Ch.

17 - The 18th Century: An Age of Enlightenment

Vocabulary
Immanuel Kant A philosopher who said the enlightenment was mans leaving of his self-caused immaturity and encouraged people to think for themselves Reason People began to use scientific method for all parts of life and tried to make a better society by using reason John Lockes tabula rasa blank slate; the idea that all people are born with a blank mind and are influenced by their environment, not heritage or genetics Philosophes Any intellectual during the Enlightenment Montesquieus The Spirit of the Laws Applied scientific method to social and political arena and found the natural laws that governed social relationships Voltaires Treatise on Toleration Tried to spread religious toleration by showing that religious toleration didnt create problems for England and Holland Denis Diderots Encyclopedia written to change the general way of thinking and spread the idea of the enlightenment Physiocrats people who tried to find the laws that governed human society and economics Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations stated three principles of economics: 1. Free trade was an economic principle 2. Labor is the source of a nations wealth, not land or bullion 3. State should not interfere in the economy Laissez-faire the proposal to governments to stop interfering with economics Jean-Jacques Rousseau Philosophe who believed in society people should do what is best for the majority of the people, said education should foster childrens natural instincts not restrict them, and wanted a balance between sentiment and reason The Social Contract and the general will Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority and general will is the interest of the people as a whole Mary Wollstonecraft founder of modern European Feminism who said that women deserved equal rights because they are human and apart of the Enlightenment movement

Rococo new art movement that emphasized grace and gentle action and on curves, not geometrical patterns Neoclassicism A popular movement that emphasized the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of the Greeks and Romans Jacques-Louis David A popular Neo-classicist who painted ideas of honor and patriotism Johann Sebastian Bach Musician who believed music was a way of worshipping God and composed many religious songs George Frederick Handel A secular musician who wrote many operas but was ironically best known for his religious pieces Franz Joseph Haydn was a prolific musician who was a musical director for Hungarian princes and began to write songs for common people Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart A child prodigy who wrote many operas but couldnt find a patron and died in debt Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Said the growth of Christianity was a major reason why Rome fell Cesare Beccaria Wanted to change the system of justice by having punishments only as deterrents and not using capital punishment Joseph IIs Toleration Patent Gave Jews more rights like no special taxes and the ability to have jobs but they couldnt own land or practice religion in public Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews Ashkenazic Jews lived in Eastern Europe while Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain and moved to large cities to work in banking and economic activities John Wesley and Methodism Said that all could be saved by experiencing God and his grace and encouraged religious enthusiasm

SOAPSS
1. The Separation of Powers: As seen in this selection, what is Montesquieus doctrine of the separation of powers? (page 468) S Montesquieu, educated, man, studied law, criticized catholic church and French government, advocated religious toleration O Enlightenment, France A governments, monarchs, philosophes P To spread his ideas on how to make a government with separation of powers to provide freedom and security S influenced our founding fathers to create a three power government

Montesquieu said that there should be an executive branch, a judicial branch, and a legislative branch. 2. The Attack on Religious Intolerance: Compare the two approaches of Voltaire to the problem of religious intolerance. (page 469) S Voltaire, French, studied law, wanted religious intolerance and freedom of speech O Enlightenment, France A Christians, Nobles, monarchies, peasants P to convince all people to be tolerant of other religions S Influenced America to have the right of religion In one book, he shows the violence that religious intolerance can cause and the other he says that the religious intolerance has caused many fights that have caused a decrease in the population. 4. A Social Contract: What is Rousseaus concept of the social contract? How could this concept lead to the development of democratic ideas? (page 473) S Rousseau, created idea of general will, advocated balance of sentiment and reason, said government a necessary evil, father of romanticism O Enlightenment A citizens, monarchies P to spread the idea of general will so nations and citizens can do what is best for the majority of people S Helped many other governments rule with consent to the general will His concept was that people should act not on behalf of themselves but on behalf of the interest of the majority of the public. The idea of majority rules came from him.

