Infram publication no.

11

Wave overtopping at coastal structures: development of a database

towards up-graded prediction methods

J. de Rouck 1
J.W. van der Meer 2
N.W.H. Allsop 3
L. Franco 4 and
H. Verhaeghe 5

1 Professor, Ghent University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technologiepark 9, B-9052 Gent,

Belgium, fax +32 9 264 58 37, julien.derouck@rug.ac.be
2 Head Coastal Structures, Infram, PO Box 16, 8316 ZG Marknesse, the Netherlands,
fax +31 527241119, jentsje.vandermeer@infram.nl
3 Technical Director, Maritime Structures, HR Wallingford, Prof. (ass.) Univ. Sheffield, UK,
fax +44 1491825539, w.allsop@hrwallingford.co.uk
4 Professor, 3rd University of Rome, Principal Eng., Modimar s.r.l., via Montezebio 40,
00195 Roma, Italy, fax +39 0636000789, leof@uniroma3.it
5 Ph.D.Student, Ghent University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technologiepark 9, B-9052 Gent,
Belgium, fax +32 9 264 58 37, hadewych.verhaeghe@rug.ac.be

Paper presented at the 28th International Conference on Coastal Engineering,

Cardiff, UK
 WAVE OVERTOPPING AT COASTAL STRUCTURES: DEVELOPMENT OF
A DATABASE TOWARDS UP-GRADED PREDICTION METHODS

J. de Rouck 1, J.W. van der Meer 2, N.W.H. Allsop 3, L. Franco 4 and H. Verhaeghe 5

Abstract: safe use of low lying and densely populated coastal regions depends
critically on the performance of coastal structures in defending these areas
against storm surges, wave attack, flooding and erosion. Continuing sea level
rise and climate change (storms are becoming rougher) emphasise the need for
reliable and robust predictions as higher storm surges and bigger storms may
lead to flooding. Population pressures on land use in coastal regions have
sometimes ignored age-old appreciation of coastal hazards. The CLASH
research project EVK3-CT-2001-00058 is being funded by the EU to provide
“Crest Level Assessment of coastal Structures by full scale monitoring, neural
network prediction and Hazard analysis on permissible wave overtopping”. It is
intended to produce generally applicable prediction methods based on
permissible wave overtopping and hazard analysis. This paper describes the
general approach of this major European project and more specific the
development of a homogeneous overtopping database, which will be the basis
for the general prediction methods.

INTRODUCTION
Assessment of the safety of coastal defence works requires reliable and well-
validated prediction methods. Actually there is a lack of widely applicable and safe

1 Professor, Ghent University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technologiepark 9, B-9052 Gent,

Belgium, fax +32 9 264 58 37, julien.derouck@rug.ac.be
2 Head Coastal Structures, Infram, PO Box 16, 8316 ZG Marknesse, the Netherlands,
fax +31 527241119, jentsje.vandermeer@infram.nl
3 Technical Director, Maritime Structures, HR Wallingford, Prof. (ass.) Univ. Sheffield, UK,
fax +44 1491825539, w.allsop@hrwallingford.co.uk
4 Professor, 3rd University of Rome, Principal Eng., Modimar s.r.l., via Montezebio 40,
00195 Roma, Italy, fax +39 0636000789, leof@uniroma3.it
5 Ph.D.Student, Ghent University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technologiepark 9, B-9052 Gent,
Belgium, fax +32 9 264 58 37, hadewych.verhaeghe@rug.ac.be

1 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

prediction methods for structure design. However, there exist several overtopping
formulae for coastal structures. They rely on empirical fitting of equations to
overtopping data, which are available from model tests. These present methods are
however applicable to a limited range of structure configurations and only give partial
predictions, see Van der Meer et al. (1998) for dikes, Franco et al. (1994) for vertical
walls and Besley et al. (1998) for shallow water conditions. So the available
overtopping data for different structure types have not been integrated to give a single
design method.

In addition, present prediction methods may be subject to scale or model effects.

