat production during turning mechanism and the wheel wear is also minimized.

3.1.1.3 Anti-Ackerman
The anti Ackerman drive sometimes also called reverse Ackerman drive. it is the total opposite symmetry of the pro Ackerman drive. in this case the inner wheel tends to traverse the greater radii circle whereas the outer wheel tends to traverse the smaller radii circle.

Figure3.6: Illustrating the arm angle<90o As shown in the figure the rotating arms makes an angle of less than 90o hence resulting in anti Ackerman drive structure. This drive is mostly used in racing cars or high speed vehicle giving more road grip and effective turn. Because at higher speeds the inner wheel tends to leave the ground because of high lateral forces and inertia.

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3.2 Differential steering


Differential steering sometimes also called skid steering because the wheels mostly skids on the road to stay on its path while turning mechanism. This type of steering is simple enough to be made. It is mostly used in tanks, wheel chairs, robots. Simply we can say that in this drive mechanism the opposite wheels i.e. the left and the right exhibits the different speeds of rotation while turning. To attain such type of mechanism we need two different sources for drive torque or a complex gear mechanism.

Figure3.7: Two separate actuators

3.2.1 Cases
There are four different cases in the differential drive and are described as, 1. The both wheels rotate with the same speed, the robot will move straight and we can see the wheel prints as straight lines.

Figure3.8: The robot moving in the straight line 2. Both wheels rotating but one of the two side wheels rotates more faster than the other then the robot moves in a curved path and tends to turn toward the relatively slower rotating wheel and the wheel prints results into two different circles.

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Figure3.9: Robot following curved path with both wheels in motion 3. One of the two side wheels is still and the other is rotating, robot moves in a curved path and tends to turn toward the zero rotating(still) wheel and the wheel prints results into a point and a circle.

Figure3.8: The robot moving in the curved path with one wheel still 4. Both wheels rotating with equal speed but opposite in direction results in the robot spin around the centre point of the robot. So the robot can rotate around its own pivot in either direction, the clockwise or anticlockwise .The wheel print results in one circle.

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Figure3.9: The robot in rotator motion

3.2.2 Mechanical structure


Many forms of structure can be made by placement of the rotor wheels and the caster wheels and some basic are given below, 1. Two rotor wheels at rear side and one caster wheel on front to balance the weight can also said rickshaw mechanism but this is non standard design, Lightweight, Fast.

Figure3.10: Rickshaw design 2. Two rotor wheels at rear side and one caster wheel on front to balance the weight and this design is relatively more stable from above. Easy to design, Easy to build, Light weight, Inexpensive, Agile structure.

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Figure3.11: The design with two caster wheels 3. Four wheels drive having a chain for joining and synchronizing the left front to the left rear wheel and the right front wheel to right rear wheel. This structure is more powerful, stable, Easy to design Easy to build, Inexpensive, Powerful, Sturdy and stable, not agile because turning is a bit difficult exact calculated adjustment needed.

Figure3.12: Power in all four wheels 4. Tank tread drive having a belt on N wheels of both side. Two different motors drive those belts. Powerful, VERY Stable, NOT AGILE, HEAVY, Inefficient, EXPENSIVE, Hard to maintain.

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Figure3.13: Tank type design

3.2.3 Mathematical expressions


When we want to turn the robot while using differential drive it always tends to turn around a point P. P

Figure3.14: Calculating the distance covered by differential drive

18

The point P can be either away from the inner wheel if both wheels have some relative motion or point P can be under the inner wheel if the inner wheel have zero torque. So the distance travelled by the inner wheel and the outer wheel can be calculated by: Si=r So=(r+b) Where r is the distance between the inner wheel centre point and the pivot point, and is the angular path to be covered. So the robot travelled distance while approaching to a specified point can be calculated by: So=(r+b/2) Or can be calculated by putting the distance to be travelled and other parameters in equation, = So/(r+b/2)

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Chapter 4: Sensors and Navigation Devices


4.1 Introduction
The sensors and navigation systems add AI in the robotics field. To sense the different environment parameters and conditions and respond accordingly a robot needs the sensing devices. Those sensing have very much resemblance to the human e.g. a camera is a replacement of human eye, LDR used to detect the light and distinguish between colors, a R-F transceivers to communicate that is replacement of human tongue.

