Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Yasir Mehboob
CIIT/ SP07-BET-119/ISB
Zeeshan-Ul-Haq
CIIT/SP07-BET-122/ISB
In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical (Telecommunication) Engineering
Yasir Mehboob
CIIT/ SP07-BET-119/ISB
Zeeshan-Ul-Haq
CIIT/SP07-BET-122/ISB
In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical (Telecommunication) Engineering
February 2011
Declaration
We, hereby declare that this project neither as a whole nor as a part there of has been copied out from any source. It is further declared that we have developed this project and the accompanied report entirely on the basis of our personal efforts made under the sincere guidance of our supervisor. No portion of the work presented in this report has been submitted in the support of any other degree or qualification of this or any other University or Institute of learning, if found we shall stand responsible.
Signature: ______________
Qazi Awais Tahir
Signature: ______________
Yasir Mehboob
Signature: ______________
Zeeshan-Ul-Haq
February 2011
by
Name Qazi Awais Tahir Yasir Mehboob Zeeshan-Ul-Haq Registration Number
CIIT/SP07-BET-086/ISB CIIT/SP07-BET-119/ISB CIIT/SP07-BET-100/ISB
Supervised by
CIIT Islamabad
Dedication
We dedicate this project to our parents and family whose prayer and encouragements leads us to our goal. We also dedicate our work to our respectable teachers whose support and efforts made us able to successfully complete the project.
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Acknowledgements
Bundle of thanks to Almighty Allah, the most beneficent and the most merciful, who enabled us to fulfill the task assigned to us.
We are thankful to our parents and family for their love, support and prayers without that this project would not be possible.
Our special thanks to our respected supervisor Mr. Omar Ahmed for his support (Technical, financial) and guidance throughout the project. The acknowledgements will be incomplete without the names of Mr. Salman Shah whose robotic model helped us in the completion of the project. We would also like to thank Mr. Tariq Mehmood who guided us through the project and departmental issues.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................1 1.1 ROBOTICS...........................................................................................................................1 1.2 MULTI ROBOT SYSTEMS...........................................................................................................1 1.3 RESEARCH ROBOTS................................................................................................................2 1.4 COST COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL RESEARCH ROBOTS.....................................................................2 1.4.1 Seekur....................................................................................................................2 1.4.3 Pioneer 3-AT...........................................................................................................3 1.4.4 PIONEER 3-DX.........................................................................................................4 1.4.5 AmigoBot................................................................................................................5 1.4.6 PatrolBot.................................................................................................................6 1.4.7 PatrolBot.................................................................................................................6 1.5 INDIGENOUS DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH ROBOTS............................................................................7 CHAPTER 2: ANATOMY OF MOBILE ROBOT...........................................................8 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 AUTONOMOUS OR HUMAN CONTROLLED..........................................................................................8 ROBOT BODY.......................................................................................................................8 POWER AND MOTION CONTROL....................................................................................................8 SENSING CAPABILITIES.............................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 3: DRIVE MECHANISM........................................................................10 3.1 ACKERMAN STEERING ..........................................................................................................10 3.1.1 Types of Ackerman...............................................................................................12
3.1.1.1 Zero Ackerman............................................................................................................. 12 3.1.1.2 Pro-Ackerman............................................................................................................... 12 3.1.1.3 Anti-Ackerman.............................................................................................................. 13
3.2 DIFFERENTIAL STEERING.........................................................................................................14 3.2.1 Cases....................................................................................................................14 3.2.2 Mechanical structure............................................................................................16 3.2.3 Mathematical expressions....................................................................................18 CHAPTER 4: SENSORS AND NAVIGATION DEVICES..............................................20 4.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................20 4.2 ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER....................................................................................................20 4.2.1 Ultrasound............................................................................................................20 4.2.2 Working principle..................................................................................................20 4.2.3 Comparison with Other Range Finders.................................................................24 4.2.4 Application and Uses............................................................................................25 4.3 GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION)....................................................................25 4.3.1 GSM Overview......................................................................................................25
4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.3 4.3.1.4 Services........................................................................................................................ 25 Quality of service and security..................................................................................... 26 Radio Frequency utilization.......................................................................................... 26 Network........................................................................................................................ 26
