8.

Waste Collection & Treatment

Section Contents:
Purpose Housing Systems Manure Collection and Transfer Methods Treatment of Collected Manure Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs) Manure Storage Handling & Utilization of Stored Manure Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs) Glossary Web Page References

DISCLAIMER
Neither SCE nor any entity performing the work pursuant to SCEs authority make any warranty or representation, expressed or implied, with regard to this guide, the merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose of the results of the work, or any analyses, or conclusions contained in this guide. The results reflected in the guide are generally representative of operating conditions; however, the results in any other situation may vary depending upon particular operating conditions. Photographs and diagrams provided within this guide by specific manufacturers are used for illustrative and educational purposes only and are not meant to endorse or promote a specific product or manufacturer.

Purpose Waste Collection & Treatment

All dairy farms produce and then must dispose of waste products from two major sources; the wastewater from their milking centers and the waste products from digestion and other bodily processes of dairy cows. A significant amount of energy is used on California dairy farms for a variety of treatment processes and disposal of waste products. Milking center wastewater is generated from the following sources: 1. 2. 3. 4. Washing of milking equipment. Cow prep wash pens. Back flush of milking equipment Parlor and holding area flushing.

There are four major types of manure collection systems employed on dairy farms. 1. 2. 3. 4. Flush systems utilizing water to dilute and transport manure Automatic alley scrapers Vacuum operated collection equipment Tractor or skid steer manure scraper

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The flush system is used on the majority of California dairies, with small numbers utilizing automatic alley scrapers. Flush cleaning of dairy manure offers a labor efficient method for removing wastes from large dairy operations. The advantages of labor saving, frequent complete cleaning, drier alleys and cleaner cows offset the disadvantages of large volume water requirements and possible need to separate solids to provide recycling water. Energy used in flush systems centers on pumping. Pumps are used to supply additional water for dilution, pumping recycled water from storage to elevated holding tanks, tip-tanks, or other flush storage facilities. High volume pumps can also be used in pump-flush systems to deliver flushing water directly. Design parameters that must be addressed to achieve adequate flush system performance include water volume per flush, flow rate, sufficient alley slope, length of flush period and interval between flushes, water velocity and depth Gravity flow channels are usually employed to move flushed wastes to storage lagoons/ponds. Individual site limitations may require additional pumping to storage. Additional energy inputs can be required for the separation process to provide recycled water for reuse in the next flush cycle. Finally electrically operated irrigation pumps may be used to land apply the liquid portion of separated waste. Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment

Housing Systems
Manure handling systems on dairy farms are normally designed around the type of housing system(s) on the farm. The housing system determines the type of manure produced (solid, semi-solid or liquid). The type of manure then dictates the appropriate handling system. Type of Housing Tiestall or stanchion barn Tiestall or stanchion barns are typically used on smaller dairy farms (100 cows or less). Cows are secured in resting stalls where they are also fed and milked. Straw, sawdust or paper sludge bedding is used on the cow platform to enhance cow comfort. Manure is collected in gutters, usually with significant amounts of bedding (chopped straw, sawdust, etc.) adding to the solids content. Manure is often collected and spread daily during spring, summer and fall months, but may be stored during the winter months. Handling equipment consists of a gutter cleaner, manure spreader and a loader to transfer manure from a shortterm storage to the spreader. Manure may be moved to the storage by a gutter cleaner extension, an elevator, a solid piston pump, or a tractor/bucket loader system. Some tiestall barns are built with a gravity gutter system. The gutters are sloped toward one end of the barn and manure urine and added water will flow by gravity to a collection pit at the end of the barn. The manure can then be pumped from the collection pit to a

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spreader or to a long term storage facility. The primary energy use in such systems is for the periodic pumping of the collection pit. Figure 8-1 shows a tiestall barn with bedding.

Figure 8-1. Tiestall barn with bedding

Bedded pack (loose) housing systems Loose housing systems had become less prevalent in recent years, but are gaining in popularity in some areas. Cows are housed on a composting bedded pack in open floor plan resting barns. Fresh bedding is spread on the bedded pack every two to six weeks. The bedded pack is tilled or stirred daily with a tractor mounted rotary tiller or cultivator to blend in oxygen to produce a compost process that breaks down organic matter. Daily stirring generally takes just a few minutes. The resting area is cleaned out totally once a year with a bucket loader and applied to fields with a manure spreader. These systems are best suited to smaller dairies (under 200 cows, and offer excellent labor and energy efficiency. Cow comfort and general herd health can be well managed with a composting bedded pack system.

Corral with or without sunshade Corral confinement systems are generally used in warm, dry climates. Dairy cows roam freely within the confines of a large open area surrounded by fencing. Manure is collected on the earthen surface of the corral where the sun dries it and cow traffic breaks it up. Often, the manure and surface soil will be mixed with a tractor pulled drag to facilitate drying. The manure may be scraped periodically into piles for further drying and then spread on the land. Sunshades, if used, may have an earthen floor or a concrete floor. The feeding area will almost always have a concrete surface. These concrete areas may be cleaned by tractor scraper or by a flush system. Flushed manure will be transferred to a settling pond for some solids separation and then to a storage lagoon which will be pumped out periodically by irrigation pumps and spread on cropland. Generally, about 40% of the manure produced by the dairy cows will be deposited on the open lot surface, while about
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60% will be deposited in the feeding area. Figure 8-3 shows a corral with sunshade and a flushed feed alley in lower left corner.

Figure 8-3. Corral with sunshade and flushed feed alley

Freestall barn Freestall housing barns generally have three or more rows of individual cow stalls separated by concrete alleyways. Cows use the freestalls for resting, but can move around the facility at will. A feed alley located in the center of the barn or on one side allows the cows free access to feed, which is usually provided as a total mix ration (TMR). Manure from a freestall barn is usually handled as a liquid unless excess bedding materials are mixed in to create a more solid consistency. In such cases, the manure is handled as a semi-solid and can be scraped into a storage that allows some solid/liquid separation. The solid portion can be transferred by bucket loader to a spreader, while the liquid portion can be pumped. Manure in a freestall barn is removed from the structure by scraping with a tractor scraper or skid steer or automatic alley scrapers or vacuum truck flushing. Flushing systems add a considerable amount of water to the manure, further reducing the solids content. Flushed manure is often transferred to settling basins, where more solids settle out and then on to a long term storage. The manure is generally stored in earthen ponds or above ground storage tanks. In the storage facility solids will separate and settle. The liquid portion can be pumped into tank spreaders or directly irrigated on the land. The solids are periodically removed by bucket loader and land spread. Figure 8-4 shows a freestall barn in Vermont and Figure 8-5 show freestall barn in California.

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Figure 8-4. A Vermont 4-row freestall barn with scraped alleys

Figure 8-5. 4-row freestall barn in California

There are also combined freestall and corral systems where the cows spend much of their time in the freestall barn (resting and feeding), but also have access to a corral. About 80% of the manure is deposited in the freestall barn for such systems. During inclement weather the cows may be confined to the freestall. The freestall barn may be flushed or scraped to transfer the manure to the storage system. A vacuum truck may also be used to remove the manure from the freestall barn. During winter months, the freestall facility will provide primary shelter for the dairy cows.

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Manure from small freestall facilities is often scraped directly into a spreader and spread daily on the land, except in the winter months when spreading may not be possible. During that time, the manure is transferred to a short-term storage for later spreading.