4.2 Ultrasonic Range Finder


4.2.1 Ultrasound
Human hearing sound frequency ranges from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. The sound below and above this spectrum cannot be heard by human ears. The frequency below 20Hz is called Infrasound whereas the frequency above 20 KHz is called Ultrasound. At room temperature the speed of sound is 345m/s in air. It varies from medium to medium; basically it depends upon the stiffness and density of the medium. Its common use is for range finding. It is also known as SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging).

4.2.2 Working principle


The idea of ultrasonic range finder came from the bats. The bat locates itself through sending and receiving sound waves to detect any object or obstacle. We use ultrasonic sensor to locate and detect any obstacle. Sensors consist of transmitter and receiver. The transmitter generates high frequency sound pulses in particular direction which after striking any object in its range are received by the receiver, which determines the time difference between the signals is sent and echo is received. After calculating thee time difference we use the following formula to determine the distance between the object and senor

S=v*(t/2)
Where S is the distance between the sensor and the object, v is the speed of sound having magnitude of 345m/s in air and t is the time difference. The time is divided by factor 2 because it is the time of both sending and receiving of sound pulse.

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Figure 4.1: Ultrasonic range finder working principle

Ultrasonic sensor can detect up to some extent depending upon how strong the transmitted pulse is generated. Stronger the pulse and more is the range. It also depends upon the type of surface reflecting the echo. If the reflecting surface is hard and smooth the maximum amount of signal will reflect back and the distance of the striking object can be calculated accurately. In case of smooth surface the fact is other way round.

Figure 4.2: Sound reflection cases

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Figure4.3: Timing diagram

We use an ultrasonic sensor that operates at 40 kHz sound frequency generated by microcontroller. The microcontroller generates six pulses of 40 kHz sends in air via ultrasonic transmitter and waits maximum for 20ms to receive same pulse from receiver, after amplification to detect. If the signal is not received it will be retransmitted. We cannot send sound pulse continuously because there will be interference between transmitted and received pulses. The max distance that can be measured by the sensor we used is 3 meters, so 20ms is enough time for sending and receiving of pulse.

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Figure4.4: Ultrasonic Range Finder

23

Figure4.5: PCB diagram using Express PCB

4.2.3 Comparison with Other Range Finders


Table 4.1 Sensor module WBURF
SRF02 SRF04 SRF05 SRF08 SRF10 SRF235

Communication

Min Range 3cm 15cm 3cm 3cm 3cm 3cm 3cm

Max Range 3m 6m 3m 4m 6m 6m 1.2m

Beam Angle 45o 45o 45o 45o 45o 60o 15o

Echoes

Ranging Time 20ms 70ms 36ms 36ms 65ms 65ms 10ms

Price Rs.

I2C/Serial I2C /Serial Digital Digital I2c I2c I2c

1 1 1 1 17 1 1

600.00 2080.00* 2500.00* 2500.00* 5440.00* 5440.00* 12000.00*

Note: The price of sonar range finder is exclusive of shipment charge.

24

4.2.4 Application and Uses


Under water detection of objects Non destructive testing Commercial fishing Medical uses Range finding Autonomous vehicle

4.3 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)


4.3.1 GSM Overview
GSM is abbreviation of Global system for mobile communication. It was European telecommunication operators and manufactures who designed digital wireless standard for GSM in 1982. The basic requirement for GSM can be explained in following aspects.

Services Quality of service and security Radio Frequency utilization Network Cost

4.3.1.1 Services
The system must give portability that is the user can receive service at anytime and anywhere. The system shall provide services to mobile stations used by on road public and vehicles mounted stations.