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4.3.1.5 Cost.............................................................................................................................. 26
4.3.5 GSM Modem SIM300.............................................................................................29 4.3.6 SIM Interface........................................................................................................31 4.3.7 Introduction to AT-Commands..............................................................................31 4.4 GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)..........................................................................................33 4.4.1 Background..........................................................................................................33 4.4.2 2D-Trilateration....................................................................................................34 4.4.3 3D-Trilateration....................................................................................................36 4.4.4 GPS Calculations...................................................................................................36
4.4.4.1 Pseudo Random Code................................................................................................... 37 4.4.4.2 Measuring Distance: Summary of Discussion............................................................... 38
CHAPTER 5: ACTUATIONS..................................................................................46 5.1 INTRODUCTION:...................................................................................................................46 5.2 MOTORS..........................................................................................................................46 5.3 TYPES OF MOTORS..............................................................................................................46 5.3.1 DC Motor..............................................................................................................46
5.3.1.1 Voltage ........................................................................................................................ 46 5.3.1.2 Current......................................................................................................................... 47 5.3.1.2.1: Operating Current................................................................................................ 47 5.3.1.2.2: Stall Current......................................................................................................... 47 5.3.1.2 Back EMF ..................................................................................................................... 47 5.3.1.3 Control Method............................................................................................................. 47
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List of figures
FIGURE3.1: ILLUSTRATING THE WHEELS RADIUS DIFFERENCE.............................10 FIGURE3.2: ILLUSTRATING THE ROTATION ARM ANGLE.......................................11 FIGURE3.3: CALCULATING THE ACKERMAN ANGLE..............................................11 FIGURE3.4: ORTHOGONALITY OF STEERING ARM................................................12 FIGURE3.5: ILLUSTRATING THE ARM ANGLE >90O..............................................13 FIGURE3.6: ILLUSTRATING THE ARM ANGLE<90O...............................................13 FIGURE3.7: TWO SEPARATE ACTUATORS...........................................................14 FIGURE3.8: THE ROBOT MOVING IN THE STRAIGHT LINE.....................................14 FIGURE3.9: ROBOT FOLLOWING CURVED PATH WITH BOTH WHEELS IN MOTION. .15 FIGURE3.8: THE ROBOT MOVING IN THE CURVED PATH WITH ONE WHEEL STILL. .15 FIGURE3.9: THE ROBOT IN ROTATOR MOTION....................................................16 FIGURE3.10: RICKSHAW DESIGN.......................................................................16 FIGURE3.11: THE DESIGN WITH TWO CASTER WHEELS.......................................17 FIGURE3.12: POWER IN ALL FOUR WHEELS........................................................17 FIGURE3.13: TANK TYPE DESIGN.......................................................................18 FIGURE3.14: CALCULATING THE DISTANCE COVERED BY DIFFERENTIAL DRIVE.....18 FIGURE 4.1: ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER WORKING PRINCIPLE...........................21 FIGURE 4.2: SOUND REFLECTION CASES............................................................21 FIGURE4.3: TIMING DIAGRAM............................................................................22 FIGURE4.4: ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER............................................................23 FIGURE4.5: PCB DIAGRAM USING EXPRESS PCB.................................................24 FIGURE4.6: THE SWITCHING SYSTEM:................................................................27 FIGURE 4.7: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SIM INTERFACE...........................................31 FIGURE 4.7(A): ILLUSTRATING THE COVERED AREA............................................34 FIGURE4.8 (A,B): 3D-TRILATERATION.................................................................36 FIGURE4.9: DISTANCE MEASUREMENT .......................................................................................................................38 FIGURE4.10: STEP BY STEP SYNCHRONIZATION.................................................39 FIGURE4.11: HOLUX M-89.................................................................................43
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FIGURE5.1: OPERATION PRINCIPLE OF STEPPER MOTOR.....................................48 FIGURE5.2: THE PROCESS OF HALF-STEPPING................................................49 FIGURE 5.3: PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR...........................................50 FIGURE5.4: VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR.........................................51 FIGURE5.5: SERVO MOTOR................................................................................52 FIGURE7: RELATION BETWEEN PULSE WIDTH AND ANGLE...................................54
Abstract
Robotics is an engineering discipline that has tremendous application in various areas of everyday life. From common toys and entertainment robots to intelligent robots used for Surgery, automation, warfare and industrial purposes, robots are revolutionizing the way we live. To advance in this ever expanding field of applied engineering, availability of robots for X
research purposes is a must. The commercial research robots that are available in the market tend to be very expensive for a poor country like ours. The effects are that we are lagging behind in the field of autonomous robots. While countries like US and UK have developed specialized robots for combat purposes, and Japan has taken over the world with their recreational robots, we look at them as something beyond us. By building cheap and capable robots we intend to not only fulfill our needs for research robots, we also plan to make them common place so that robotics can be introduced to students at school level.
