Course:TheoryofComputation

Scribe:Vidyadhar WhatisaProof?

Aproofisamethodofascertainingtruth.Butwhatconstitutesaproofdiffers amongfields. 1. Legaltruthisascertainedbyajurybasedonallowableevidence presentedattrial. 2. Authoritativetruthisascertainedbyatrustedpersonororganization. 3. Scientifictruthishypothesized,andthehypothesisisconfirmedor refutedbyexperiments. 4. Probabletruthisobtainedfromstatisticalanalysisofsampledata.For example,publicopinionisascertainedbypollingasmallrandomsample ofpeople. Mathematicsalsohasaspecificnotionofproof. Definition:Aformalproofofapropositionisachainofacceptablelogical deductionsleadingtothepropositionfromabasesetofaxioms.

Proposition Definition:Apropositionisastatementthatiseithertrueorfalse. ThisdefinitiondoesnotincludestatementslikeGivemeapen.However,not allpropositionsaremathematical.Forexample,Rama`swife`snameissitahappens tobetrue,andcouldbeprovedwithlegaldocumentsandtestimonyoftheirchildren, butit`snotamathematicalstatement. Mathematicallymeaningfulpropositionsmustbeaboutwelldefined mathematicalobjectslikenumbers,sets,functions,relations,etc.,andtheymustbe statedusingmathematicallymeaningfulterminology,likeANDandFORALL.

Course:TheoryofComputation

Scribe:Vidyadhar MethodsofProofTechniques ProvinganImplication

Most of the mathematical claims have the form If P, then Q or equivalentlyPimpliesQlike 1. If0<x<2then,x3+4x+1>0. Therearecoupleofstandardmethodsforprovinganimplication Method1: InordertoprovethatPimpliesQ: 1. Write,AssumeP 2. ShowthatQlogicallyfollows Example:If0<x<2then,x3+4x+1>0. Scratchwork: x3+4x+1=x(2x)(x+2)+1 Now, for 0<x<2 x, 2x, x+2 all arepositive. And a product ofpositive termsisalsopositive. Proof: Assume0<x<2.Thenx,2x,2+xareallpositive.Therefore,theprodct ofthesetermsisalsopositive.Adding1tothisproductgivesapositivenumber,so: x(2x)(2+x)+1>0 Multiplyingoutontheleftsideprovesthat x3+4x+1>0asclaimed. Provingbycontrapositive Method2: Animplication(PimpliesQ)islogicallyequivalenttoitscontrapositivenot QimpliesnotP;provingoneisasgoodasprovingtheother.Andoftenprovingthe contrapositive is easier than proving the original statement. If so, then you can proceedasfollows: 1. Write,Weprovethecontrapositive:andthenstatethecontrapositive. 2. ProceedasinMethod#1. Example:Ifrisirrational,thenrisalsoirrational. Scratchwork:Rationalnumbersareequaltoaratioofintegersandirrational numbersarenot.Sowemustshowthatifrisnotaratioofintegers,thenrisalsonot aratioofintegers.Wecaneliminatebothnotsandmaketheproofstraightforward byconsideringthecontrapositiveinstead. Proof:Weprovethecontrapositive:Ifrisrational,thenrisrational. Assumerisrational.Thethereexistsintegersaandbsuchthat r=a/b Squaringonbothsidesgives: r=a2/b2 since,a2andb2areintegers,risalsorational.