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4.3.1.2 Quality of service and security


The quality of GSM communication must be better than old analog communication systems over specified range. The information encryption facilitates the public without affecting the cost.

4.3.1.3 Radio Frequency utilization


There must be high level of spectrum efficiency used by the system to facilitate their subscribers. The entire allocated frequency band must be efficiently used.

4.3.1.4 Network
The ITU recommendations must be kept under consideration while planning of identification and numbering.

4.3.1.5 Cost
The cost parameters must be kept under consideration while offering the GSM communication services to their MSs (mobile stations).

4.3.2 GSM Architecture


The GSM network is divided into three major systems.

Network and Switching system (NSS), Base Station System (BSS) Mobile station (MS)

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Figure4.6: The Switching System:

27

4.3.2.1 Network and switching system (NSS)


The network and switching system (NSS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-related functions. The switching system includes. 4.3.2.1.1 Home Location Register (HLR) The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. It is the most important part that stores permanent data about subscribers, which includes subscriber's service, location, and status.

4.3.2.1.2 Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC) It performs the switching functions of the system. It manages calls to and from other systems. It also performs such functions as network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.

4.3.2.1.3 Visitor Location Register (VLR) it contains temporary information about subscribers that is required by the MSC. When a mobile station moves into an area having new MSC, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. When a mobile station makes a call, VLR will have the information without having to interrogate the HLR each time.

4.3.2.1.4 Authentication center (AUC) The AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters which is used for the verification of the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. It also provides protection and security network operators from different types of fraud found.

4.3.2.1.5 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) For the identity of mobile equipment, it is a database that contains information that prevents calls from stolen, prohibited, or defective mobile stations.

4.3.2.2 The Base Station System (BSS) and Mobile station (MS)
All the functions that are related to radio are performed in the BSS. It consists of base station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).

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4.3.3 BSC it provides the physical connections between the MSC and BTS and controls them. 4.3.4 BTS the BTS gives radio link to mobile station.

4.3.5 GSM Modem SIM300


The Sim300 is a Tri-Brand GSM/GPRS solution in a compact chip module. Provides a standard interface, the sim300 delivers GSM 900/1800/1900MHz performance for voice, SMS, and Fax in a small form factor and provides low power consumption. The low cost and foremost features of Sim300 make it perfect for virtually unlimited application.

1) Tri-band GSM/GPRS module with a size of 40x33x2.85mm 2) Customized MMI and keypad/LCD support 3) An embedded Powerful TCP/IP protocol stack 4) Based upon mature and field-proven platform, backed up by our support service, from definition to design and production

4.3.5.1 Key features


General Key features of SIM300 GSM modem includes:

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Table 4.2: Basic features of SIM 300 module

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4.3.6 SIM Interface

Figure 4.7: Circuit diagram for sim interface

4.3.7 Introduction to AT-Commands


The modem and several mobile phones are controlled by AT commands. AT stands for Attention. At the beginning of every command line "AT" or "at" must be included. Due to this reason these commands are called AT commands. GSM modems and mobile phones support an AT command set that is specific to the GSM technology, the most useful SMS-related commands like AT+CMGS (Send SMS message) AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from storage) AT+CMGL (List SMS messages) AT+CMGR (Read SMS messages). The modem identifies the start of line by "AT" prefix. It is not part of the AT command name .e.g. in AT+CMGF here the original command is the CMGF where as the AT tells the start of line and indicate the GSM modem or mobile phones to be attention for receiving an order.