Scale effects refer to unwanted effects that appear as a result of the impossibility of
correct scaling of a process, e.g. surface tension and kinematic viscosity. Model effects
refer to unwanted effects that appear because of difficulties with correct modelling, e.g.
the granulometry of the core of a rubble mound breakwater or wind effect on
overtopping. The fact that present prediction methods may be subject to scale or model
effects follows from a conclusion of the EU project OPTICREST (De Rouck et al., 2001).
In this project it has been found that wave run-up Ru2% on rubble mound slopes,
measured during full scale storms, was about 20% higher than modelled by selected
hydraulic laboratories in small scale test facilities. This may lead to the tentative
conclusion that scale or model effects may also be present for small scale testing on
wave overtopping. Relatively few site measurements of overtopping have been made
before. A single series of tests at large scale have been completed by the VOWS and
Big-VOWS team (universities of Edinburgh, Sheffield and Manchester and HR
Wallingford) to compare small and large scale tests to identify the occurrence and
magnitude of possible scale effects. These results suggest that scale effects are not
significant in mean overtopping for vertical walls, although these tests do not cover the
model effect of not including wind (Bruce et al., 2002, and Pearson et al., 2002).

The CLASH research project (January 2002 - December 2004), funded by the
European Community and consisting of 13 partners (see table1), is intended to deal with
these problems and so improve knowledge about the overtopping phenomenon.

Table1. Partners of CLASH

PARTNER COUNTRY
Ghent University (coordinator) Belgium
Flanders Community Coastal Division Belgium
Flanders Hydraulics Belgium
Leichtweiss Institut für Wasserbau Germany
Aalborg University Denmark
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia Spain
Modimar Italy
Delft Hydraulics The Netherlands
Infram The Netherlands
Rijkswaterstaat The Netherlands
Manchester Metropolitan University United Kingdom
University of Edinburgh United Kingdom
Hydraulics Research Wallingford United Kingdom

2 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

 The CLASH project has the following main objectives. A first objective is to
solve the problem of the suspected scale/model effects. A second objective is to produce
a generic prediction method for wave overtopping and so for crest height design or
assessment. Also a description of allowable overtopping based on hazard analysis will
be given. The prediction method will be realised by gathering all existing overtopping
data in a homogeneous database, to screen it and supplement that database with the new
full scale measurements and new scale model test results. Afterwards, a generally
applicable design method will be developed with the use of neural network methods,
including the conclusions on scale/model effects.

A neural network is a novel instrument which is an outstanding example of

recognising patterns in large data sets where there may be a large number of parameters
and lack of physical understanding, see also Mase et al. (1995), Van Gent and Van den
Bogaard (1999), and Medina (1999).

OVERTOPPING MEASUREMENTS
Examination of possible scale/model effects requires a comparison of large scale
overtopping results with small scale overtopping results. Because very little large scale
overtopping measurements have been carried out in the past, full scale overtopping

Zeebrugge (Belgium) Ostia (Italy)

Petten (The Netherlands) Samphire Hoe (UK)

Figure 1. Measurement sites

3 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

measurements are crucial and will be established at 3 coastal overtopping sites in
Europe (Belgium, Italy and UK). These prototype measurements will start at winter
2002/2003. The sites will be instrumented in such a way that both the incident wave
field and overtopping discharges will be measured. At one additional measurement site
(The Netherlands) the long wave phenomenon on very shallow water and breaking
waves is investigated. The objective is here to understand the phenomenon of long
waves (surf beat) and the effect on wave overtopping. The four sites are shown in
figure 1.

The measured prototype storms will then be simulated in scale model tests
and/or by numerical modelling. Results of the modelling can then be compared with
prototype results. This will lead to a firm conclusion on scale/model effects.

Another objective of the physical and numerical modelling is to generate more

data on overtopping to fill in gaps in the database.