Motivation
To build a robot is not an easy task especially for countries like Pakistan. We are lagging behind in the field of robotics and Autonomous robots. The main issue faced is unavailability of components like motors, actuators etc. and High prices of research robots. A student cant afford an expensive research robot to advance in this field. A lot of time is always wasted in searching XI
and selecting the parts of a robot and a lot of equipment is shipped from abroad, so due to time and money problems at the end of the semester a student is capable of only making a simple robot like Line track. So we thought that there should be cheap research robots available in universities so that students dont waste their time in making the robot from zero level instead they should start further work on the research robot so that they can develop something better.
Overview
As described above that research robot are very expensive. So we have basically made a team of research robots to reduce the problems of the students regarding robotics. The team members have different capabilities like: They have drive mechanism of both Differential and Ackerman Can lift a load of 8 pound XII
Obstacle Avoidance Range Sensing GPS installed for Bearing GSM installed for far off Command Bump Sensing Temperature Sensing
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Robotics
To laymen when we say the word ROBOT, they think that it is a machine that helps, entertains, and do the jobs as a man can do. The image of a ROBOT in their mind is same as a human being so that it can walk like us and talk to the people and do all jobs we do and it is called the Artificial Intelligence for a ROBOT. Actually the ROBOT is not the same as they think it can be of any structure and shape can do variety of jobs but not all. Now a days, we are witnessing that the researchers and roboticists competently emerging the intelligent machines and achieving their goals of artificial intelligence for ROBOT. Robots are one of the most interesting and vast outcome of todays advanced technology. This technology is being driven forward by independent researchers, roboticists, and hobbyists. It is a unique area of study because it encompasses many different disciplines such as electronics, computer science, mechanical design, control systems, programming, and biology, each of which requires certain expertise to master. Robotics is a vast field and it relates to the structure, design, electronics, mechanics, and sensing capabilities of a ROBOT in the engineering and science terms. Their uses in the world like in industry, education, remote operations, and services.
1.4.1 Seekur
MAP warehouses, hangars and other spaces in minutes PLAN PATHS to goals AVOID OBSTACLES along the way NAVIGATE TIGHT SPACES for delivery or docking Laser mapping and navigation Inertial measurement unit Up to five onboard PCs Wireless radio communications Wireless joystick GPS/DGPS SENSORS SICK LMS200 and 220 Laser range2
$59,000
finder options Inertial accelerometer and tilt/yaw sensing option 380-tick per revolution Hall Effect sensors on traction motors Mobile Ranger outdoor stereovision system
2 .
1.4.2 PEOPLEBOT
PLAY sound files or synthesized speech LISTEN for phrases or sounds it recognizes RESPOND to requests or conditions it senses NAVIGATE without running over toes or into furniture FIND & FETCH objects it recognizes FOLLOW colors TRANSMIT video images to surveillance monitors COMMUNICATE with other robots CONNECT to PC's via the Internet or LAN RUN AUTONOMOUSLY
$31,995
3 .
mapping navigation
$27,995 To
monitoring reconnaissance vision manipulation cooperation and other behaviors communication with a PC client, via one of the following: wireless radio modem robot-to-laptop connector robot-to-desktop tether or connection to an embedded computer 4 .
$99,995
mapping teleoperation localization monitoring reconnaissance vision manipulation cooperation and other behaviors communication with a PC client, via one of the following: wireless radio modem
$17,495 to $60,995
5 .
1.4.5 AmigoBot
Localization shortest-path calculation and path execution differential-drive 8 range finding sonar sensors twin 500-tick motor encoders
$2,225 to 18,995
6 .