Focus Questions
1. What were the major intellectual changes that led to the Enlightenment? Natural rights, scientific revolution, renaissance, reformation, skepticism, scientific method 2. What specific contributions did Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot make to the age of the Enlightenment? Compare and contrast their political ideas with Thomas Hobbes and Machiavelli. Montesquieu idea of separation of powers Voltaire freedom of speech and religious tolerance Diderot the first encyclopedia 3. Describe the significance and influence of John Locke and Isaac Newton on the Enlightenment.

Inspiration for the enlightenment came from primarily from John Locke and Isaac Newton. Intellectuals tried to use Newtons idea of natural laws to discover them in human sciences and the arts. They also used Lockes idea of tabula rasa. 4. What new ideas did the philosophes contribute on the following subjects: politics, the new science of man, economics, education, and religion? The idea of separation of powers and checks and balances in government and the idea of governing with consent to the general will of the people. In the new science of man they discovered that they could study the natural laws of social relationships. In economics, the idea of laissez faire and labor source of nations wealth. Education women should be educated and allowing education for lower classes. Religion freedom of religion, new form of religion - deism 5. What were the major ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau? In what ways were Rousseaus ideas unique, differing from those of his predecessors (those who came before him)? Rousseau tried to harmonize individual liberties with governmental authority by proposing the idea of general will and said education should be stressed more in society and nurture childrens natural instincts. 6. What role did women play in the development of the Enlightenment? Woman began to speak out and advocate womens rights and better education such as Wollstonecraft and Astell. 7. How do the art and literature of the 18th century reflect the political and social life of the period? New art style called rococo focuses on the lives of nobles. In literature, writers like Voltaire talk about freedom of speech and religion, and writers like Montesquieu who writes about how to form a more efficient and just government. 8. What kinds of experiences would you associate with the popular religion of the 18th century? Lives of Christians revolved around the parish church. On Easter and Christmas, Christians would go to mass.

Notes
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was said by a philosopher, Immanuel Kant, to be the mans leaving his self-caused immaturity People were encouraged to think for themselves Used scientific method for daily life Tried to make a better society The Paths to Enlightenment Intellectuals of 1700s influenced by revolutionary thinkers 1600s The Popularization of Science 1700s intellectuals learned about the science of 1600s thinkers by popularizers Bernard de Fontenelle was the secretary of a French society who didnt perform any experiments but understood the works of others which he was able to clearly explain to others, wrote books that depicted the new scientific accomplishments in easy to understand ways A New Skepticism Scientific revolution scientists did their work to exalt god, not to undermine Christianity As scientific knowledge spread, people began to question religious beliefs Pierre Bayle wanted complete religious toleration believing that people had the right to choose their own religion His book Historical and Critical Dictionary undermined king david portraying him as an evil person and attacked religious practices and heroes The Impact of Travel Literature Travel reports and books encouraged skepticism of religion and European culture Missionaries, medical practitioners, traders, and explorers published travel books showing different cultures James Cook discovered Australia, New Zealand, and Tahiti and published Cooks Travels Introduction of other cultures into Europe especially China

 Cultural Relativism created from religious skepticism, C.R. showed Christian idea of god is one of many The Legacy of Locke and Newton Inspiration for the enlightenment came from primarily from John Locke and Isaac Newton Intellectuals believed they could use newtons ideas to discover natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, religion, and the arts Lockes theory of knowledge states that knowledge is derived from the environment, not from heredity; from reason, not from faith The Philosophes and their Ideas Intellectuals of Enlightenment known as Philosophes French culture was enhanced; Paris as the capital, most leaders of enlightenment were French Role of philosophy was to change the world Philosophes wanted freedom of expression; they werent free to write about anything they wanted too; governments controlled what could be published and authors could be imprisoned if they wrote something controversial Some authors used pseudonyms and double meanings and published and circulated secretly to avoid the censorship of governments Governments banning of books sometimes made it more popular Thinkers of enlightenment gradually became more gradual Three great French enlightenment thinkers were Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot Montesquieu and Political Thought Charles de Secondat was the baron de Montesquieu and from French nobility Studied law Wrote Persian Letters to criticize catholic church and French government Advocated religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, and use of reason to stop prejudices Most famous work was The Spirit of the Laws o Applied scientific method to social and political arena to find the natural laws that governed social relationships Said there were 3 types of government o Republic Small states, citizen involvement