HOMOGENEOUS OVERTOPPING DATABASE

First step: gather data

Large numbers of datasets on overtopping at several types of structures are
available at research institutes and universities all over the world. Some of these
datasets, which are based on generic tests or on tests of site specific locations, have
already been assembled. However many other data have not been collected yet.
Therefore the first task in creating a homogeneous database is to gather as much data as
possible from all over the world. Not only the raw data (wave parameters, geometry and
corresponding overtopping discharge) have to be gathered, but also details of
measurement methods (such as wave measurements and overtopping measurements)
and analysis methods are requested. This information is important for screening the data
on reliability.

It has to be mentioned that also tests with no overtopping (discharge

q = 0 m3/s/m) are assembled. These tests are necessary for the ‘training’ of the neural
network, in order to make predictions of zero discharge possible.

At present, a lot of data have been collected and re-analysed already. All kind of
structures are considered: dikes, rubble mound structures with rock or concrete armour,
vertical structures, berm breakwaters and composite structures. Most tests are 2D but
3D tests are also included. As the tests concern overtopping measurements, only
emerged structures are considered. Table 2 summarises the data that have been collected
until now (September 2002).

More data are expected from several other institutions/countries such as CERC
(USA), University of Kingston (Canada) and Japan and Europe.

4 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

 Table 2. Available data

Hydraulic Research Wallingford (UK)

basic tests → 1133 tests
34 projects → 956 tests
Delft Hydraulics (The Netherlands)
basic tests → 1019 tests
16 projects → 334 tests
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (Spain),
OPTICREST-data → 64 tests
University of Edinburgh (UK), VOWS-data → 317 tests
Sigurdarson, 1993. → 39 tests
Lissev, 1993. → 22 tests
Mühlestein, 1992. → 96 tests
Ahrens et al, 1986. → 239 tests
Goda, 1975. → 126 tests
Franco & Cavani, 1999. → 36 tests
Modimar (Italy) :
• Enel-Hydro
project tests → 151 tests
research tests → 93 tests
• Estramed-laboratories
> 40 tested sections
• University of Florence
project tests → 149 tests
research tests → 312 tests
• Hydraulic laboratory of Padua
Leichtweiss Institut für Wasserbau (Germany)
small scale tests → 323 tests
large scale tests → 117 tests
Aalborg University.
Helgason, 1999. → 93 tests
Pedersen, 1996. → 198 tests
Kofoed, 2000. → 37 tests
1 project → 55 tests
TOTAL → > 5909 tests

Second step: Select ‘general’ formulae for comparison with data sets
To have a first idea of the reliability of the collected datasets, they are all
compared with existing empirical prediction formulae. A general form of these formulae
is:
q  1 R 
= A . exp  − B . . c  (1)
gH m0
3
 γ H m0 
with q the mean overtopping discharge (m3/s per m width), Hmo the significant wave
height based on spectral analysis (m) and Rc the structure crest freeboard relative to
SWL (m). A and B are parameters of which the value depends on the considered

5 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

formula. The parameter γ is a correction factor for the roughness and angle of wave
attack (in case of dikes) or the geometry (in case of caissons).

The first form of the formula is the one that is prescribed by TAW (1999) for
smooth dikes and non-breaking waves (Van der Meer et al., 1998). The value of the
parameters A and B are here 0,2 and 2,6 respectively. The value of the parameter γ is 1
in this case (no reduction because smooth slope). The formula predicts relative large
overtopping discharges and is considered therefore as an upper limit for all data. The
second form of the formula is the one of Franco et al. (1994) for vertical structures.
Here A = 0,2 and B = 4,3. The value of the parameter γ is 1 (vertical structure). The
discharge is quite low compared to smooth slopes (and non-breaking waves) and it can
be considered as a kind of lower limit. A prediction in between the two previous ones is
that of Allsop et al. (1995) for vertical structures: A = 0,05 and B = 2,78. The value of
the parameter γ is 1 (vertical structure). This prediction is considered as a mean value.
The fourth formula is the one of TAW (1999) or Van der Meer et al. (1998) for dikes
covered with rock or armour layers, for non-breaking waves. The formula is the same as
the one for smooth dikes, except the value of the roughness factor γ is 0,5 instead of 1.
This causes a lower prediction of overtopping discharge. Figure 2 gives an indication of
the different formulae.