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Here are some basic AT commands and their specified tasks are defined: (AT+CGMI) tells us the name of manufacturer, (AT+CGMM) tells model number, (AT+CGSN) tells IMEI number (International Mobile Equipment Identity) and (AT+CGMR) software version. (AT+CIMI)IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity). (AT+CPAS) mobile phone activity status, (AT+CREG) mobile network registration status, (AT+CSQ)radio signal strength, (AT+CBC) battery charge level and battery charging status. (ATD, ATA etc)Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem. (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS) Sending the SMS, (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL) reading the SMS, (AT+CMGW) writing the SMS (AT+CMGD) deleting the stored messages in phone or SIM memory. (AT+CNMI) gives an interrupt (notification) on newly received SMS. (AT+CPBR) Reading phone book entries. (AT+CPBW) writing or saving the new phone book entries (AT+CPBF) searching in phonebook entries. (AT+CLCK)Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks. (AT+CLCK) checking whether a facility is locked. (AT+CPWD) changing passwords. (AT+CPMS) accessing storage of SMS messages. Now a day the mobile phone manufacturers mostly ignore the use of AT command for security and reliability purposes. So the commands may be different from mobile to mobile. Whereas the 32

GSM modems which are designed for GSM wireless communication mostly supports these basic set of AT commands and the parameters. As it is obvious that some of the AT commands needs the operator services .e.g. AT+CMGS is command to send SMS through GSM communication link. So if the operator services not available we will not be able to execute some of the commands. AT commands and MCU

While controlling the mobile phone or the GSM modem with microcontroller there are some basic points which must be kept under considerations. While sending command to modem or mobile unit the carriage return <CR> and linefeed<LF> must also sent at the end of the command or we can send \r because while using windows hyper terminal it itself sends the carriage return and line feed without notification to the user when we press enter bottom. e.g. AT+CMGL="ALL"<CR><LF>

at the reception of the result for the requested command the mobile also sends us the result using <LF> and <CR> on both start and end of the line. e.g. <LF><CR>+CMGL: 1,"REC UNREAD","+31625044454",,"07/07/05,09:55:16+08<CR><LF> <LF><CR>+CMGL: 2,"REC UNREAD","+31625044454",07/07/05, 09:56:03+08"<CR><LF>

4.4 GPS (global positioning system)


4.4.1 Background
To find your location in previous times was very difficult but now a days if you have a GPS receiver you will never lost and you dont need to erect landmarks or to read stars. GPS stands for Global Positioning System; basically it provides us location and time information in all weather conditions and everywhere at any time on earth, when there is at least four or more satellites in unobstructed line of site for reliable information. It is spaced based GNSS (global navigation satellite system). It is maintained by the United States government and 33

is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver. But these things are very much easier nowadays. Only you need to have a GPS receiver. When we talk about GPS we usually means GPS receiver. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is actually a group of 27 satellites; in which 24 are functional and remaining three are used as backup when ant satellite fails. The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite network as a military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else. These satellites circle around the globe at about 12000km; they rotate completely twice a day. The position of orbits of satellites is arranged in such a manner that on anytime and anywhere on the earth that in open sky minimum 4 satellites are visible which enough to determine accurate location are. A GPS receiver does what?? It simply locates four are more satellites visible to it and find the distance of these satellites from GPS receiver and the with this knowledge calculates its position.

4.4.2 2D-Trilateration
Imagine you are somewhere in Pakistan and you dont know what your location is. You ask someone where am I? he replies, You are 200 Km from Lahore. Now you can visualize that you are somewhere on a circle having radius 200km like the figure below.

Figure 4.7(a): Illustrating the covered area Now you ask someone else again. Where am I? he replies, You are 100 Km from Rawalpindi. Now you can visualize that you are somewhere on a circle having radius 100km like the figure below. 34

Figure 4.7(b) If you combine this with previous information you will get intersection of two circles, it means that you can be at any of these two interesting points. Now you ask from a third person the same question he replies, You are 150 Km from Sargodha. Now you can exactly figure out position because the intersection of these three circles will intersect only at one point which is your exact position.

Figure 4.7(c)

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This same concept works in three-dimensional space, as well, but now you're dealing with spheres instead of circles.

4.4.3 3D-Trilateration
The 3D-literation basically works on same principle of 2D-literation but the only change is here sphere used instead of 2D circles hence here we can get more precise location even when the person is not on the earth surface.