o Monarchy medium states, Ruling class o Despotism large empires, fear to inspire obedience Showed importance of checks and balances by separation of powers Voltaire and the Enlightenment Franois-Marie Arouet known as Voltaire from Paris and studied law Accomplished playwright Noble forces him to flee to England Liked Englands freedoms and life in England Criticized Frances government and lack of religious tolerance and freedom of thought Returned to France and stayed with his mistress, the marquise du Chatelet o One of the first intellectuals to adopt Newtons ideas and translate Principia to French Voltaire moved to estate in Ferney near Swiss border, which gave him freedom to write what he wanted Famous for his criticism of traditional religion and his idea of religious toleration Also famous for convincing people to hold a retrial of Calas, suspected of murdering his son, who was found innocent Voltaire wrote Treatise on Toleration, he showed religious toleration didnt create problems for England or Holland Championed deism, a religious outlook that the world was based on Newtons Worldmachine idea that there is a god (mechanic) who created the universe Believed god didnt control of the world he created Diderot and the Encyclopedia Denis Diderot, son of craftsman, became a freelance writer His favorite topic was criticizing the Catholic church, said world was just a mass of particles Most famous work was his 28 volume Encyclopedia To change the general way of thinking Spread ideas of Enlightenment The New Science of Man The belief that Newtons scientific method could be used to discover natural laws was called the Science of Man David Hume important figure in the history of philosophy

 Wrote Treatise on Human Nature Said observation and reflection with common sense made science of man conceivable Physiocrats and Adam Smith are viewed as founders of modern discipline of economics Franois Quesnay was a successful court physician They tried to find natural laws that governed human society o Said that land was the only source of wealth and could be increased only by agriculture o Rejected mercantilists emphasis on the significance of gold and silver o Rejected mercantilists view of controlled economy for benefit of the state o Stressed existence of natural economic forces of supply and demand and advised governments to stop interfering with the natural forces of the economy known as laissez-faire Adam Smith is one of the best examples of laissez-faire Wrote The Wealth of Nations Stated three principles of economics and attacked mercantilism o 1. Free trade was an economic principle o 2. Labor is the source of a nations wealth, not land or bullion o 3. State should not interfere in the economy Disagreed with tariffs to protect homeland industries Said governments only had three functions o To protect society from invasion (army) o Defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police) o Keep up certain public works such as roads and canals Proposed economic liberalism which is the economic freedom of individuals The Later Enlightenment Baron Paul dHolback wealthy German aristocrat living in France supporter of atheism and materialism God was a product of the human mind People needed only reason to live in the world Most intellectuals supported deism and feared the effect of atheism on society Marie-Jean de Condorcet French philosophe wrote The Progress of the Human Mind Said there were nine stages of the human history and they were just beginning to enter the tenth which is of perfectibility

Rousseau and the Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau critical of the work of his predecessors Didnt like social life of the cities Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind said humans were happy and equal in their primitive state, inequality began with the beginning of possession and he said that government was a necessary evil The Social Contract, he tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority, agreement on part of society to be governed by its general will Liberty is achieved by being forced to do what is best for all people Influential treatise was mile, one of the most important novels on education in the Enlightenment, said education should foster natural instincts of children not restrict them Wanted a balance between sentiment and reason, precursor of the movement of Romanticism Thought women were naturally inferior and sent his own children to foundling homes The Womans Question in the Enlightenment Men thought women were inferior and some scientists tried to prove it with science Some men believed women were just as capable as men like Voltaire and Diderot Mary Astell writes A Serious Proposal to the Ladies and says that women need to be better educated and argued for equality of men and women in marriages Mary Wollstonecraft viewed as the founder of modern European Feminism in Vindication of the Rights of Women she says: o That mens control over women was like feudalism and monarchies which were thought of as wrong at the time o That the enlightenment was based on the ideal of reason, innate in all human beings and wanted equal rights for women for education, economics, and politics The Social Environment of the Philosophes Philosophes came from almost all classes Enlightenment had greatest appeal to the aristocracy Common people were little affected by the enlightenment Salons (1600s and more prevalent in 1700s) were a great factor in spreading ideas; people gathered to have conversations on the new innovations and ideas of the time