Other wastewater Equipment wash water, cow wash or prep water and manure waste from milking center washdown add a significant volume to the manure stream from a dairy facility. The handling and disposal of this liquid manure/wash water combination requires significant energy in addition to the energy used to handle manure from the cow resting/housing areas. In small, tiestall or small freestall systems, milkhouse wastes are generally transferred to a separate storage, which is occasionally pumped out and spread on the land. Some small farms have a septic tank and leach field for milkhouse washwater waste. However, such systems often plug up because milk in the wastewater is difficult to break down. In larger systems, the milking center wash water is generally transferred to the manure storage on the farm. This manure handling energy guide will assess the energy requirements of the numerous manure handling systems that are used on dairy farms. The guide will also determine what energy efficiency improvements can be applied to the various handling systems. Figure 8-6 shows a decision tree for the manure handling and treatment options to consider based on the housing system used on the farm. The manure collection, treatment, storage, and utilization decision tree designate the many alternative paths that are available for managing the flow of manure as produced to their ultimate methods of utilization. To represent the use of electric energy anywhere within the tree, an underline is used on that entry. This indicates that some form of electric energy is being used accomplish that task. The tree begins in the appropriate housing type with the available methods for collection and transfer. From there a wide variety of initial treatment option can then be selected. These can be as simple as piling and drying of scraped corral/feedlot solids. To multiple stages of separation into liquid (L) and solid (Sd) fractions and anaerobic digestion in covered ponds (ADCP) for flushed wastes from freestall barns and feed lanes. The treatment options produce a combination of materials Liquid (L) Solids (Sd) Sludge (Sl) These materials can either be sent to medium or long term storage or undergo further treatment and processing before reaching their final end utilization. As an example solids and sludge produced from any of the initial treatment processes can be dried and/or composted and used as an animal bedding material, marketed off the farm as a compost/soil amendment or be directly field applied. Many options exist within the decision tree to highlight the complexity, interaction and thorough planning that must be employed when evaluating a waste collection and treatment system.
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Housing

Corral/Feedlot

Freestall Barn

Stanchion Barn

Collection and Transfer

Corral Surface Scrape

Tractor

Feed Lanes Flush Process Pit

Alley Ways Flush Scrape

Continuous Tractor

Gutters

Cleaner

Treatment
Piled & Dried L

Settling Separator Separator Weeping Wall Static Basin Static Sl L Sd L Sd L Sl

Separator Screw L Sd

Separator Static L Sd L

ADCP Sl

AD

Sl Grinder Pump AD

L (Liquid)

Sl (Sludge)

Sd (Solids)

Ponds

Storage

Ponds Aerated Excavator L Ponds L Sl Sl Dried Composted Dredge

Sl

Concrete Pad

Utilization

FAS

Sale Irr

Irr

Bdg FAS

Irr

FAS Bdg Sale

FAS

AD - Anaerobic Digester ADCP - Anaerobic Digester Covered Pond Bdg - Bedding FAS - Field Application (solids or semi-solid) Irr - Irrigation

Underline = electric energy use

Figure 8-6. Manure collection, handling, and treatment decision tree Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment
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Manure Production
The manure produced by a lactating dairy cow, wet weight and dry matter (total solids) is a function of the milk produced and the dry matter intake. The relationship with milk production is not as good as with dry matter intake but milk production may be easier to determine and is probably accurate enough for this purpose. For dry cows and heifers, the manure production is related to body weight. These relationships were developed by ASABE [American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers], ASAE Standard D384.1, Manure Production and Characteristics. A calculator to determine the manure (wet weight, total solids and percent total solids) produced by lactating cows, dry cows and young stock is attached. [for Web Site] The amount of manure to be treated at a dairy farm must be determined in order to estimate the energy needed. This will depend on the number of animals, their productivity and weight, and the type of housing. 1) For lactating cows, the RHA (rolling herd average) in terms of pounds of milk produced per year is needed along with the number of animals. 2) For dry cows and young stock the number and average body weight for each group is needed. For following tables and graph presents the calculated manure production for lactating cows (Table 8-1 and Figure 8-7), dry cows (Table 8-2) and young stock (Table 8-3) using the ASABE equations. Table 8-1. Calculated manure production for lactating cows
RHA** 16,000 16,600 17,200 17,800 18,400 19,000 19,600 20,200 20,800 21,400 22,000 22,600 23,200 23,800 24,400 25,000 lb/cow-day Gal/cow-day* lb/cow-day Moisture lb/cow-day Gal/cow-day* lb/cow-day Moisture Wet Weight Total Solids Content, % RHA** Wet Weight Total Solids Content, % 123.1 14.7 15.4 12.47 25,600 140.1 16.7 17.9 12.76 124.2 14.8 15.5 12.49 26,200 141.1 16.8 18.0 12.77 125.2 14.9 15.7 12.51 26,800 142.2 16.9 18.2 12.79 126.3 15.0 15.8 12.53 27,400 143.3 17.1 18.3 12.80 127.4 15.2 16.0 12.55 28,000 144.3 17.2 18.5 12.82 128.4 15.3 16.1 12.57 28,600 145.4 17.3 18.7 12.83 129.5 15.4 16.3 12.59 29,200 146.4 17.4 18.8 12.85 130.5 15.5 16.5 12.60 29,800 147.5 17.6 19.0 12.86 131.6 15.7 16.6 12.62 30,400 148.6 17.7 19.1 12.88 132.7 15.8 16.8 12.64 31,000 149.6 17.8 19.3 12.89 133.7 15.9 16.9 12.66 31,600 150.7 17.9 19.4 12.90 134.8 16.0 17.1 12.68 32,200 151.7 18.1 19.6 12.92 135.8 16.2 17.2 12.69 136.9 16.3 17.4 12.71 * Assumes density of manure at 8.4 lb/gal 138.0 16.4 17.6 12.72 ** Rolling Herd Average, lb milk/yr 139.0 16.6 17.7 12.74 Source: ASAE Standard D384.1

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Manure Production, Lactating Dairy Cow

156 152 148 144 140 136 132 128 124 120
16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000 21,000 22,000 23,000 24,000 25,000 26,000 27,000 28,000 29,000 30,000 31,000 32,000 33,000 34,000

Wet Weight, lb/cow-day

RHA, lb of Milk/yr
From ASAE Standard D384.1

Figure 8-7. Manure production, lactating dairy cow

Table 8-2. Calculated manure production for dry cows

Avg Body Wt lb/cow-day Gal/cow-day* lb/cow-day Moisture lbs Wet Weight Total Solids Content, % 1,200 74.4 8.85 8.88 11.9 1,250 75.5 8.98 9.08 12.0 1,300 76.6 9.11 9.28 12.1 1,350 77.7 9.24 9.48 12.2 1,400 78.8 9.38 9.68 12.3 1,450 79.8 9.51 9.88 12.4 1,500 80.9 9.64 10.08 12.5 1,550 82.0 9.77 10.28 12.5 1,600 83.1 9.90 10.48 12.6 * Assumes the density of manure at 8.4 lb/gal Source: ASAE Standard D384.1

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Table 8-3. Calculated manure production for young stock

Manure Production, Young Stock Avg Body Wt lb/cow-day Gal/cow-day* lb/cow-day** lbs Wet Weight Total Solids 500 48.2 5.73 6.26 550 49.1 5.84 6.38 600 50.0 5.95 6.49 650 50.9 6.05 6.61 700 51.8 6.16 6.73 750 52.7 6.27 6.84 800 53.5 6.37 6.96 850 54.4 6.48 7.08 900 55.3 6.59 7.19 950 56.2 6.70 7.31 1,000 57.1 6.80 7.43 * Assumes the density of manure at 8.4 lb/gal ** Assumes moisture content at 87 percent Source: ASAE Standard D384.1

The type of housing determines whether the manure will be handled and treated as a liquid or a solid and the amount of manure in each. Table 8-4 lists an estimated percent of the total manure solids that will be handled as a liquid and as a solid for four different housing systems using the flush or mechanical handling system.