(a) Figure4.8 (a,b): 3D-Trilateration

(b)

4.4.4 GPS Calculations


When we deal with GPS it means we are dealing with radio waves which travel at the 36

c=3*108 m/s. This is equal to 3 x 108 m/s and 186,000 miles /s. The basic problem is the calculation of time because the waves are moving at the c=3*108 m/s and a very minor error in time calculations can result in huge position error. Suppose we have an error of 1/1000 part of a second then there will an error of 200 mile in location. it means we need precise clock. Suppose for some time that we have precise clocks but the question arises how we will calculate the time. We can understand this trick with the help of goofy analog. Suppose we have a way that we can play a tune twinkle twinkle little star . on both the satellite and the receiver. The tune of receiver and of transmitter will be out of sync. The receivers tune will be delayed because it has travelled a distance roughly of 11,000 mile. So both versions to be in sync we will start shifting back the receiver side tune until it is perfectly matched with the satellites version. The amount of time we have shifted back our receivers tune is our travel time. Now we multiply this travel time with c=3*108 m/s and we get the required distance.

4.4.4.1 Pseudo Random Code


In actual situation Twinkle twinkle little star is not played instead we use a pseudo random code. It is called so because the code is highly random like noise spikes. These spikes are so complex that there is no chance of matching incidentally. Because of this complex pattern pseudo random code we get the following benefits: The extremely difficult pattern is made to make sure that the receiver doesn't sync up to some other signal by chance. So we are sure that no stray signal will match accidently. Each satellite has its own pseudo random code so all the satellites can send at the same frequency without jamming the others. In this way it will be more difficult for a person to jam it. Due to the same frequency we dont need bigger antennas to receive a signal from satellite. Now the timing problem is solved but what about clock synchronization. This synchronization can be done by using atomic clocks both on satellite and receiver. the satellites are 27 so we use atomic clocks for them but as long as the receiver is concerned we cant use atomic clock in a receiver because the price of a atomic clock is between 50,000$ to 100,000$. It means no body can buy the receiver. Now the manufacturer came up with a brilliant idea which finished the need of atomic clock in the receiver and the trick was fourth measurement from another satellite. In this way they corrected their measurement.

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4.4.4.2 Measuring Distance: Summary of Discussion

Figure4.9: Distance Measurement the receivers Position can be calculated by the following equations.

38

Here x=clock inaccuracy

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure4.10: Step by step synchronization

4.4.5 The NMEA 0183 Protocol


NMEA stands for National Marine Electronics Association. For communication between marine instruments the NMEA gives electrical interface and data protocol. Now there is new standard 39

released namely NMEA 2000, which is a bi-directional, multi-transmitter, multi-receiver serial data network.

4.4.5.1 Electrical Interface


Mainly the NMEA 0183 devices can only transmits or receive data but some devices can transmit as well as receive. It uses RS232 interface with the following parameters: Baud rate: 4800 Number of data bits: 8 Stop bits: 1 (or more) Parity: none Handshake: none

4.4.5.2 General Sentence Format


NMEA protocol sends data in the form of sentences which contains only printable ASCII characters, carrier return (CR) and line feed(LF). The format os every sentence is that it starts with a $ sign and ends with CR and LF. More over there are three basic kinds of NMEA sentences that are:

Proprietary sentences Query sentences Talker Sentences

4.4.5.2.1 Proprietary Sentences: In this standard , the manufacturers are allowed to define their own proprietary sentence. It starts with "$P", then a 3 letter manufacturer ID, after that the data which the manufacture wishes is allowed to send. For example Garmin uses propriety sentence for Sensor Configuration Information as: $PGRMC,A,x.x,hh,x.x,x.x,x.x,x.x,x.x,c,c,2,c<CR><LF> 4.4.5.2.2 Query sentences: Query sentences are used when a listener requests from talker a particular sentence. the format of query sentence is: 40