 Salons hosted by women; Marie-Therese de Georffrin welcomed scientists and offered financial assistance and marquise du Deffand attracted scientists too like Montequieu, Hume, and Voltaire Reputation of salon depended on whose goes there; there was a belief that women were influencing French politics that caused them to decline during the French revolution Coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, and public lending libraries were gathering places for the spread of ideas

Culture and Society in the Enlightenment

There were important innovations during the eighteenth-century culture and society Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature New art style known as Rococo which emphasized grace and gentle action and focused on curves not geometrical patterns rather than baroque that emphasized power and majesty Evident in Antoine Watteau who thought aristocrats as refined and civilized but also had an element of sadness Palace of Versailles encouraged other kings and princes to build large palaces too Baroque-Rococo style used in palaces and churches Balthasar Neumann architect churches and palaces using rococo Neo-classicism is still a movement in France idea to capture the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of Greece and Rome Jacques-Louis David was popular for his emphasis on honor and patriotism The Development of Music 1600s and 1700s were the years of Baroque music Rise of opera and oratorio, the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony Italians were first to develop these genres but followed by Germany, England, and Austria Before musicians depended on patrons Italy and Germany were the musical leaders of Europe Many techniques of the baroque music style were perfected by Bach and Handel both in Germany Bach believed music was a way to worship God and composed many religious songs in Germany

 Handel was secular and had an international career, he wrote operas in Italy and moved to England where he tried to run an opera company however best known for religious music Orchestral music didnt become very popular until 1750s when new instruments such as piano appeared and started the Classical era where Haydn and Mozart played Haydn prolific was musical director for Hungarian princes, on a trip to England he saw the idea of writing music for common people Mozart was a child prodigy, wrote opera at 12, was prolific, couldnt find patron, was in much debt The development of the Novel English are credited with the modern model for fictional writing Writing and reading books was attractive to women Samuel Richardson was a popular writer Henry Fielding wrote about people who survived by their wit The Writing of History Philosophes regarded for revolutionizing the writing of history Eliminated role of god in history and focused on the actual events Broadened view of history from politics to including economic, social, intellectual, and cultural developments Goal was to civilize the age and have society learn lessons from the past Christianity was disliked by most philosophe historians The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century High culture is the literary and artistic world of educated and wealthy classes Popular culture is the written and unwritten lore of the masses, most is passed down orally High culture consisted of theologians, scientists, philosophers, poets, and dramatists, for whom Latin was still widely used Wealthy and literate lay group supported them: most important were landed aristocracy and wealthier upper classes 1700s was an expansion in the reading public and publishing Growth of publishing houses made it so authors didnt have to depend on patrons and growth of magazines and daily newspaper Books had wider circulation through the development of public libraries

Education and Universities Europe was home to many privately owned secondary schools designed for upper class children Still concentrated on Greek and Roman classics with little attention to math and science Complaints brought about schools with a broader education Very few significant scientific discoveries occurred in universities Crime and Punishment Most European States had developed a court system England Courts used torture methods to obtain confessions o Punishments were often cruel o Public executions were accepted and encouraged to deter other people from committing crimes o High class people were beheaded o Lower class people were tortured to death o Forced labor was also largely used Cesare Beccaria wanted to change and create a new approach to justice o Saying punishments should be used as deterrents only o Against capital punishment Growing movement led to decline of corporal and capital punishment New type of prison where inmates are disciplined and rehabilitated The World of Medicine Physicians enjoyed high social status 1700s Universities just began to teach new scientific ideas over Galens ideas Physicians needed license and were paid outrageously high salaries Surgeon-barbers split into two professions Surgeons were seen lower than physicians and bled patients and performed surgery without painkillers and in poor conditions Surgeons began to train and examined patients like physicians and began to be licensed Apothecaries diagnosed illnesses and sold remedies Male doctors supplemented midwives for delivering babies Hospitals were often crowded and ineffectual Popular Culture Popular culture is the literature and social activities and pursuits of the common people