1.4.6 PatrolBot
WANDER randomly, avoiding obstacles DRIVE controlled by keys or joystick COMMUNICATE SENSOR & CONTROL INFORMATION including sonar, motor encoder, motor controls, user I/O, and battery charge data SIMULATE BEHAVIORS OFFLINE with the simulator that accompanies each development environment CREATE 2D MAPS of rooms, labs or buildings in minutes PLAN PATHS to goals AVOID OBSTACLES along the way NAVIGATE TIGHT SPACES for delivery or docking
1.4.7 PatrolBot
Laser range-finder for 3D mapping and path planning, integrated in ARIA Tall extension for human interaction research, teleconferencing robots and guides Touch screen, also for human interface Red and green IR proximity sensors, for simple yes/no interface Choice of our Mobile Ranger or Standard Stereovision Systems Remote-control pan-tilt-zoom camera, tightly integrated, located on the robot or on the tall extension Additional auto-docking recharge 6
stations
bearing capacity, the torque needed, the speed requirements etc. the drive mechanism also have importance for the mobility of robot. Many types of drives we can achieve like differential drive, the most commonly used drive for steering the robot because it is efficient, easy to build, inexpensive, powerful, stable and sturdy, and agile. Addition to that the Ackerman steering, the hexapod (legged robots) are also used. The arms, forks, hands also need actuators for their movement and mostly servos are used for this purpose
Figure3.1: Illustrating the wheels radius difference Hence as from the figure it is clear that the inner wheel path is more sharper than the outer wheel path because r1<r2 To implement the Ackerman principle the we have to design the axle rotation arms their angles and length so that all wheels axles angles got arranged such that their traversed path radii meets at a same point. Steering arms and the wheel axle have an angle greater than 90o as shown in figure
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Practically the exact Ackerman steering wheel angles cannot be achieved due to human error, Instruments precision errors and approx calculations. The Ackerman angle can be approximated by drawing the straight lines from the kingpins of the steering wheel to the centre of rear axle length. So the rotation arms can be kept and implemented parallel to those lines.
Figure3.3: Calculating the Ackerman angle Mathematically the Ackerman angle and RAA are derived as under. =tan-1(l/d) =90o- Where l is the distance between the front wheel kingpin and rear axle and d is the kingpin centre to centre distance. RAA is directly proportional to the torque because = RAA * F hence the RAA can be designed by considering the servos torque and the structure limitations. Another relation of the wheel turning angles and the structure parameters is cot i-cot o = d/l Where i is the inner wheel turn angle and the o is the outer wheel turn angle. o =cot-1 {cot i (d/l)}
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so the outer wheels turn can be calculated according to Ackermans principle by putting the inner wheel turn angle and other parameters.
Figure3.4: Orthogonality of steering arm As shown in the figure the axle rotating arms make an angle of 90o hence when the motor tries to turn the wheels both wheels turn the same angle. Hence results in wheel scrubbing, traction losses, wheel wear, and heat produced.
3.1.1.2 Pro-Ackerman
Pro Ackerman can also be called the normal Ackerman and is used when the smooth drive and bearing heavy loads is required. Track rod length is shorter than the wheel axle pivot pointskingpins distance and is Used to avoid slip of wheels while turning.
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Figure3.5: Illustrating the arm angle >90o No traction losses and heat production during turning mechanism and the wheel wear is also minimized.
3.1.1.3 Anti-Ackerman
The anti Ackerman drive sometimes also called reverse Ackerman drive. it is the total opposite symmetry of the pro Ackerman drive. in this case the inner wheel tends to traverse the greater radii circle whereas the outer wheel tends to traverse the smaller radii circle.
Figure3.6: Illustrating the arm angle<90o As shown in the figure the rotating arms makes an angle of less than 90o hence resulting in anti Ackerman drive structure. This drive is mostly used in racing cars or high speed vehicle giving more road grip and effective turn. Because at higher speeds the inner wheel tends to leave the ground because of high lateral forces and inertia.
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3.2.1 Cases
There are four different cases in the differential drive and are described as, 1. The both wheels rotate with the same speed, the robot will move straight and we can see the wheel prints as straight lines.
Figure3.8: The robot moving in the straight line 2. Both wheels rotating but one of the two side wheels rotates more faster than the other then the robot moves in a curved path and tends to turn toward the relatively slower rotating wheel and the wheel prints results into two different circles.
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Figure3.9: Robot following curved path with both wheels in motion 3. One of the two side wheels is still and the other is rotating, robot moves in a curved path and tends to turn toward the zero rotating(still) wheel and the wheel prints results into a point and a circle.
Figure3.8: The robot moving in the curved path with one wheel still 4. Both wheels rotating with equal speed but opposite in direction results in the robot spin around the centre point of the robot. So the robot can rotate around its own pivot in either direction, the clockwise or anticlockwise .The wheel print results in one circle.
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Figure3.10: Rickshaw design 2. Two rotor wheels at rear side and one caster wheel on front to balance the weight and this design is relatively more stable from above. Easy to design, Easy to build, Light weight, Inexpensive, Agile structure.