Table 8-4. Estimated percentages of manure handling Percent of Total Solids Flush Mechanical/Scraped Liquid Solid Semi-Solid 60 40 80 20 100 100 100 100

Handling System Housing System Corral with feed lanes Freestall & Corrals Freestall Stanchion or Tiestall

For example, a corral with feed lanes, 60 percent of the manure would be collected by the flush system and 40 percent would be deposited in the corral. The dry solids scraped from a corral are differentiated from the semi-solid manure coming from a tiestall barn where bedding is used. The difference between solid and semi-solid is related to the inches of slump when using the slump test used in characterizing the stiffness of concrete. A metal form is shaped as a frustum of a cone. The form is 12-inch high with a base diameter of 8 in, a top diameter of 4 in. Work by Sobel and Ludington established the following guide; solid slump 0 to 2 in, semi-solid slump 5 to 9 in. A semi-liquid would have a slump greater than 9 inches. Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment
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Manure Collection and Transfer Methods

The method of collecting manure from the dairy barn or resting area is dictated by the type of housing system. There are four basic manure collection systems used on dairy farms: Gutter cleaners Gutter cleaners are the most common manure collection and transfer method for stanchion or tie stall dairy barns. Cow manure and urine are deposited into a gutter directly behind the stall. The manure is then collected and transferred out of the gutter by a mechanical gutter cleaning system. Most gutter cleaner systems are the chain and paddle variety. The gutters are connected at either end of the barn by a cross gutter, which provides a complete loop for the chain and paddle system to travel around the barn gutter and up the discharge chute. The discharge chute may empty directly into a manure spreader or it may be extended to empty onto a manure storage pad. The chain drive unit is generally powered by a 3 to 5 HP electric motor. A second type of gutter cleaner is the shuttle-stroke system. These systems include a drive unit attached to a rod that runs the length of the gutter. Attached to the rod at regular intervals are hinged paddles. The drive unit forces the rod and paddles forward, with the paddles open across the width of the gutter. The paddle position causes the paddles to push the manure the length of the drive unit forward stroke (usually 2 3 feet). At the end of the forward stroke, the drive unit reverses the rod and paddle direction, causing the paddles to fold against the rod. At the end of the reverse travel, the drive moves the rod and paddles forward again, causing the paddles to open and push another section of manure forward. The process continues until the gutter contents are moved out of the barn to a spreader or storage. Typically, gutter cleaner systems operate less than one hour per day. Tractor or skid steer ally scraping Freestall barns have multiple alleyways on which manure and urine is deposited by cows roaming freely. Many smaller freestall barns are cleaned using a small tractor with a front or rear mounted blade. See Figure 8-8. The manure is pushed to a loading ramp and directly into a spreader or into a cross gutter or reception pit from which it can flow by gravity or be pumped to storage. Skid steer loaders with specially designed scraper blades are often preferred for this work because of their exceptional maneuverability. Cows must be partitioned out of the section of the freestall barn being cleaned. Tractor or skid steer scraping systems can be quite labor intensive, and are not practical in very large freestall facilities.

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Figure 8-8. Small tractor with rear-mounted blade

Electric-powered alley scrapers Electric powered automatic alley scrapers are very common in large freestall barn systems. A cable drive system pulls a hinged paddle the length of the freestall alley. Upon reaching the end of the freestall alley, the system reverses and pulls the paddle back to the opposite end. See Figure 8-9.The hinged paddle opens to the full width of the alley in the forward motion and pushes the manure/urine mix to a collection pit or gutter at the end of the freestall barn or in the middle of very long barns. When the motion is reversed, the paddle closes while it travels back to the opposite end. Alley scraper systems are very energy efficient, with drive units seldom having an electric motor larger than 3 HP. The alley scrapers can be set up to operate continuously or several times per day, depending on conditions. In cold climates, during severely cold weather, continuous operation helps avoid manure freezing on the floor. The alley scrapers travel very slowly and do not disturb cows loitering in the alley. An advantage of electric alley scrapers is that cows do not have to be partitioned out of the area being cleaned. They are excellent labor saving devices.

Figure 8-9. Alley scraper in a freestall alley with wings open

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When manure is deposited into the collection pit or gutter, it may be transferred by gravity or pump to a larger storage facility.

Vacuum manure collection Vacuum tankers (sometimes referred to as honey vac) collect manure as excreted from animal confinement areas using a powerful vacuum force that transports manure from an alley scraper mounted on the front of the truck to a tank, where manure can then be transported to processing, storage or off the farm for direct land application. Tractor towed units are also available. One model of vacuum tanker is shown in Figure 8-10. Vacuum collection of manure in the barn or corral offers the following benefits; Eliminate the need for flushing and requirements for large volumes of flush water Adaptable to barns with different size alley configurations Can improve air quality by eliminating release of volatile compounds from flush water Can handle high solid content material Provide a higher total solid content material that can be transported more economically to a central digester or other value added processor. Vacuum collection users report less odor, flies, lower water use and cleaner cows Potential drawbacks include: High capital and operating cost Relatively slow labor intensive process versus flush systems

Figure 8-10. Vacuum collection tanker truck

Flush Systems Manure flush systems are very prevalent on large farms in warmer climates. Flush systems use large quantities of water to dilute and flush manure from alleyways in dairy
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resting and feeding facilities. Flushed barns are built with sloped floors that facilitate the movement of flush water the length of the alleys. There are two types of flush systems.

Head pressure systems, gravity, reservoir flush These systems consist of above ground water storage tanks for dilution/flush water and flush valves to direct the water flow where it is needed. Figure 8-11 shows a head pressure system. Head pressure systems use less water, but require higher pressures to move manure out of the alleyways. The high rate of flow of the flush water creates a wave action that moves manure rapidly. Alley slopes from 1% to 6% are acceptable. The water supply for the flush tanks may include milking center wash water as well as water recycled from storage ponds. Flush volumes for head pressure systems range from 3500 to 6000 gpm in durations of 20 to 60 seconds. Head pressure systems use less energy because the storage tanks can be refilled slowly by low horsepower pumps. Gravity provides the pressure for the flushing process.

Figure 8-11. Head pressure system

Erosion flush systems These systems use low pressure water pumps and flush valves combined with alley slopes of 1% or less to erode manure out of the alleyways. Large, 30 50 HP irrigation pumps are used to achieve water flow rates of 2000 gpm. A typical flush may last 5 to 10 minutes. The flush water is generally recycled from manure storage ponds after solids have settled out. Erosion systems produce a higher energy demand because large horsepower pumps must be used to rapidly pump large quantities of water to provide adequate cleaning of the alley surfaces. Figure 8-12 shows a flush pump in a storage pond for an erosion flush system. Figure 8-13 shows the flush water entering an alleyway through a flush valve. A

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Figure 8-12. Flush pump for an erosion flush system flush valve is shown in Figure 8-14. Flush systems are generally operated up to four times daily to ensure proper cleaning of alleyways. The flushed manure generally flows by gravity to a reception pond or processing pit from which it can be pumped for further treatment. Flush water can also be pumped directly from the process pit which reduces the amount of fresh water needed and provides a higher solid content in the wastewater should a separator be used. Flush systems require from 60 to 125 gallons of water per cow per day. If fresh water was used for flushing, consideration must be made for much larger manure storage to contain the extra water.