1.E+00

1.E-01 TAW 1999, dikes,

non-breaking waves
1.E-02
Franco et al. 1994,
vertical structures
3
1.E-03
3 )
qq/sqrt(gH
/ gH mmo 0 Allsop et al. 1995,
1.E-04 vertical structures

1.E-05 TAW 1999, dikes,

non-breaking waves,
j = 0,5
1.E-06 γf = 0.5

1.E-07
0 1 2 3 4

Rc /Hm0

Figure 2. General formulae for dikes (non-breaking waves)

and vertical structures

For breaking waves on dikes, the general form of an empirical formula is (TAW
2002):
q tanα  R 1 
. = 0,067 . exp  − 4,75 . c .  (2)
γb . ξ 0  H ξ . γ . γ 
f . γ β . γv
3
gH m0  m0 0 b 

6 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

With: α the slope angle (°), ξo is the breaker parameter (-) based on the spectral period
Tm-1,0 and γb, γf, γβ, γv correction factors for respectively berms, roughness of the slope,
oblique wave attack and a vertical wall on the slope. Values for these correction factors
can be found in TAW (1999, 2002) or Van der Meer et al. (1998). The value of the
angle of wave attack β is zero for normal wave attack.

Many other prediction formulae for overtopping exist (Bruce et al., 2001), e.g.
the empirical formula of Owen (1980). They are not further considered here, although
all Owen’s data are part of the available dataset.

Third step: find a method to characterize all structures

The main aim of the database is to provide simplified data as input for a neural
network. This means that all kind of structures (dikes, rubble mound structures with
rock or concrete armour, vertical structures, berm breakwaters and composite
breakwaters) have to be parameterised by means of a restricted number of parameters.
The difficulty is to find parameters for all structure types that describe as much
information as possible and still keep the number of parameters limited. A lot of
information has to be described: armour type, porosity/permeability, crest width, crest
wall, toe , berm, etc.

Figure 3 gives an indication of the parameters that will be used to describe a

rubble mound section.
Gc

Rc Ac
SWL α2
hb
ht hc
h α1
B

Figure 3. Parameters to characterize a rubble mound section

With:
γf : a correction factor for the roughness of the slope (-)
cotα : the average slope angle (-)
Rc : the crest freeboard in relation to SWL (m)
B : the berm width, measured horizontally (m)
hb : the berm depth in relation to SWL (m)
Ac : the height of armour in front of the crest element (m)
Gc : the width of armour in front of the crest element (m)
h : water depth in front of the structure (m)
ht : water depth above the toe of the structure (m)
hc : total height of the structure (m)

7 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

 An important parameter for overtopping is the roughness/permeability of or on
the slope. This can be expressed by the correction factor γf. For a smooth dike γf =1.
Values of γf for different kind of dikes and rubble mound structures are prescribed in
TAW (2002).

To determine the average slope of the structure, one considers the points on the
slope 1,5*Hs above SWL and 1,5*Hs below SWL. The horizontal distance between
these two points is Lslope. The average slope angle cot(α) is then obtained by dividing
Lslope by 3*Hs. This is only valid if there is no berm between the two considered points
on the slope. If there is a berm, the average slope angle is obtained by dividing (Lslope-B)
by 3*Hs. Notify that the berm width is not considered when determining the average
slope angle. This is the method used in TAW (1999) for dikes. Another approach could
be to include the berm in the average slope angle, still keeping B and hb as berm
parameters. If 1,5*Hs is larger than Ac, logically Ac is considered instead of 1,5*Hs. In
this case the average slope angle is obtained by dividing (Lslope-B) by (1,5*Hs + Ac).

The determination of the berm width B in case of a sloping berm, is as follows:

the sloping berm is replaced by a shorter, horizontal berm with width B, by extending
the upper and lower slope attached to the berm. The depth of the berm is expressed by
the parameter hb and is measured at the middle of the berm.

More detailed information about the characterisation of the slope and berm of a
structure can be found in TAW (2002).