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Figure3.11: The design with two caster wheels 3. Four wheels drive having a chain for joining and synchronizing the left front to the left rear wheel and the right front wheel to right rear wheel. This structure is more powerful, stable, Easy to design Easy to build, Inexpensive, Powerful, Sturdy and stable, not agile because turning is a bit difficult exact calculated adjustment needed.
Figure3.12: Power in all four wheels 4. Tank tread drive having a belt on N wheels of both side. Two different motors drive those belts. Powerful, VERY Stable, NOT AGILE, HEAVY, Inefficient, EXPENSIVE, Hard to maintain.
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The point P can be either away from the inner wheel if both wheels have some relative motion or point P can be under the inner wheel if the inner wheel have zero torque. So the distance travelled by the inner wheel and the outer wheel can be calculated by: Si=r So=(r+b) Where r is the distance between the inner wheel centre point and the pivot point, and is the angular path to be covered. So the robot travelled distance while approaching to a specified point can be calculated by: So=(r+b/2) Or can be calculated by putting the distance to be travelled and other parameters in equation, = So/(r+b/2)
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S=v*(t/2)
Where S is the distance between the sensor and the object, v is the speed of sound having magnitude of 345m/s in air and t is the time difference. The time is divided by factor 2 because it is the time of both sending and receiving of sound pulse.
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Ultrasonic sensor can detect up to some extent depending upon how strong the transmitted pulse is generated. Stronger the pulse and more is the range. It also depends upon the type of surface reflecting the echo. If the reflecting surface is hard and smooth the maximum amount of signal will reflect back and the distance of the striking object can be calculated accurately. In case of smooth surface the fact is other way round.
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We use an ultrasonic sensor that operates at 40 kHz sound frequency generated by microcontroller. The microcontroller generates six pulses of 40 kHz sends in air via ultrasonic transmitter and waits maximum for 20ms to receive same pulse from receiver, after amplification to detect. If the signal is not received it will be retransmitted. We cannot send sound pulse continuously because there will be interference between transmitted and received pulses. The max distance that can be measured by the sensor we used is 3 meters, so 20ms is enough time for sending and receiving of pulse.
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Communication
Echoes
Price Rs.
1 1 1 1 17 1 1
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Services Quality of service and security Radio Frequency utilization Network Cost
4.3.1.1 Services
The system must give portability that is the user can receive service at anytime and anywhere. The system shall provide services to mobile stations used by on road public and vehicles mounted stations.
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4.3.1.4 Network
The ITU recommendations must be kept under consideration while planning of identification and numbering.
4.3.1.5 Cost
The cost parameters must be kept under consideration while offering the GSM communication services to their MSs (mobile stations).
Network and Switching system (NSS), Base Station System (BSS) Mobile station (MS)
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4.3.2.1.2 Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC) It performs the switching functions of the system. It manages calls to and from other systems. It also performs such functions as network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
4.3.2.1.3 Visitor Location Register (VLR) it contains temporary information about subscribers that is required by the MSC. When a mobile station moves into an area having new MSC, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. When a mobile station makes a call, VLR will have the information without having to interrogate the HLR each time.
4.3.2.1.4 Authentication center (AUC) The AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters which is used for the verification of the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. It also provides protection and security network operators from different types of fraud found.
4.3.2.1.5 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) For the identity of mobile equipment, it is a database that contains information that prevents calls from stolen, prohibited, or defective mobile stations.
4.3.2.2 The Base Station System (BSS) and Mobile station (MS)
All the functions that are related to radio are performed in the BSS. It consists of base station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).
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4.3.3 BSC it provides the physical connections between the MSC and BTS and controls them. 4.3.4 BTS the BTS gives radio link to mobile station.