$ttllQ,sss,[CR][LF] 1st two characters are talker identifier,sent by the requester and the next two characters are the talker identifier of listener and the next character is always a "Q" defining the message as a query followed by (sss) ,which contains the three letter mnemonic of the sentence being requested. For example $CCGPQ,GGA<CR><LF> Here "CC" is computer device which is requesting from the "GP" device (a GPS unit) the "GGA" sentence. 4.4.5.2.3 Talker Sentences: The format for a talker sentence is: $ttsss,d1,d2,....<CR><LF> $ starts the sentence, the two characters tt are the talker identifier. And the characters (sss) are the sentence identifier, followed by a number of data fields separated by commas, followed by an optional checksum, and terminated by CR and LF. .for example the talker sentence is like this: $HCHDM,238,M<CR><LF> Where "HC" represents the talker, the HDM" specifies the magnetic heading message follows, the "238" is the heading value, and "M" designates the heading value as magnetic.

4.4.5.3 NMEA Protocol for GPS:


GPS receiver uses NMEA protocol for communication. The GPS includes the data like position, velocity, time etc. the GPS standard sentences includes two prefix characters that specify the device i.e for GPS these two characters are GP. The next three characters specify the contents of sentence. Also NMEA allows manufactures to specify their own sentences for any other purpose. We used HOLUX M-89 GPS module which is described in detail in the next section.

4.4.6 HOLUX M-89 GPS module


4.4.6.1 Introduction
41

HOLUX M-89 is 25.4 * 25.4 * 3 mm GPS board designed by MTK GPS solution. It gives finer sensitivity up to -159dBm. The key feature of HOLUX M-89 includes: Small size: 25.4 * 25.4 * 3 mm finer sensitivity up to -159dBm can communicate up to 32 satellites Quick location Low power consumption Support NMEA0183 V 3.01 data protocol. Real time navigation for location based services.

4.4.6.2 APPLICATON

Car Navigation Marine Navigation Fleet Management Location-Based Services, Auto Pilot Personal Navigation or touring devices Tracking devices systems Mapping devices Geographic Surveying Sporting and Recreation

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4.4.6.3 Pictorial View of HOLUX M-89 GPS Module

Figure4.11: Holux M-89 PIN description:

Table 4.3: pinouts description

4.4.6.4 Specification
Frequency Channels 1575.42MHZ 32 channels all in view searching 43

Sensitivity Velocity Time Hot start Warm start Cold start Protocol Support Altitude Limit Velocity Limit Operation Current Operation Current DC Input Range

Better than -159dBm minimum 0.1 M/sec 0.1s . Sync GPS time 1 sec. average 33 sec. average 36 sec. average NMEA-0183 18000 meters 515 M/sec Acquisition:65 mA@3.3V Tracking:35mA@3.3V VCC 3.0~5.0V VBAT 3.0~5.0V

Processor Speeds Integrated program Flash Interface Operating Temperature Dimension Weight

48 MHz 4 MHz

CMOS 2.8 V Level -40 to +85 degree C 25.4 * 25.4 * 3 mm. 3g

Table 4.4: Holux M-89 specs

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4.4.6.5 Supported NMEA sentence by HOLUX M-89


NMEA Prefix GGA GLL GSA GSV RMC VTG ZDA Description GPS fix data Geographic GNSS DOP and active satellite GNSS Satellites in view Recommended minimum specific GNSS data Course Over Ground and Ground Speed Time Data

Table 4.5: Some NMEA protocol sentences

45

Chapter 5: Actuations
5.1 Introduction:
The locomotion of the autonomous or human controlled robot needs the DC motors, servos, stepper motors etc. the actuations is a basic constituent of the mobile robots either it is for the whole robot motion from place to place or its any other motion like arm, fork motion etc the DC motors exhibits a constant speed at a constant voltage. To vary the speed we must vary the voltage and to do that we need H-bridge that is controlled by the PWM through the processor.

5.2 Motors
A Motor is an electric machine that converts Electrical Energy into Mechanical Energy

5.3 Types of Motors


There are numerous types are motors available in the market. They are designed for different purposes and have different functionality: Here we will describe only about those motors which are being used by our project.

