Journal of Nursing Management, 2005, 13, 483489

Situational leadership: a model for leading telecommuters

LEIGH ANN FARMER
RN, MSN, CCM

Clinical Resource Manager, VHA Inc., Greensboro, NC, USA

Correspondence Leigh Ann Farmer 3959 Katherine Way Jamestown NC 27282 USA E-mail: lfarmer@vha.com

F A R M E R L . A . (2005) Journal of Nursing Management 13, 483489 Situational leadership: a model for leading telecommuters

Aim To describe a leadership model aimed at assisting health care leaders to incorporate situational leadership into their practice when leading telecommuters. Background Technological developments have grown in two areas, including medicine and communication, which have facilitated an enhanced information exchange in health care. These technological enhancements have allowed the health care arena to expand and improve its capabilities, including the delivery of health care and the information exchange among patients, providers and workers. Key issues Traditional leadership styles must be modied to respond to the needs of telecommuters. Situational leadership gives structured guidance to the nursing leader when managing telecommuters. Conclusions Situational leadership has been used in the traditional work setting and can be used in the virtual workplace. The strategies and techniques used have to be modied for the telecommuter and must focus on increasing communication. Keywords: leadership styles, models, situational leadership, telecommuter, teleworkers
Accepted for publication: 28 April 2005

Introduction
Technological developments have allowed health care and communication to work cooperatively together to better meet the demands of the employer, employee and ultimately the customer. The rst telecommuter documented in history had a telephone line between his employer and his home. This rst telecommuting activity occurred in 1877 and technology, including the World Wide Web, computers, video-conferencing and digital phones are currently allowing work to be done at remote locations in many areas of the workforce including health care (Gibson et al. 2002, p. 77). According to Gibson et al. (2002) 10% of the workforce in the United States telecommutes and the majority of those work from home. The percentage of the population that telecommutes will increase as employee demands for exibility increase and technology improves.
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The management of telecommuters has become a reality to many organizations now and the number of telecommuters is predicted to continue growing. Telecommuting provides many advantages to both the employer and the employee such as increased productivity, enhanced satisfaction, employee retention and cost reduction (Manochehri & Pinkerton 2003). Despite these advantages, telecommuting presents many challenges to organizations and most directly to management.

Background
Situational leadership, a model developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard in 1982, provides managers with a way to have open communication while helping staff with competence, commitment and independence and ultimately value and honour differences. This model denes three core competencies of a situational leader: 483

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diagnosis, exibility and partnering for performance (Blanchard et al. 2003, ss. I3I5). This model has been used to manage on-site employees and this model also is effective with telecommuters (Gibson et al. 2002). Senior leaders must take the initiative to implement an effective telecommuting programme (Kistner 2002). Although this implementation process may be difcult and challenging, it is imperative, as it is the foundation for a strong telecommuting programme (Kistner 2002). The purpose of this article is to describe the benets and challenges related to telecommuting to both the employer and the employee, analyse a case study and describe a leadership model to address those challenges.

Telecommuting
For the purpose of this article telecommuting is dened as involving working at ones home or another location where employees use computers and communication technology to communicate with the main ofce, supervisors, co-workers and customers (Gibson et al. 2002, p. 76) one or more days of the work week. Telecommuting has become increasingly popular to both the employer and the employee. Telecommuting gives employees increased exibility in scheduling and involves less commuting time. Additional benets of telecommuting are that it gives the employer the ability to attract employees, reduce costs related to workspace needed at the main ofce and an increase in employee production (Manochehri & Pinkerton 2003). According to Cascio (2000) there are many business reasons that exist that would argue for telecommuters. Reduced real estate expenses and maintenance costs, increased productivity and access to global markets are reasons for telecommuters. Along with these benets, the possible disadvantages are a loss of cost-efciencies and less communication with staff. In health care, telecommuting can benet organizations involved in, but not exclusive to, consulting, disease management, case management, transcription services and medical coding. Improved technology and increased utilization of telemedicine will continue to encourage many more industries to take advantage of telecommuting. Each organization must evaluate the implementation of a telecommuting programme comparing benets to the disadvantages along with the strategies to overcome those challenges.