1) Tri-band GSM/GPRS module with a size of 40x33x2.85mm 2) Customized MMI and keypad/LCD support 3) An embedded Powerful TCP/IP protocol stack 4) Based upon mature and field-proven platform, backed up by our support service, from definition to design and production
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Here are some basic AT commands and their specified tasks are defined: (AT+CGMI) tells us the name of manufacturer, (AT+CGMM) tells model number, (AT+CGSN) tells IMEI number (International Mobile Equipment Identity) and (AT+CGMR) software version. (AT+CIMI)IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity). (AT+CPAS) mobile phone activity status, (AT+CREG) mobile network registration status, (AT+CSQ)radio signal strength, (AT+CBC) battery charge level and battery charging status. (ATD, ATA etc)Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem. (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS) Sending the SMS, (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL) reading the SMS, (AT+CMGW) writing the SMS (AT+CMGD) deleting the stored messages in phone or SIM memory. (AT+CNMI) gives an interrupt (notification) on newly received SMS. (AT+CPBR) Reading phone book entries. (AT+CPBW) writing or saving the new phone book entries (AT+CPBF) searching in phonebook entries. (AT+CLCK)Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks. (AT+CLCK) checking whether a facility is locked. (AT+CPWD) changing passwords. (AT+CPMS) accessing storage of SMS messages. Now a day the mobile phone manufacturers mostly ignore the use of AT command for security and reliability purposes. So the commands may be different from mobile to mobile. Whereas the 32
GSM modems which are designed for GSM wireless communication mostly supports these basic set of AT commands and the parameters. As it is obvious that some of the AT commands needs the operator services .e.g. AT+CMGS is command to send SMS through GSM communication link. So if the operator services not available we will not be able to execute some of the commands. AT commands and MCU
While controlling the mobile phone or the GSM modem with microcontroller there are some basic points which must be kept under considerations. While sending command to modem or mobile unit the carriage return <CR> and linefeed<LF> must also sent at the end of the command or we can send \r because while using windows hyper terminal it itself sends the carriage return and line feed without notification to the user when we press enter bottom. e.g. AT+CMGL="ALL"<CR><LF>
at the reception of the result for the requested command the mobile also sends us the result using <LF> and <CR> on both start and end of the line. e.g. <LF><CR>+CMGL: 1,"REC UNREAD","+31625044454",,"07/07/05,09:55:16+08<CR><LF> <LF><CR>+CMGL: 2,"REC UNREAD","+31625044454",07/07/05, 09:56:03+08"<CR><LF>
is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver. But these things are very much easier nowadays. Only you need to have a GPS receiver. When we talk about GPS we usually means GPS receiver. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is actually a group of 27 satellites; in which 24 are functional and remaining three are used as backup when ant satellite fails. The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite network as a military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else. These satellites circle around the globe at about 12000km; they rotate completely twice a day. The position of orbits of satellites is arranged in such a manner that on anytime and anywhere on the earth that in open sky minimum 4 satellites are visible which enough to determine accurate location are. A GPS receiver does what?? It simply locates four are more satellites visible to it and find the distance of these satellites from GPS receiver and the with this knowledge calculates its position.
4.4.2 2D-Trilateration
Imagine you are somewhere in Pakistan and you dont know what your location is. You ask someone where am I? he replies, You are 200 Km from Lahore. Now you can visualize that you are somewhere on a circle having radius 200km like the figure below.
Figure 4.7(a): Illustrating the covered area Now you ask someone else again. Where am I? he replies, You are 100 Km from Rawalpindi. Now you can visualize that you are somewhere on a circle having radius 100km like the figure below. 34
Figure 4.7(b) If you combine this with previous information you will get intersection of two circles, it means that you can be at any of these two interesting points. Now you ask from a third person the same question he replies, You are 150 Km from Sargodha. Now you can exactly figure out position because the intersection of these three circles will intersect only at one point which is your exact position.
Figure 4.7(c)
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This same concept works in three-dimensional space, as well, but now you're dealing with spheres instead of circles.
4.4.3 3D-Trilateration
The 3D-literation basically works on same principle of 2D-literation but the only change is here sphere used instead of 2D circles hence here we can get more precise location even when the person is not on the earth surface.
(b)
c=3*108 m/s. This is equal to 3 x 108 m/s and 186,000 miles /s. The basic problem is the calculation of time because the waves are moving at the c=3*108 m/s and a very minor error in time calculations can result in huge position error. Suppose we have an error of 1/1000 part of a second then there will an error of 200 mile in location. it means we need precise clock. Suppose for some time that we have precise clocks but the question arises how we will calculate the time. We can understand this trick with the help of goofy analog. Suppose we have a way that we can play a tune twinkle twinkle little star . on both the satellite and the receiver. The tune of receiver and of transmitter will be out of sync. The receivers tune will be delayed because it has travelled a distance roughly of 11,000 mile. So both versions to be in sync we will start shifting back the receiver side tune until it is perfectly matched with the satellites version. The amount of time we have shifted back our receivers tune is our travel time. Now we multiply this travel time with c=3*108 m/s and we get the required distance.
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Figure4.9: Distance Measurement the receivers Position can be calculated by the following equations.
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released namely NMEA 2000, which is a bi-directional, multi-transmitter, multi-receiver serial data network.