Fourth step: reliability and complexity

There are still two difficulties one has to deal with before one can generate a
homogeneous database. The first one encloses the fact that data are available for a lot of
structures with many different sections while it is not possible to describe every detail
of a complex section and therefore in case of a complex section, information may be
lost. Therefore a complexity-index is assigned to each section. The complexity-index
has the value 1 (very simple section), 2, 3 or 4 (very complex section). The sections at
which a complexity-index of 4 is assigned, will not be considered for the database
because too much information will be lost in this case by simplification.

The second difficulty encloses the fact that sometimes not all information of
tests is available and an estimation or calculation is needed then (e.g. wave height at the
toe of the structure), which causes less reliable information. This is mostly the case for
the wave parameters. It was decided to use the wave height and period at the toe of the
structure, because it is thought to be most relevant that there is a relation between
incident waves and overtopping. The problem herewith is that in quite a lot of tests,
only wave parameters at deep water are measured. This means that it is necessary to
derive the incident wave parameters by means of a numerical wave model. It was
decided to use SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore), a third generation model
developed at TU Delft, see Booij et al. (1999). Another frequent problem is that the
wave period Tm is available (mean period) instead of Tp (peak period). In those cases
assumptions of Tm/Tp are made.

8 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

 Depending on the quality of the data, a reliability-index is assigned to each
section. The reliability-index can have the value 1, 2, 3 or 4. A value 1 means very
reliable information. This is the case when all relevant data for the tests are available,
the measurement and analysis method are correct and no information is missing. A
value of 4 means no reliable data. These data will also not be used in the database. The
data with reliability-index 2, respectively 3, are reliable, but some respectively more
parameters had to be calculated/assumed.

Fifth step: Compare data with general formulae

Figures 4 and 5 are examples of tested cross-sections, where the measured
overtopping discharge has been plotted together with the empirical prediction formulae,
described above.

1.E+00
3
q/sqrt(gHmo )
q tanα
. * 1.E-01
3 γ b .aξ)/0x
gH m0 sqrt(tan 0
1.E-02

1.E-03 TAW 1999, dikes,

breaking waves
1.E-04 data breaking waves

1.E-05

1.E-06

1.E-07
0 1 2 3 4
Rc R /(H *x1 )
. c mo 0
H m0 ξ 0 . γ b . γ f . γ β . γ v

Figure 4. Example 1: simple dike with slope 1:6

The first example (Figure 4) concerns overtopping measurements over a simple

dike. The slope of the dike is 1:6 (seaside). The waves are breaking on the dike. A
comparison can be made with the TAW 1999 formula for breaking waves on dikes.
Although there is scatter, the figure shows a good agreement between de prediction
formula and the performed tests. A reliability-factor of 1 is therefore assigned to the
tests. The structure section is exactly characterised by cotα and Rc, so CF =1.

The second example concerns overtopping measurements over a battered wall

with a promenade. Figure 5 shows the tested section and the corresponding graph. As
can be seen on this plot, measurements for normal wave attack as well as for oblique
wave attack have been carried out. The results for the oblique wave attack show less
overtopping than the tests for normal wave attack. The tests with the normal wave
attack show an overtopping discharge lower than the discharge predicted by TAW
(1999) for dikes, but higher than the discharge predicted by Allsop et al. (1995) for

9 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

vertical walls. Also here there is scatter on the data points, but one could say that the
performed tests seem quite reliable at first sight, what makes the value of the reliability-
index = 1 acceptable. It is not possible to describe the section of example 2 exactly with
the parameters mentioned above. The best approximation of the section is the one that is
obtained by using the parameters cotα, Rc and Gc. The approximation consists then of
the battered wall followed by a horizontal crest with length Gc equal to the horizontal
projection of the 1:30 slope. The fact that the crest is a slope is neglected here. That
explains the choice of a complexity-index CF = 2.