 Groups activities usually occurred as festivals Christmas and Easter were festivals in Europe

Carnival Celebrated in the weeks before lent, 40 day period before Easter This was a time when people often over-indulged, had sexual activity, and showed aggression by throwing food and verbal attacks Taverns and Alcohol Taverns and Cabarets were the usual gathering places of the common people High classes gradually left being apart of popular culture like Taverns and Carnivals Literacy and Primary Education Spiritual and secular stories were called chapbooks sold to the masses a change from traditional oral stories Literacy grows in upper-classes, upper-middle classes, and artisans and workers Literacy was growing because of the increase of primary education as Catholic Europe tried as a community effort Protestant states tried to create universal schools to teach the masses Ruling classes feared that teaching the lower classes would make the lower classes as educated as them

Religion and the Churches

The great art and music of the time was religious but the thought of the time was growing more secular Most Europeans were Christian and those who werent usually thought society wouldnt be able to function without faith The Institutional Church The Catholic and Protestant churches upheld societys hierarchical structure Priests or pastors were the center of religious activity Churches kept records of births, marriages, and deaths; gave to the poor; supervised primary educations and raised orphans Church-State Relations Protestantism gave the idea of government control of the church and was very popular but Christianity was still very popular

 Catholic Church still used a hierarchical structure where higher clergy made much more than the lower clergy Governments tried to have control over Catholic churches in their states but it meant they needed to have control over the society of Jesus The Jesuits were very successful at this time; had much political influence and created communities within colonies in the new world Portuguese, French, and Spanish governments expel the Jesuits from their nations and demanded the Catholic church to dissolve the Jesuit order and the pope complied With the dissolution of the Jesuits the Catholic Church was falling and losing influence in diplomacy and international affairs as governments nationalized their churches Toleration and Religious Minorities Most philosophes wanted religious toleration Rulers began to be more tolerant, but there were many others who found it hard to accept Joseph II was a ruler of Austria who was very tolerant of other religions and gave Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek orthodox followers equal rights as Catholics Toleration and the Jews The most despised religious minority was Judaism and most Jewish people lived in eastern Europe called Ashkenazic Jews Poland was the most tolerant country of Jewish people Pogroms occurred where people looted and massacred Jewish people Another major group was the Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain and went to Turkey and large cities such as Amsterdam and London where they participated in banking and commercial activities Successful ones provided services for rulers known as court Jews Many philosophes wanted equal rights for Jews and Muslims but others criticized Jewish culture Joseph II created a new policy that gave Jewish people more rights and encouraged them to learn German and assimilate into Austrian society Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century Religious devotion remained strong in 1700s Europe Catholic Piety Catholic parish church was the center of community life

 90-95% of Catholics went to mass on Easter Much devotion was still towards saints, pilgrimages, and relics and images Protestant Revivalism: Pietism Protestant churches became bureaucratic and had less religious enthusiasm Theologians had a desire for greater depth of religious experience which brought about Pietism created to make religion more personal Pietism was spread by the teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf Protestant religions offered little religious excitement Deism challenged Christianity Wesley and Methodism Anglican minister, John Wesley underwent a mystical experience The Anglican Church opposed him and criticized his emotional mysticism and religious enthusiasm Wesley thought all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace He appealed to the lower classes who were neglected by the elitist Anglican Church His charismatic teachings resulted in highly charged and sometimes violent experiences Converts were organized into Methodist societies or chapels Wesley tried to keep Methodism inside the Anglican Church but after his death they separated into two Methodism was an important revival of Christianity