4.4.5.2.1 Proprietary Sentences: In this standard , the manufacturers are allowed to define their own proprietary sentence. It starts with "$P", then a 3 letter manufacturer ID, after that the data which the manufacture wishes is allowed to send. For example Garmin uses propriety sentence for Sensor Configuration Information as: $PGRMC,A,x.x,hh,x.x,x.x,x.x,x.x,x.x,c,c,2,c<CR><LF> 4.4.5.2.2 Query sentences: Query sentences are used when a listener requests from talker a particular sentence. the format of query sentence is: 40
$ttllQ,sss,[CR][LF] 1st two characters are talker identifier,sent by the requester and the next two characters are the talker identifier of listener and the next character is always a "Q" defining the message as a query followed by (sss) ,which contains the three letter mnemonic of the sentence being requested. For example $CCGPQ,GGA<CR><LF> Here "CC" is computer device which is requesting from the "GP" device (a GPS unit) the "GGA" sentence. 4.4.5.2.3 Talker Sentences: The format for a talker sentence is: $ttsss,d1,d2,....<CR><LF> $ starts the sentence, the two characters tt are the talker identifier. And the characters (sss) are the sentence identifier, followed by a number of data fields separated by commas, followed by an optional checksum, and terminated by CR and LF. .for example the talker sentence is like this: $HCHDM,238,M<CR><LF> Where "HC" represents the talker, the HDM" specifies the magnetic heading message follows, the "238" is the heading value, and "M" designates the heading value as magnetic.
HOLUX M-89 is 25.4 * 25.4 * 3 mm GPS board designed by MTK GPS solution. It gives finer sensitivity up to -159dBm. The key feature of HOLUX M-89 includes: Small size: 25.4 * 25.4 * 3 mm finer sensitivity up to -159dBm can communicate up to 32 satellites Quick location Low power consumption Support NMEA0183 V 3.01 data protocol. Real time navigation for location based services.
4.4.6.2 APPLICATON
Car Navigation Marine Navigation Fleet Management Location-Based Services, Auto Pilot Personal Navigation or touring devices Tracking devices systems Mapping devices Geographic Surveying Sporting and Recreation
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4.4.6.4 Specification
Frequency Channels 1575.42MHZ 32 channels all in view searching 43
Sensitivity Velocity Time Hot start Warm start Cold start Protocol Support Altitude Limit Velocity Limit Operation Current Operation Current DC Input Range
Better than -159dBm minimum 0.1 M/sec 0.1s . Sync GPS time 1 sec. average 33 sec. average 36 sec. average NMEA-0183 18000 meters 515 M/sec Acquisition:65 mA@3.3V Tracking:35mA@3.3V VCC 3.0~5.0V VBAT 3.0~5.0V
Processor Speeds Integrated program Flash Interface Operating Temperature Dimension Weight
48 MHz 4 MHz
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Chapter 5: Actuations
5.1 Introduction:
The locomotion of the autonomous or human controlled robot needs the DC motors, servos, stepper motors etc. the actuations is a basic constituent of the mobile robots either it is for the whole robot motion from place to place or its any other motion like arm, fork motion etc the DC motors exhibits a constant speed at a constant voltage. To vary the speed we must vary the voltage and to do that we need H-bridge that is controlled by the PWM through the processor.
5.2 Motors
A Motor is an electric machine that converts Electrical Energy into Mechanical Energy
5.3.1 DC Motor
The Figure and working principle of a simple dc motor is described above. Now we will describe some characteristics of a DC motor. DC motors are the simplest ones. You just apply the DC voltage to its terminals and it will start spinning. But what if you want to control the direction of rotation, want to change the speed etc. we shall describe later.
5.3.1.1 Voltage
DC motors are non-polarized in nature so if you apply reverse voltage nothing bad like burnout will happen. Normally they are rated from 6V-12V but some are rated at higher voltages like 24V. This motor has direct relation with the torque. Give more voltage and you will get the
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higher torque. But the voltage has a limit. If you start increasing the voltage like you give 100 voltages then it the coil will overheat and burn. So always use the DC motor at rated power.
5.3.1.2 Current
As long as the circuit is concerned you must consider the current also. If you apply very little current the motor will not work and if you apply too much the coils will burn. In a DC motor two currents are important: 5.3.1.2.1: Operating Current This is average amount of current that we think the motor will draw at a particular torque. Operating Current * Rated Voltage=Average Power to run the motor 5.3.1.2.2: Stall Current Maximum current that a DC motor can draw when it is prevented from rotation. The current is inversely proportional to speed. So when you design the control circuit of a DC motor is should designed so to handle this stall current.
expensive sensing and feedback circuits. To control your motor precisely you just need is to keep track of the input step pulses and nothing else.