Figure 8-13. Flush in progress

Flush systems are easily automated, provide cleaner alley floors which dry faster, and are usually less labor intensive than other collection methods. Flush systems are most advantageous when used in large facilities with large cow numbers.

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Proper alley slope and flush system design are critical factors. The pumps, piping and flush valve systems can be complicated and expensive.

Figure 8-14. Automatic flush valve

Process pits are often used to receive the flush water from the alleyways. Sometimes the flush water is re-circulated back through the alleyways from this pit before the wastewater is pumped to the separator. Two different processing pit designs are shown in Figures 8-15 and 8-16.

Figure 8-15. Concrete processing pit with sand chamber at right

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Figure 8-16. Earthen processing pit Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment

Treatment of Manure Collections

Separators Liquid / Solid Separation Options The separation of dairy manure into liquid and solid fractions can be achieved by many different methods and allows further treatment options for each component. Some of the beneficial advantages that can be attained with liquid/solid separation are: Reduce the amount of solids accumulation in liquid storage faculties to expand capacity and extend life. Reduce solids in stored liquids to enable land application through use of irrigation system to deliver liquids to field in place of specialized manure pumping and handling equipment (tankers, spreaders, etc.) Reduce solids in stored liquids to allow recycling of separated liquids for use as flush water for freestall cleaning. Reduction in amount of fresh water needed for this task Separated solids can be stored which offers many options for utilization (i.e. sale as value-added product to market off the farm, fertilizer, compost, bedding, transport nutrients off farm) Remove solids from liquids to allow further treatment processes to be applied on each waste stream Reduce pumping horsepower needed to move liquid waste or allow increase in pumping distances Reduction in run-off from stacked solids

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Partitioning of nutrients in liquid and solid streams to allow superior disposal options Improve or protect air quality Improve or protect water quality

Separation technologies currently available are divided into passive, gravity systems such as settling basins, or active, mechanical systems or presses that use energy to split waste into liquid and solid components. The amount of total solids that can be captured by these systems varies widely and is presented in Table 8-5 below. Table 8-5. Percent capture of total solids Total Solids Capture Efficiency Static Inclined Screen 10-20% Inclined Screen with Drag Chain 10-30% Vibratory Screen 15-30% Rotating Screen (Drum) 20-40% Centrifuge 20-45% Screw Press 30-50% Settling Basin 40-65% Weeping Wall 50-85% Scrape and Dry 50-90% *NRCS Code 632, Solid/Liquid Waste Separation Facility Active mechanical systems require greater amounts of energy to increase capture efficiency, while gravity based systems need longer retention time and greater physical size (greater footprint) to increase their total solid capture efficiency. Greater amount of solids captured, with less moisture content will require larger amounts of energy to be consumed by the mechanical separation system. The pie chart in Figure 8-17 shows the disposition of total solids in a flushing system on a California dairy farm. This farm did not have a
Remaining* 22%

Solid / Liquid Separator Technology

Separator* 28%

Ponds* 10% Settling Basin* 40%

*based on a study at a California dairy

Figure 8-17. Removal of total solids

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processing pit. Sixty eight percent of the total solids were removed by the separator and a settling basin or pond. Only 10% were removed in two treatment ponds and 22%, mostly dissolved solids, remained in the water in the storage pond. Gravity Separation Options Settling Basin Settling basins, ponds or tanks, reduce the velocity of waste material and allow solids entrained time to settle by gravity. A wide array of designs has been used, constructed of earth, concrete or steel tanks. One current design, see Figure 8-18, employs settling basins installed in pairs. This allows one basin to function as the active receptor of waste, while removal of settled solids takes place from the second basin. Some characteristics exhibited by settling basins include: Use of common earthen or concrete construction material Separation achieved by natural force (gravity) no energy added. Unless elevations on farm require additional pumping to settling basin First stage separation, removes large amount of solid Large footprint on the farm can impact siting. Additional land required and appropriate slopes to make settling basin work Requires additional labor and equipment costs (operator and loader) for scheduled cleanings Can be adapted to existing systems

Figure 8-18. Dual concrete settling basins

Weeping Wall The weeping wall is an adaptation of long-term manure storage. They can be applied in conjunction with other technologies or stand-alone. Systems consists of a medium to long term manure storage with a continuous screened area positioned along one wall that
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permits the liquid portion to pass through and retains the solid components. Separated liquids are collected through a drainage system and transported to long-term storage. Separation takes places through the weeping wall due to the hydrostatic pressures exerted by the depth of the manure in the structure. See Figure 8-19. Considerations of weeping wall systems: Passive system, no additional energy required to make work High capital costs than conventional storage Large footprint on the farm can impact siting Requires secondary separated liquid collection system and storage Requires scheduled mechanical cleaning (loader) Concerns with plugging of filter material and discharge of material if filter material fails Maintenance of filter media and useful life. Little control of moisture content of separated solid. Wide variation in consistency of separated solids within structure can present unloading problems and limit options for end use.

Figure 8-19. Weeping wall at California dairy

Settling Ponds Settling Ponds are designed to reduce the incoming velocity of the waste stream and allow entrapped solids to settle out. The liquid portion may then be pumped off for further separation or into storage. The settled solids will be mechanically removed from the bottom of the pond periodically.

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Evaporation Ponds Evaporation ponds are designed to remove water from waste stream through evaporation by solar and environmental conditions, leaving dried separated solids for disposal. They are suited to arid and semi-arid regions where much more water is removed by evaporation than is added by precipitation. Figure 8-20 shows a pond that had been drained and the

Figure 8-20. Dried solids in bottom of a pond the solids allowed to dry. Their use is limited by climatic conditions, large size and design requirements.

Mechanical Separation Options Static or Sloped screen (Sidehill screens) Static screens work well with manure slurries of 4% total solids or less, making them welladapted to dairies with flush manure handling. They have simple operating principal and relatively low energy inputs. Principal energy use by a screen is from pumping combined waste to the top of the screen, removal of liquid at the bottom to storage and removal of solids from the bottom of the screen. Cyclical rinsing, vibration or brushing can aid solids removal and increase energy use. Screens utilize few moving parts and have very low maintenance requirements. See Figures 8-21 and 8-22. Static screens employ a sloped screen with weir box at top to control flow of manure through unit. Manure is pumped into the weir box at the top of the unit and gravity flows down the screen. The liquid component and smaller solids go through the screen and the solids fall off at the bottom of the screen. Screens are generally constructed from stainless steel and can be configured in a variety of designs and slot opening sizes. Typical configurations include single screens, dual screens
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placed over each other to achieve greater degree of separation and screens placed in series. The shape and size of openings in the screen determines the size of particles separated. Openings in the screens range from approximately 0.010 to 0.060. Manure must be relatively dilute to flow and pass through and across screen openings. Reclaimed solids may fall off directly into a pile for storage, or transported by a stacker into a pile for storage. The bottom surface of the stacker frame may also perforated allowing for further dewatering of solids as they travel to final disposition in a stack. Solids come off as wet sludge. Moisture content of 75 80 % is typical for solids that come off the screen(s). Solids may too wet to compost directly after separation. Depending on the climate, additional sources of dry matter may be required to compost. A wash-down system may be needed to prevent solids from drying and plugging the screen(s) following use. Solids may be further processed with a roller or screw press.