DC Motor Stepper Motor Servo Motor

5.3.1 DC Motor
The Figure and working principle of a simple dc motor is described above. Now we will describe some characteristics of a DC motor. DC motors are the simplest ones. You just apply the DC voltage to its terminals and it will start spinning. But what if you want to control the direction of rotation, want to change the speed etc. we shall describe later.

5.3.1.1 Voltage
DC motors are non-polarized in nature so if you apply reverse voltage nothing bad like burnout will happen. Normally they are rated from 6V-12V but some are rated at higher voltages like 24V. This motor has direct relation with the torque. Give more voltage and you will get the

46

higher torque. But the voltage has a limit. If you start increasing the voltage like you give 100 voltages then it the coil will overheat and burn. So always use the DC motor at rated power.

5.3.1.2 Current
As long as the circuit is concerned you must consider the current also. If you apply very little current the motor will not work and if you apply too much the coils will burn. In a DC motor two currents are important: 5.3.1.2.1: Operating Current This is average amount of current that we think the motor will draw at a particular torque. Operating Current * Rated Voltage=Average Power to run the motor 5.3.1.2.2: Stall Current Maximum current that a DC motor can draw when it is prevented from rotation. The current is inversely proportional to speed. So when you design the control circuit of a DC motor is should designed so to handle this stall current.

5.3.1.2 Back EMF


It is the amount of voltage produced across the terminals of the motor when the coils move across the motors magnetic field. Back emf is used to control the speed of a motor and It opposes the driving voltage.

5.3.1.3 Control Method


The best method of controlling a DC motor is H-Bridge. This is explained in topic of Hbridge. When you have H-bridge attached to your motor you can control the speed using PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) from microcontroller.

5.3.2 Stepper Motor


A stepper motor is a brushless and synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps and they are open loop. Meaning you have to tell how much and how fast rotation should take place. They have no feedback path like Servos. These motors basically convert the electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. Due to no feedback path you save a lot of money which consumes in 47

expensive sensing and feedback circuits. To control your motor precisely you just need is to keep track of the input step pulses and nothing else.

5.3.2.1 Principle of Operation


The Working principle of a Stepper is described through a simple diagram

Figure5.1: Operation Principle of Stepper Motor The figure shows a permanent magnet and electromagnets on which windings are there. The Permanent magnet can rotate and is called Rotor while electromagnets are called Stator because they are Stationary. First quarter of the figure shows that at position 1, the rotors is aligned with the upper electromagnet because the upper electromagnet is on and opposite polarities attract each other. Now we want to move it 90 degree clockwise so we switch on the right electromagnet and switch of the upper electromagnet as shown in the position 2. Next you switch on the lower electromagnet and switch off the right electromagnet you will get the position 3 and in the similar manner you can get position 4 and 5 also. The motor shown above has 90 degrees resolution i.e. it moves 90 degree in one step. In real life the stepper motor has much higher resolution then this motor. It was just demonstration purpose. You can make the resolution of some stepper motors by a process known as Half- Stepping. In 48

the above diagram we switched on one electromagnet at a time. If we switched on two electromagnets at a time they will cause equal attraction and hence resolution will be double. As shown in the figure.

Figure5.2: The process of Half-Stepping

5.3.2.2 Types of stepper motors:


There are two main types of stepper motor. 1. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor 2. Variable reluctance Stepper Motor

5.3.2.2.1 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

It is also known as Tin can or canstock motor. As evident from their name they have a permanent magnet in their construction. It is a low resolution (amount of degree rotated per pulse) and low cost motor. It has step angles of 7.5 degree and 15 degree only. It consists of a mainly Rotor, Stator, Coils and shaft. The rotor has no teeth as in case of variable reluctance motor.

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Figure 5.3: Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

5.3.2.2.2 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

This type does not use the permanent magnet therefore its field strength can be varied. Due to unavailability of permanent magnet they are low torque and are used for small positioning. These motors are probably easy to understand as long as their construction is concerned. They consist of mainly a rotor having teeth and a stator having windings on it. When we apply DC current to the stator windings they become energized. While stator poles are energized the rotator is attracted by the stator and rotation is started.