Figure5.1: Operation Principle of Stepper Motor The figure shows a permanent magnet and electromagnets on which windings are there. The Permanent magnet can rotate and is called Rotor while electromagnets are called Stator because they are Stationary. First quarter of the figure shows that at position 1, the rotors is aligned with the upper electromagnet because the upper electromagnet is on and opposite polarities attract each other. Now we want to move it 90 degree clockwise so we switch on the right electromagnet and switch of the upper electromagnet as shown in the position 2. Next you switch on the lower electromagnet and switch off the right electromagnet you will get the position 3 and in the similar manner you can get position 4 and 5 also. The motor shown above has 90 degrees resolution i.e. it moves 90 degree in one step. In real life the stepper motor has much higher resolution then this motor. It was just demonstration purpose. You can make the resolution of some stepper motors by a process known as Half- Stepping. In 48
the above diagram we switched on one electromagnet at a time. If we switched on two electromagnets at a time they will cause equal attraction and hence resolution will be double. As shown in the figure.
It is also known as Tin can or canstock motor. As evident from their name they have a permanent magnet in their construction. It is a low resolution (amount of degree rotated per pulse) and low cost motor. It has step angles of 7.5 degree and 15 degree only. It consists of a mainly Rotor, Stator, Coils and shaft. The rotor has no teeth as in case of variable reluctance motor.
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This type does not use the permanent magnet therefore its field strength can be varied. Due to unavailability of permanent magnet they are low torque and are used for small positioning. These motors are probably easy to understand as long as their construction is concerned. They consist of mainly a rotor having teeth and a stator having windings on it. When we apply DC current to the stator windings they become energized. While stator poles are energized the rotator is attracted by the stator and rotation is started.
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5.3.2.3Advantages
1. The angle of rotation is proportional to the input step pulse. 2. Precise Positioning. 3. Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing. 4. Reliable due to absence of brushes. 5. A wide range of speeds.
5.3.2.4 Disadvantages
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Figure5.5: Servo Motor Servo motors are such type of motors which do not rotate continuously as DC/AC or stepper motors rotates, instead they are used to position and hold some thing. They are used in applications where we dont need constant rotation therefore they are not used to drive the wheels. If we want to use servos for continuous rotation purposes then they should be modified. So we use them where something is needed to move to particular position and then required to stop and hold there for a period of time. Most simple use of a servo motor is to position the rudder of aircrafts and boats etc. They are used here because they dont need to rotate full 360 degrees nor they rotate continuously like wheels. We can use them to rotate to a particular angle (say 50 degree) and then hold the rudder on that position. Now come toward the most important feature of a servo which is Feedback Mechanism. So it can sense an error relating to its position and can correct it. This mechanism is called servomechanism. So if the air flow applies pressure on rudder and tries to change its direction then the servo will apply force in direction which is 52
against the air pressure and will try to correct the error. You can understand it like you set your servo to go a rotation of 52 degrees and lock there if you apply a force to change the direction then the servo will try its best to oppose the applied force. There are many types of servos but the two main categories are DC Servos and AC Servos. They consist of a Driving circuit and Encoder. The AC Servo has an advantage of bearing huge current surges because this type has no brushes while DC servo has brushes so it is a limiting factor in this factor. If we compare the servo with stepper then the servo has more smoothness in motion and has better resolution. An encoder is a disc composing of glass which has very fine lines on its surface and further an optical encoder is attached that counts those lines when it rotates with the Servo. This data is feed to the controller which tracks the no. of counts, their rotation rate, and through a host of feedback loops, components and controlled amplifiers. This whole arrangement produces the required motion. We have used Hobby servo which has motor and its control mechanism built into one unit. There are 3 wires which are attached to a connector. The Red wire is for is positive supply ranging from 4.8-6.0 Volts DC. Black wire is for ground and the Orange wire is for control signal. General description of servo wiring is given below
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Bibliography
1. Robot Builders Bonanza, By: Gordon Mccomb and micky predko 3rd edition
by MO-YUEN CHOW, STEFANO CHIAVERINI (IEEE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 14, NO. 2, APRIL 2009)
4. ANATOMY OFA ROBOT by CHARLES M. BERGREN Copyright
Singapore) Frank L. Lewis (Automation and Robotics Research Institute The University of Texas at Arlington)
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