Figure 8-21. Static screen separator, single

Figure 8-22. Twin static separator

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Drum screens Drum screens utilize a rotating perforated metal drum with compression rollers to separate liquid and solid components of manure. Manure slurries of up to 10% total solids can be processed in a drum screen, offering another separation option to dairies that do not use flush systems. See Figure 8-23. Manure slurry is pumped up into a flow control weir box, where it is metered out onto the perforated surface of a rotating drum. Adjustable compression rollers on the drum force the liquid portion thru the openings in the rotating drum. A collection system inside the drum accumulates the separated liquid and transports to storage. The separated solids are scraped from the drum surface and can be gravity or mechanically stacked. Drum screens can produce drier solids than a static screen, but not as dry as a screw press. Throughput capacities are generally lower than the static screen, but greater than a screw or centrifugal press. Drum screens in general have low power needs. Energy is used to pump manure up to unit and produce rotational force on drum. Maintenance can be frequent to service moving parts (drum, rollers, compression mechanisms). Screens can be damaged by large trapped solid material.

Figure 8-23. Drum screen

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Inclined Screen with Drag chain conveyor Single or double pass, the lower end is submerged in a manure pit; solids are dragged up over perforated or wedge wire screens. Solids may then be piled or they may fall into small roller or screw squeezer for further liquid removal. Many moving parts, leakage and large size may be objectionable. However, the system can produce drier solids than static screen. See Figure 8-24.

Figure 8-24. Inclined screen with drag chain conveyor

Roller and/or belt presses Utilize a rotating roller or belt arrangement to remove liquid portion. A belt press employs two concentric running belts that are used to squeeze the manure as it is deposited between the belts. The belts pass over a series of spring-loaded rollers where liquids are squeezed out or through the belt and remaining solids are scraped off at a belt separation point. See Figure 8-25. Belt presses are fairly complex and have many more moving parts than a screw press. Maintenance requirements and energy costs can be high. May be used as secondary treatment after static screen or other form of separation. Dry matter content of solids may range from 11-28 %, with belt presses producing driest solids.

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Stage 1 Chemical conditioning Sludge polymer mixer Sludge

Stage 2

Stage 3 Shear & compression dewatering

Gravity drainage

Conditioned sludge

Wash spray

Polymer solution Wash spray Filtrate Dewatered sludge cake Wash water

Figure 8-25. Belt-filter presses for separating animal manure

Screw press The screw press uses a screw of progressively reducing pitch rotating inside a cylindrical, perforated screen to gradually separate liquid and solids. Screw presses contain few moving parts. They provide another method of separation for facilities that rely on scrape cleaning or can further process the solids form a static screen to remove additional liquid. Screw presses can process manure with a higher percentage of solids (up to 15%) than static screens. Energy inputs are fairly high to produce drier end product. Manure entering the screw press is gradually subjected to increasing pressure as it moves toward the exit end of the press, forcing the liquid portion of the manure slurry through the screen. Liquids are collected from the perforated screen and pumped or gravity flow to storage. See Figure 8-26. Solids are forced out the end of the separator housing by rotating action of the screw. The screw turns at a fairly low speed (10-30 rpm). Regulation of solids moisture content is controlled by adjustment of a discharge door at the end of the screw. A graduated screw pitch and interrupted flight screw prevent jamming of material within the screw press.

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Figure 8-26. Typical screw press separators

Centrifugal press These units use centrifugal to separate solids from liquids. Centrifugal presses can offer the driest solid production; however they also have high energy and operating costs. Centrifugal presses can also serve as second stage of separation after initial processing with another separator to remove additional solids from liquid portion. The centrifugal press is comprised of a motor, a tapered hollow cylinder with a rotor inside, the inlet and outlet. The rotor turns at a high speed compared to a screw press. Centrifugal force spins the solids, such as sand and minerals to the outside of the water column. There the solids drop to the bottom of the machine and exit. The remaining liquid is sent to storage. See Figure 8-27.

Figure 8-27. Centrifugal press separators

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Aerated Ponds Aeration of ponds holding dairy manure is becoming more common. The impact of aeration may be four fold; reduction in the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and odorous compounds, and a reduction in 5-day BOD and the concentration of total solids. The level of aeration required to achieve each of the above benefits is unknown plus the level of control needed for the emission of VOC, for instance, is also unknown. The spectrum from anaerobic to aerobic conditions is wide. An aerobic environment is said to exist when the level of dissolved oxygen is equal to or exceeds 2 mg per liter [2 mg DO/l]. This insures adequate oxygen for all aerobic bacteria. To achieve this level of dissolved oxygen in a manure pond would require a very large input of energy and a dilute solution of the dairy manure. The range from a 2 mg DO/l state to a fully anaerobic state can be monitored in terms of oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) as measured with a platinum electrode. In a complete anaerobic condition, deprived of O2 (anoxic), the ORP could be 400 mV, a biological reduction state. With aerobic conditions, the ORP would be positive, a biological oxidation state. The relationship between ORP and the production and release of VOC, for instance, has yet to be determined. An ORP of 300 mV in poultry manure produced by a low level of aeration will inhibit the production of hydrogen sulfide. At present there are several types of aerators. These include impeller (see Figure 8-28), micro-bubble (see Figure 8-29) and venturi (see Figure 8-30). The impeller type floats on supporting pontoons with a vertical shaft from the motor to the impeller. There are various impeller designs and positions with respect to the surface. These factors determine the depth of mixing and oxygen transfer. The micro-bubble aerators use a patented design to form small bubbles that remain in suspension longer to permit greater oxygen transfer. The venturi design pumps waste water through a venturi drawing air into the water that is then discharged back into the pond. The foam shown in Figures 8-28 and 8-29 is evidence of bubbles rising to the surface. Very few aerators have been tested to determine the oxygen transfer rate (OTR) in terms of lb O2/hr. There is also the need to know the relationship between OTR measured with clean water in a standard test and real OTR in dairy wastewater ponds. The efficiency of aerators given in terms of lbs of oxygen transfer per kWh is also an issue. Without real OTR and efficiency, preparing an engineering design for a system is impossible. In the mean time, dairy farmers will buy and install aerators without knowing the facts.

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Figure 8-28. Impeller type aerators

Figure 8-29. Micro-bubble aerator

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Figure 8-30. Venturi type aerators

There is a need to determine the minimum aeration needed to achieve the objectives for waste treatment or storage. What is the relationship between ORP and the release of VOCs, between BOD5 or COD reduction and VOCs? Anaerobic Digesters Anaerobic digestion is a process recognized for centuries as a way to break down manure and other organic materials, while reducing the odor of those materials in storage. There is evidence that biogas from the breakdown of organic substances was used to heat bath water in Assyria in the 10th century BC. The first anaerobic digester plant was built in India in 1859. The technology is advancing rapidly as anaerobic digestion and the resultant production of biogas is recognized as an alternative fuel source. Many dairy farms around the nation are now using or considering the use of anaerobic digesters as a manure treatment option. There are energy use and energy production implications involved in any anaerobic digestion system on a dairy farm. Anaerobic digesters have a two directional energy component. Most anaerobic digesters require energy input in the form of pumping material to the digester. Heat energy is often required to maintain a desirable temperature within the digester to continue the bacterial action that causes the organic material to break down. On the other hand, the digester also produces energy in the form of methane gas (biogas). This gas can be used for thermal energy needs on the farm, such as water and space heating. The gas can also be used in a boiler to maintain digester temperatures of about 100 F. Another common use for the biogas is to fuel an engine-generator set and produce electricity. Large scale digester systems can often produce enough electricity to meet most or all the farm needs plus have some excess to sell into the grid.
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Types of Digesters There are four types of digesters typically used on dairy farms: Covered manure storage ponds There is continuous biological activity in manure storage ponds that breaks down the organic matter contained in the pond. That biological activity produces measurable quantities of methane gas which is given off into the atmosphere. Covering the storage pond with a flexible cover enables the collection of the gas for use on the farm. Covered ponds work best in warm climates, since very cold weather will cause normal biological activity to cease. The biogas trapped under the cover can be piped for use in a boiler or in an engine-generator. See Figures 8-34 and 8-35. Covered ponds represent the lowest cost anaerobic digester system, but they are also least efficient in overall biogas production. They are most commonly used on large farms with flush type manure handling systems. Covered storage pond type digesters cost an average of $65 to $90 per cow.