Course:TheoryofComputation

Scribe:Vidyadhar

ProvinganIfAndOnlyIf Many mathematical theorems assert that two statements are logically equivalent;thatis,oneholdsifandonlyiftheotherdoeslike 1. Anintegerisamultipleof3ifandonlyifsumofitsdigitsisamultipleof3. 2. Twotriangleshavethesamesidelengthsifandonlyifallanglesaresame. 3. Apositiveintegerp2isprimeifandonlyif1+(p1)(p2)321 isamultipleofp. Method:ThestatementPifandonlyifQisequivalenttothetwostatementsP impliesQandQimpliesP.So,wecanproveanifandonlyifbyprovingtwo implications: 1. Write,First,weshowPimpliesQ. 2. Write,Now,weshowQimpliesP. Example: Twosetsaredefinedtobeequaliftheycontainthesameelements;thatis,X= YmeanszXifandonlyifzY.Sosetequalitytheoremscanbestatedandproved asifandonlyiftheorems. DeMorgansLawforSets:LetA,B,andCbesets.Then:A(BC)=(AB)(AC) Proof:WeshowzA(BC)impliesz(AB)(AC)andviceversa. First,weshowz A (B C)impliesz (A B) (A C).Assumez A (B C).ThenzisinAandzisalsoinBorC.Thus,zisineitherA BorA C,which impliesz(AB)(AC). Now,weshowz(AB)(AC)implieszA(BC).Assumez(A B)(AC).ThenzisinbothAandBorelsezisinbothAandC.Thus,zisinAand zisalsoinBorC.ThisimplieszA(BC). Provingbycontradiction Anotherwaytoproveastatement oftheform IfP,thenQistoprovethe statementIfPandnotQ,thenfalsehood. Example:2isirrational Proof: Let us assumethat 2 is rational. Thus 2 = a/b, where a and b are integersintheirreducedform(i.e.,nocommonfactorsforaandbotherthan1).Atleast oneofaandbmustbeanoddnumber. Now,multiplybothsidesbybandsquareonbothsides,weget2b2=a2. Asa2istwotimesthatofb2,wegetthata2iseven.Therefore,aiseven.Let,a= 2kforsomeintegerk.Then,weget 2b2=(2k)2=4k2andthatimpliesb2=2k2.But thisshowsthatb2isevenandhencebiseven.ThusbothaandbareevenButwehad earlierreducedaandbsothattheywerenotbotheven,acontradiction. Hence,ourassumptionthat2isrationaliswrong.Therefore,2isirrational.

Course:TheoryofComputation

Scribe:Vidyadhar ProvingbyCounterexample

Thisismethodisoftenusedtodisprovecertaintheorembygivingainstanceof observationwhereitdoesnothold. Example: 1. Allprimesareodd. Proof:2isprimebutitiseven. 2. Letp(n)=n2+n+41.nN,p(n)isaprimenumber. Proof:Forn=40,p(n)=402+40+41=4141,whichisnotprime. 3. a4+b4+c4=d4hasnosolutionwhena,b,c,darepositiveintegers. Proof: Euler conjectured this in 1769. But the proposition was proven false218yearslaterbyNoamElkies.Hefoundthesolutiona=95800, b=217519,c=414560,d=422481. 4. 313(x3+y3)=z3hasnosolutionwhenx,y,zN. Proof:Thispropositionisalsofalse,butthesmallestcounterexamplehas morethan1000digits! ProvingbyInduction Inthismethod,givenastatemenS(n),weprovethefollowing 1. Thebasis,whereweshowS(i)foraparticularintegeri(aminimumi afterwhichitistrue). 2. Theinductivestep,weassumeni,whereiisthebasisinteger,andwe showthatIfS(n)thenS(n+1). Example:Foralln0andirunningfrom1ton:i2=n(n+1)(2n+1)/6.(RT: page19) MoregeneralformofInduction In this scheme, instead of just one basis we use several basis cases i.e., In provingS(n+1)wecanusethetruthvalueofallthestatementsS(i),S(i+1),....S(n) ratherthanjustS(n). Example:Foralln8,ncanbewritttenassumof3`sand5`s.(RT:page22) StructuralInduction In automata theory, there are several recursively defined structures about whichweneedtoprovestatements.Someoftheexamplesarerecursivedefinitionof treeandexpression.(RT:page23,24,25) Example: 1. Everytreehasonemorenodethanithasedges. 2. Everyexpressionhasanequalnumberofleftandrightparentheses.