1.E+00
/ gHmom3 30)
qq/sqrt(gH
1.E-01
TAW 1999, dikes,
1.E-02 non-breaking
waves
Franco et al.
1.E-03 1994, vertical
structures
Allsop et al. 1995,
1.E-04 vertical structures

normal wave
1.E-05 attack

oblique wave
1.E-06
attack (45°)

1.E-07
0 1 2 3 4
Rc/Hm0

Figure 5. Example 2: battered wall with promenade

10 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

Sixth step
All the data can be gathered in one database together with complexity- and
reliability-indexes. More than 5000 overtopping data have been gathered already at this
moment (September 2002). For the neural network it is important that the database is
complete, what means that overtopping data are needed in the whole parameter range,
and this for all parameters. Probably there will be missing parameter ranges. These
missing data, ‘white spots’, have to be filled with additional laboratory measurements.
Probably these tests will contain tests on berm breakwaters. Also tests on roughness
factors for various armour units like rock, cubes, tetrapods, dolosse, accropodes and
core-locs will be performed. In this way, together with the measurements at site, a
complete homogeneous data base will be established and will be input for the neural
network.

Table 3 shows the parameters that will be used as input for the neural network.
Only the mean overtopping discharge is considered, so no percentages or individual
overtopping volumes will be treated.

Table 3. Input parameters for the neural network

Tp toe (s)
Hm0 toe (m) h (m)
β (°) Parameters to Indexes: q (m3/m/s)
‫װ‬ describe the
‫װ‬ ‫װ‬ structure section:
‫װ‬ Reliability- ‫װ‬
Peak index RF
Significant Water
period angle of γf (-), cot(α) (-), and Measured
wave height depth at
measured wave Rc (m), B (m), Complexity- overtopping
measured at the toe of
at the toe attack db (m), Ac (m) index CF discharge
the toe of the
of the and Gc (m)
the structure structure
structure

There is still some discussion about the use of the wave parameters. Here it is
proposed to use the wave conditions measured at the toe of the structure. Another
method could be the method of Goda. In this method not the wave parameters at the toe
of the structure, but the deep water wave conditions are used. It is necessary then to
model the foreshore. Therefore Goda proposes to use the parameters Hm0 deep, Tp deep and
m instead of Hmo toe and Tp toe. Here 1:m is the slope of the foreshore. Figure 6 explains
the method of Goda.

Bathymetry
Deep water wave
conditions: Hm0 deep,
Tp deep 1
m

1 or 2 wave lengths

Figure 6. The method of GODA

11 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe

 An advantage of the method of Goda is that one does not need to calculate the
wave conditions at the toe of the structure if they are not available. In case of a very
irregular bathymetry, it is very difficult to describe the foreshore by a uniform slope.
Probably both methods will be considered in the project.

CONCLUSIONS
A first completed homogeneous database will be ready at the end of 2002. A
number between 7000 and 10000 data in the database is expected. This database will be
anonymous without figures of cross-sections. With this completed database one can
start for the neural network, which will lead to a first generic prediction method. During
the second and the third year of CLASH, more data will be gathered (from institutions
all over the world, from prototype measurements and from laboratory measurements).
Halfway the third year (2004) a final database with a final prediction method will be
available.

On behalf of establishing guidelines for crest level design for seawalls and
related sea defence structures, various levels of allowable overtopping discharge will be
fixed. This will be done based on hazard analysis. The guidelines will be available at the
end of the project (December 2004).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The CLASH project EVK3-CT-2001-00058 frames within the EESD programme
of the Fifth Framework Programme of the EU. The financial contribution of the
European Community is therefore very much acknowledged. The technical
contributions of those who have provided data are also gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Allsop, N.W.H., Besley P. and Madurini L., 1995. Overtopping performance of vertical
and composite breakwaters, seawalls and low reflection alternatives. Paper 4.6 in
Final Proceedings of MCS-project, MAS2-CT92-0047.
Aminti P., Franco L., 1988. Wave overtopping on rubble mound breakwaters. Proc.
21st Int. Conf. on Coast. Engrg., Vol.1, ASCE, New York, 770-781.
Besley P., Stewart T. and Allsop N.W.H., 1998. Overtopping of vertical structures: new
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13 De Rouck, Van der Meer, Allsop, Franco and Verhaeghe