Figure 8-34. Covered storage pond in Wisconsin

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Figure 8-35. Partially-covered anaerobic digester pond in California

Plug-flow digesters Plug flow digesters are typically rectangular shaped concrete boxes built in ground with either a hard concrete top or a flexible top under which biogas collects as it is produced. The manure and other organic matter is introduced at one end of the digester. The manure flows through the digester for a period of days determined by the volume of the digester (usually about 15 20 days), during which time bacterial action breaks down the organic matter and produces biogas. The biogas is collected under the cover and is piped to a point of use. The cover of the digester can be either flexible, see Figure 8-36, or solid, see Figure 8-37. Horizontal plug flow digesters will handle manure that has a higher concentration of solids (up to 12% solids). Plug flow digesters can also be designed as vertical tanks, see Figure 8-38, but solids concentration must be reduced and more pumping energy is required to move manure through the digester. Depending on size and complexity of moving material to and from the digester, plug flow digesters can cost from $200 to $1,000 per cow. Plug flow digesters for herds under 400 cows are not economical.

Figure 8-36. Plug flow digester with flexible cover, Princeton, MN

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Figure 8-37. Hard top plug flow digester in Whatcom County, Washington

Figure 8-38. Vertical plug flow digester

Complete mix digesters Complete mix digesters are the most expensive systems, but can handle manure and other organic matter with a solids content anywhere from 3% to 10%. Complete mix digesters can utilize horizontal, in ground concrete tanks or vertical concrete or steel tanks. See Figure 8-39. Bacteria within the digester breaks down the organic matter in the same manner as in plug flow digesters. Retention time in complete mix digesters in generally shorter than plug flow digesters. Complete mix digesters require more pumping of the manure slurry, thus there is more equipment and energy required to feed the digester. Generally, complete mix digesters produce more biogas per unit of organic matter treated.

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Complete mix digesters are the most expensive and can cost from $500 to $1,800 per cow. Complete mix digesters are also too expensive for smaller dairies.

Figure 8-39. Complete mix digester in Wisconsin

Fixed film digesters Fixed film digesters are suitable for applications where manure odor control is the primary reason for installing a digester and gas production is not a priority. The term fixed film refers to a material installed inside the digester vessel on which bacteria can attach themselves. The material could be bundles of plastic drainage pipe or other material that provides a large surface area for bacteria. The vessel is then filled with manure and the bacteria begin to break down the organic matter. Because there is a very large surface area of bacteria, relative to the amount of manure in the vessel, breakdown occurs more rapidly than in other types of digesters. Thus, retention time in fixed film digesters can be as little as 2 7 days. Although gas production may be less than digesters with longer retention time, odor reduction is excellent. Fixed film digesters, because of the short retention time, are much smaller than other types, and thus may be appropriate where space is a problem. Small, fixed film digesters may be most appropriate in smaller dairies where odor control is very important. Fixed film digesters generally cost less than plug flow digesters because of the greatly reduced size of the vessel. Dairies from 100 cows and larger can likely justify the cost of a fixed film digester. See Figure 8-40.

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Figure 8-40. Fixed-film vertical anaerobic digester for a 100 cow dairy in New York

Energy flows of anaerobic digesters There are usually some increased input energy requirements for anaerobic digester systems. In cool climates, heat energy must be added in the digester vessel to maintain proper operating temperatures. This is usually accomplished be circulating heated water through pipes mounted inside the digester. The boiler producing the heated water may be fueled by the biogas produced by the digester or by purchased fuels such as natural gas, propane, or fuel oil. Extra pumps may be required to transfer manure to and away from the digester. In addition, complete mix digesters employ some type of electric powered mixing device such as a propeller type mixer or a circulator pump. These energy inputs are relatively small compared to the overall energy requirement of handling manure, but must be considered as plans for a digester are developed. Generally, anaerobic digesters are a net energy producer. The energy represented in the biogas produced by the digester exceeds the energy inputs required to operate the digester. On large farms (400 cows and up), energy produced by the digester per cow per year can be the equivalent of 72 gallons of propane or 48 gallons of fuel oil. Table 8-6 below indicates estimated biogas production from a dairy anaerobic digester. Figure 8-41 below shows an engine generator fueled with biogas.

Table 8-6. Estimated net biogas production and fuel equivalent from a dairy anaerobic digester Biogas Yield ( ft/cowday)) 46 Natural Gas Equivalent (Mcf) 6.60 Propane Equivalent (gallons) 72 #2 Fuel Oil Equivalent (gallons) 48 Electricity Equivalent (kWh) 385

Based on: Barker, James C. 2001 Methane Fuel Gas from Livestock Wastes: A Summary. North Carolina University Cooperative Extension Service, Publication #EBAE 071-80.

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Figure 8-41. Electric generator fueled with biogas Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment

Energy Utilization Indices (EUIs)

The electrical energy consumed in the collection and treatment of dairy manure can be summarized in terms of EUIs (energy utilization indices). Table 8- presents the EUIs for the tasks involved with flush collection at five California dairy farms studied. The energy used by the flush pump is given in terms of the energy used for each flush. The EUIs for the flush pump are plotted on the graph in Figure 8-42. A trend line was drawn through the 5 data points so that values for EUIs can be estimated for a given size dairy farm. Table 8-7. Energy utilization indices for flush systems Cows Flush Pump* 7.4 11.4 7.3 8.7 12 18.5 Primary Mixer(s)** Primary Separator Pump** 45.5 41.9 36.5 45.8 53.3 Secondary Mixer & Separator**

4,000 3,400 3,000 2,300 2,150 800

27.3 27.8 24.6 26.7

95.4

* kWh/cow-yr-[flushes/day] ** kWh/cow-yr

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20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 Lactating Cows

Figure 8-42. EUI for the flush pump

The line drawn at 2,500 lactating cows will be used in an example. The primary mixer is located in the process pit and may run while the flushing and separation pumps are operating. The average EUI for the primary mixer was 26.6 kWh/cow-yr. The separators are designated as primary and secondary when there are two separators with different screen openings. This does not apply where there is a double screen or where there are two different size screen openings, upper and lower, in the same static screen. The EUI for the primary separator pump [the elevator motor is included] are plotted in Figure 8-43. A trend line was added to assist in estimating energy use. The EUI for the second screen is higher because the unit operates longer due to lower the flow (gpm) over the screen.

kWh/cow-yr-flush
kWh/cow-yr

55 50 45 40 35 30 25 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 Lactating Cows

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Figure 8-43. EUIs for primary separator pumps The following example will illustrate how to predict the annual energy use for a flush pump and primary mixer and separator for a dairy farm with 2,500 lactating cows where the alleys will be flushed 4 times per day. Annual energy use = 2,500 [(10 x 4) + 26.6 + 41] = 269,000 kWh/yr The EUI for mechanical alley scrapers operating continually averaged 24.7 kWh/cow-yr. The range for 17 dairy farms in NY was 10.2 to 77.2. There was not enough information available to give an explanation for this wide range. Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment

Manure Storage
The fundamental reason for manure storage is to allow land application to occur at a time that is compatible with crop nutrient requirements and environmental conditions. Regulatory considerations have also become an important issue affecting manure storage requirements. Primary energy use is for loading and emptying the storage. Pumping energy supplied by electric motors or diesel engines is the most common energy source for this purpose. Solid materials are generally handled by fossil fueled tractors or loaders. The long-term manure storage system selected contributes to the total waste collection and treatment system goals of: Maintenance of animal health by means of providing sanitary facilities Prevention of air, soil and water pollution Compliance with all federal, state, and local environmental regulations Recovery and use nutrients as part of proper nutrient management practices Selection of appropriate long-term storage is influenced by the housing, collection, transfer, treatment and utilization components employed on the farm. Manure storage types are linked to the moisture content of waste they hold (solid >16%, semi-solid 12-16%, slurry 512% or liquid<5%) and are commonly listed as: Covered or uncovered pads for solid and semi-solids Concrete structures covered or uncovered designs to handle all types Steel tanks covered or uncovered for slurry and liquids Earthen storages lined (Figure 8-44) or unlined for slurry and liquids (Figure 845)

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Figure 8-44. Lined earthen storage on New York dairy

Figure 8-45. Unlined anaerobic manure pond on California Dairy

Other considerations influencing the type of manure storage selected are; Method and equipment need for delivery and application to the field. Need for nutrient conservation may impact the type of storage selected. Table 88 represents nitrogen retention or loss in common systems Need for treatment for odor control or to accelerate solids breakdown Site specific space limitations

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Figure 8-46. Separated solids storage on California dairy

Table 8-8. Manure storage nitrogen retention and loss System Daily scrap and haul Manure pack Open lot Aboveground tank Holding pond Anaerobic lagoon Nitrogen Lost, % 20-23 20-40 40-55 10-30 20-40 70-85 Nitrogen Retained, % 65-80 60-80 45-60 70-90 60-80 15-30

Adapted from MWPS-18, Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook 1993

Determining the appropriate size of a manure storage facility must take into account a large number of factors that will contribute to the final design and capacity. These can include; Length of storage period desired or required by regulation Manure and bedding volume produced based on present and future animal numbers Climatic Considerations Rainfall, evaporation, runoff, 25 year-24 hour storm that require additional storage capacity Freeboard to ensure extra volume as a safety factor Washwater and other waste waters (silo effluent) added. Sludge accumulation within the storage over time Energy and equipment requirements for filling and unloading storage Treatment options for odor control Allow incorporation for energy production or recovery thru anaerobic digestion Sizing and construction must meet all federal, state and local codes and regulations Current regulations require that a holding pond for long-term manure storage must be sized to contain all wastewater and stormwater generated for approximately 120 days during the
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rainy season plus the stormwater from a 25-year 24-hour storm. The large size and complex regulatory requirements for manure storages, dictate that a qualified designer/engineer be retained to ensure compliance all applicable codes.

Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment

Handling and Utilization of Stored Manure

Stored dairy manure is generally in one of four forms: Solid with considerable extra organic matter such as bedding material bringing the solids content up to 16% or more. Semi-solid with a solid content of 12 16% Slurry with a solid content of 5 12% Liquid with a solids content of less than 5% Handling of Stored Manure On most farms, stored manure is handled either as a solid or a liquid, and this guide will discuss the process in those terms. Solid manure, stored on a concrete pad, with or without containment walls, is usually handled with tractor or skid steer bucket loaders. Sometimes the storage pad has a roof to keep rainwater out of the pile. The manure is scooped up and loaded into a manure spreader for field application. Box, flail, or side discharge spreaders are usually used to transport and spread the manure on the field. Care must be taken to avoid spilling manure on public roadways. The manure is removed from storage at convenient times of the year when cropland is accessible (usually in the spring and fall). There are no electric operated equipment components in these manure handling systems. Figure 8-47 illustrates typical field application of solid manure.

Figure 8-47. Box spreader used to spread solid manure on cropland Liquid manure is usually stored in storage ponds, which may require a combination of handling systems when the pond is to be emptied. Manure storage ponds may be unlined,
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depending on soil permeability, or lined with clay or heavy plastic so that the liquid doesnt leach into the soil and groundwater. The most common handling systems to remove stored manure from ponds include: Excavators to remove accumulated settled solids from the pond Dredge systems to chop and mix settled solids with the liquid portion so that the resultant slurry can be pumped out Irrigation pumps to pump manure with 5% solids or less directly to the field Tractor pulled or truck mounted tankers to transport and spread liquid manure from ponds onto cropland The process of emptying manure storage ponds is dependent on the total solids content and the amount of sludge that has settled to the bottom. Since organic solids in the manure settle to the bottom of the pond, forming a thick layer of sludge, the liquid faction on top can be pumped to the field using an irrigation pump or pumped into a tank spreader and transported to the field (Figure 8-48). When most of the liquid is removed, the sludge can be handled with a long-reach excavator (Figure 8-49). The sludge can be loaded into a flail type spreader to be applied on cropland.

Figure 8-48 , A tank type spreader used to spread manure slurry on cropland

Figure 8-49. A long reach excavator used to remove sludge from the bottom of a storage pond
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Sometimes, large floating dredges are used to empty manure ponds. The dredge floats on the surface of the pond and uses a cutter type pump system to break up the solids in the pond and mix them with the liquid portion. The resultant liquefied mixture can then be pumped to cropland through a flood irrigation system. Floating dredges are often employed to empty storage ponds on large western dairies (Figure 8-50).

Figure 8-50. A Floating Dredge used to mix manure solids and liquids in a manure storage pond and pump the slurry to irrigate cropland Manure ponds can also be emptied by irrigation pumps if the solids content is not too great (under 5% solids). The pond is usually agitated and mixed with a propeller type mixer or a mixing pump. Then an irrigation pump can be used to transfer the mixture and spray it onto cropland. If the manure slurry is greater than 5% solids, very aggressive manure chopper units are installed ahead of the pump to reduce solid particle sizes and to facilitate long distance pumping. Irrigation pumps may be diesel engine driven or electric motor driven. Electric irrigation pumps range in size from 30 to 100 HP or larger. On some dairies, the manure slurry in the storage pond is pumped into a larger over-theroad tanker and transported to remote cropland where a tractor driven drag hose irrigation system incorporates the slurry directly into the soil (Figure 8-51).

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Figure 8-51. A drag hose system used to incorporate manure slurry directly into soil At other farms, the slurry may be pumped to a remote storage, centrally located near cropland. The slurry is then irrigated from the remote storage or spread by tank spreaders at appropriate times. Often, tank spreaders are equipped with knife type injectors to incorporate the manure slurry into the soil. See Figure 8-52. This reduces nitrogen losses to the air and also reduces offensive odors caused by spreading liquid manure on the soil surface.

Figure 8-52. Liquid manure applied by tank spreader with direct soil injection

On smaller dairies, manure storage ponds are agitated and mixed and the resultant slurry is pumped into a tank type spreader which is used to transport and spread the manure onto cropland. Usually the pumps are tractor driven (Figure 8-53), but in some cases they can be electrically driven (Figure 8-54).