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Figure5.4: Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

5.3.2.3Advantages

1. The angle of rotation is proportional to the input step pulse. 2. Precise Positioning. 3. Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing. 4. Reliable due to absence of brushes. 5. A wide range of speeds.

5.3.2.4 Disadvantages

Difficult to operate at very high speeds.

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5.3.3 Servo Motor


Servos are DC motors having gears and feedback control loop circuitry. And no motor drivers required!

Figure5.5: Servo Motor Servo motors are such type of motors which do not rotate continuously as DC/AC or stepper motors rotates, instead they are used to position and hold some thing. They are used in applications where we dont need constant rotation therefore they are not used to drive the wheels. If we want to use servos for continuous rotation purposes then they should be modified. So we use them where something is needed to move to particular position and then required to stop and hold there for a period of time. Most simple use of a servo motor is to position the rudder of aircrafts and boats etc. They are used here because they dont need to rotate full 360 degrees nor they rotate continuously like wheels. We can use them to rotate to a particular angle (say 50 degree) and then hold the rudder on that position. Now come toward the most important feature of a servo which is Feedback Mechanism. So it can sense an error relating to its position and can correct it. This mechanism is called servomechanism. So if the air flow applies pressure on rudder and tries to change its direction then the servo will apply force in direction which is 52

against the air pressure and will try to correct the error. You can understand it like you set your servo to go a rotation of 52 degrees and lock there if you apply a force to change the direction then the servo will try its best to oppose the applied force. There are many types of servos but the two main categories are DC Servos and AC Servos. They consist of a Driving circuit and Encoder. The AC Servo has an advantage of bearing huge current surges because this type has no brushes while DC servo has brushes so it is a limiting factor in this factor. If we compare the servo with stepper then the servo has more smoothness in motion and has better resolution. An encoder is a disc composing of glass which has very fine lines on its surface and further an optical encoder is attached that counts those lines when it rotates with the Servo. This data is feed to the controller which tracks the no. of counts, their rotation rate, and through a host of feedback loops, components and controlled amplifiers. This whole arrangement produces the required motion. We have used Hobby servo which has motor and its control mechanism built into one unit. There are 3 wires which are attached to a connector. The Red wire is for is positive supply ranging from 4.8-6.0 Volts DC. Black wire is for ground and the Orange wire is for control signal. General description of servo wiring is given below

5.3.3.1 Servo Wiring


Always have three wires. Black or Brown == Ground. Red == Power Supply DC (4.8-6V). Yellow, Orange, or White ==Control signal (3-5V).

5.3.3.2 Signal Wire (Yellow/Orange/White wire)


through the signal wire you command the servo. You need to do is simply send an ordinary logic square wave to your servo motor at a particular wave length. Then your servo goes to a particular position and it can attain a particular velocity if you have modified it. The signal given is basically a PWM and is direct relation to the position of the servo. The Relation between Pulse Width and Angle is shown through a diagram below

53

Figure7: Relation between Pulse Width and Angle

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Bibliography
1. Robot Builders Bonanza, By: Gordon Mccomb and micky predko 3rd edition

Copyright 2006, 2001, 1987 by The McGraw-Hill Companies inc.


2. BUILD A REMOTE-CONTROLLED ROBOT by DAVID R. SHIRCLIFF

Copyright 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies


3. Introduction to the Focused Section on Mechatronics in Multirobot Systems

by MO-YUEN CHOW, STEFANO CHIAVERINI (IEEE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 14, NO. 2, APRIL 2009)
4. ANATOMY OFA ROBOT by CHARLES M. BERGREN Copyright

2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc


5. Autonomous Mobile Robots by Shuzhi Sam Ge(The National University of

Singapore) Frank L. Lewis (Automation and Robotics Research Institute The University of Texas at Arlington)

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