Figure 8-53. Tractor PTO operated centrifugal manure agitator pump

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Figure 8-54. Floating electric propeller-type manure agitator

Utilization of Manure Dairy manure is an excellent source of plant nutrients. Table 8-9 shows the average amount of N, P and K in various types of stored manure. Dairy manure is almost always spread, irrigated or otherwise incorporated into cropland soils to provide plant nutrients and to reduce purchased chemical fertilizer costs. Table 8-9. Characteristics of various types of stored dairy manure Type of Stored Manure Scrapped manure solids Liquid manure slurry Manure irrigated from storage pond Amount of Nitrogen per unit 9.9 pounds per ton 22.5 pounds per 1000 gallons 137 pounds per acre-inch Amount of Phosphorus per unit 6.2 pounds per ton 14.0 pounds per 1000 gallons 77 pounds per acre-inch Amount of Potassium per unit 8.7 pounds per ton 21.1 pounds per 1000 gallons 195 pounds per acre-inch

Source: Advantages of Manure Solid-Liquid Separation, ANR-1025, Ted W. Tyson, Extension Agricultural Engineer , Alabama Cooperative Extension System

Manure storage systems allow optimal timing for spreading manure on the land. Manure that is spread and incorporated directly into the soil preserves a large portion of the available plant nutrients, and is most environmentally acceptable to regulators and nonfarm neighbors. In some cases, because of CAFO Nutrient Management requirements, a portion of the nutrients in stored manure must be exported off the farm to avoid excess nutrient build-up in the cropland on the farm. In these cases, the solid component of stored manure that has been separated into solid and liquid components can be utilized in the following ways: Exported to neighboring farms that dont have excessive nutrient buildup Composted and sold as an organic mulch Composted and dried to use on the farm as bedding
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Manure solids are relatively easy to transport in truck mounted spreaders or large tractor pulled box spreaders. Thus, it is not difficult to export manure solids to neighboring farms that can use the nutrients on cropland. Composted manure solids have become popular as an organic mulch. Often local nurseries will purchase bulk composted manure solids to add to other mulch materials to enhance the value for consumers. Some dairymen compost manure solids and sell them directly to consumers. There is increased interest in using composted, dried manure solids as dairy livestock bedding material in freestall barns. Since the annual cost of purchased bedding for freestalls is often very high, and suitable bedding materials are not always available, using composted manure solids can significantly reduce production costs on the farm. Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment

Waste Collection & Treatment Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)

1. Motor Efficiency When purchasing a replacement or a new motor always consider premium high efficiency motors. See Energy Efficient Electric Motors section in Chapter 9, General Information. 2. Minimize the run time of major motors. a. Operating time for flush pump i. number of flushes per day ii. time per alley flush b. Operating time for separator pump i. reduce the volume of flush water pumped over separator 1. reduce overall volume of flush water and wastewater from milking center, holding area and wash pen 2. increase solids content by recycling flush water ii. Maintain the separator screen so that flow rate (gpm) across screen can be maintained. c. Operating time for mixer(s) does the mixer run with the flush pump and/or with the separator pump? d. Maintain control systems such as float switches, liquid level probes, time clocks & timers 3. Select efficient pumps: See Understanding Pump Curves section in Chapter 9, General Information. Do not substitute a larger electric motor for an efficient pump. Return to top of section: Waste Collection & Treatment
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Glossary of Waste Collection & Treatment Terms

Aerobic decomposition: Reduction of the net energy level of organic matter by aerobic microorganisms or bacteria that require free elemental oxygen for their growth. Aerators: A device that brings about aeration of liquid manure for the purpose of agitation and/or acceleration aerobic decomposition. A surface aerator is mounted on floats in the storage structure and may be powered by electric, hydraulic or wind-assisted motor. Anaerobic digestion: Conversion of organic matter in the absence of oxygen under controlled conditions to gases such as methane and carbon dioxide. Centrifugal manure transfer pump: Pump that moves manure by pressure generated through a rotary centrifugal impeller and housing. Pumps are classified by their mechanical configuration (vertical, horizontal, submersible) and power source (commonly electric or tractor PTO). Flush: Hydraulic removal of liquid, semi-solid or solid material with the addition of dilution water. Flush Alleys: Flush alleys with 2-5% slopes and 10" curbs are typical. Flush Tanks: Flush tank types include tip/rollover tanks, siphon tanks and cylindrical water tower tanks (typically 20 to 25 ft. tall to provide pressure and storage volume). Flush valves: Pipeline/valve systems typically use water towers with large pipes (12" diameter typical) and fast opening valves (butterfly, pop-up, pneumatic, etc.) to release water in the flush alley. Lagoon: Pond for processing liquid waste involving some degree of biological treatment or degradation. Liquid Manure: Livestock manure with liquid content high enough that the mixture will flow and pump relatively easily. Solid content is usually less than about 13%. Manure Separators: A device or structure that brings about partial separation of solid material from a liquid or slurry. The objective is to separate manure into solid and liquid fractions. Description of common types follows: Belt Press: A roller and belt device whereby two concentric running belts are used to squeeze the manure as it is deposited between the belts. The belts pass over a series of spring-loaded rollers where liquids are squeezed out or through the belt and remaining solids are scraped off at a belt separation point. Centrifugal Separator: A rotating device that uses centrifugal force to remove manure liquids from solids.

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Roller Press: One or more sets of parallel rollers between which manure passes. The upper roller is solid and may be of a compressible material. It acts to press liquids through openings in the lower perforated roller. Screw Press: A straight or tapered screw of fixed or varying pitch contained in a perforated or slotted cylinder. Liquids pass through the screen as the manure is conveyed along the cylinder, while solids are retained with the cylinder and are discharged out the end. Static inclined screen: A screen, mounted on an incline, over which manure passes as it off the end of the screen. Milking center wastes: The wastewater containing milk residues, detergents, disinfectants and in some cases manure that is generated in a milking center. May include wastes from milking equipment washing, milk house and milking parlor. Pipes: Polyethylene or PVC pipe is recommended for recycling lagoon water. Fewer crystallization problems seem to occur with plastic than metal components. Receiving gutters: Collect flush water/manure at the end of the flushed surface (alley, holding area, etc.) Open channel receiving gutters may transport flush to reception pond for separation. Gutters should be designed with capacity to receive and transport flush water with sufficient velocity to prevent settling (deposition). Recycle Pumps: Pumps commonly used include submersible, wet and dry well centrifugal sewage pumps, recirculators and floating pumps. Settling Basin: (Pond): An earthen storage structure that allows heavier particles to settle to the bottom while allowing the liquid fraction to be removed mechanically or by gravity. Water supply: The usual flush water supply/storage is an anaerobic lagoon. The farmwater system provides for freshwater flushing in the parlor and wash pen water, which can then be used for flushing.

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Waste Collection & Treatment Web Page References

Waste Handling Equipment Manufacturers
Agpro Inc. www.agprousa.com Albers Dairy Equipment www.albersdairyequipment.com Accent Manufacturing Inc - www.accentmanufacturing.com Bauer Slurry Technology www.bauer-at.com FAN Engineering manure separator www.fan-separator.de Fisher Pumps manure pumps and mixers www.fisherpumps.com Flygt manure pumps www.flygtus.com Global EnviroSystems manure separator www.grn.com/equip Houle manure equipment - www.jhoule.com Integrity System - separator, aerator, land applicator - http://www.nutrientcontrol.com/ Mclanahan Corp. Sand Laden Manure separator www.mclanahan.com Loewen Welding Vacuum scrape www.loewenwelding.com Patz Sales pumps, separator, aerator, land applicator - http://www.patzsales.com/ Press Technology manure separators www.presstechnology.com US Farm Systems - www.usfarmsystems.com Vincent Corp manure separator www.vincentcorp.com Vaughan Co., Inc. (Manure pumps) http://www.chopperpumps.com/

Other References
Flushing Systems for Dairies, Charles D Fulhage and Donald L. Pfost Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia WQ0308 fact sheet http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore/envqual/wq0308.htm

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