that must be overcome by the nursing leader. The traditional methods of management and leadership may have to be altered when directly supervising a telecommuter. Technology has had much advancement and management and/or leadership styles have to respond in a similar manner. There are signicant differences between management and leadership. Management is dened as the planning and organizing to achieve organizational goals, whereas leadership is the inuence on others that motivates or inspires people to achieve organizational goals (Gibson et al. 2002). Management usually is more skilled in dealing with routine events and leadership is more appropriate in times of change. The increasing number of telecommuters in the general workforce and implementation programme for telecommuters is a change in the traditional setting resulting in the need for a modied leadership style. Situational leadership has been highly successful for many years and seems equally applicable to telecommuters as it has been with traditional workers (Gibson et al. 2002, p. 81). This type of leadership will make telecommuters feel comfortable and connected which can be linked to job satisfaction and retention (Gibson et al. 2002, p. 81).

A case study
A case study will be used to examine telecommuting and strategies based on situational leadership that can be used to more effectively lead telecommuters. Sue, a registered nurse and case manager, is an employee of an organization that offers the option of telecommuting and she works out of her home, which is located over 500 miles away from her employers main ofce. Sue is still a new employee and does have some difculty completing the tasks within her job. Sues responsibilities, as a case manager, include authorizations for services, discharge planning, making referrals as needed and coordinating any needed services. Sue has worked at the organization for a time period of 3 months when she begins telecommuting. Over time Sue gains condence, commitment and knowledge and within 9 months from when she started telecommuting she can perform the tasks of her job description. During those initial 3 months of employment Sue gained a basic knowledge of her job responsibilities. Although she has a basic knowledge, there are still many processes, policies and responsibilities that she has not learned because of inexperience. Betty, Sues manager has only ever managed one telecommuter before Sue and is nding difculty in managing and training someone that is not in the ofce everyday. Betty
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Challenges of leading telecommuters

Despite telecommutings advantages to both the employee and the employer there are many challenges 484

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struggles with communicating with Sue and being able to determine the best method of explaining processes for completing tasks. During those rst 6 months of telecommuting, Sue goes through many phases as she develops into her role. During the rst few months she is excited to begin, but is hesitant about where to start and what to do because she is so far away. After a few months of telecommuting, Sue is feeling better about herself and her ability to perform the essential functions of her job, but is feeling unmotivated. Soon after that, Sue encounters a situation that she has never encountered before and this causes her to doubt herself and her ability to do her job. During this time she struggles again with her condence level and this affects her performance. Later on, at Sues 1 year anniversary with the company, she feels comfortable with her ability to do the job and is ready for any tasks that her manager can assign. During these rst 9 months of Sues telecommuting experience, Sue gains knowledge and skills resulting in less direct supervision needed. This case study is an example of a situation that a leader can encounter when managing telecommuting employees. As Sues level of competence increases over time her developmental level also changes resulting in different types of leadership styles needing to be used. Situational leadership is a model that Sues manager, Betty, can use to guide her in leading telecommuters.

respect and trust, understanding and openness and close human contact and warmth. It may be more appropriate to use different styles with the same follower when she/he is performing tasks. This is because the followers qualications may be more appropriate for some tasks than others may. The followers maturity is the basis for the choice of leadership (s. 2). In order for a leader to know what leadership style is more appropriate, the leader must know how to diagnose the performance, competence and commitment of others. Blanchard et al. (2003) explained that the core competencies of situational leadership are the ability to diagnose, to be exible and to partner for performance. Situational leadership can be applied to any situation including both the traditional and telecommuting work setting. When situational leadership is used, other ideas must be incorporated in order to lead a worker that does not work in the same location as the leader.

Core competencies of a situational leader

One of the rst core competencies of a Situational Leader is diagnosis. In order to diagnose, several key characteristics from the case study will be discussed that will help to determine Sues developmental level. Over time Sue gains condence, commitment and knowledge and within 6 months from when she started telecommuting she can independently perform the tasks of her job description. From this description, the worker progressed from having a low level of condence and competence to a much higher level. There are four developmental levels that a person can progress through over time. It is also important to remember that a person can regress as well as progress through the four stages. Competence is acquired over time and is a persons demonstrated task-specic and transferable knowledge and skills on a given goal or task and commitment is a measure of an individuals motivation and condence in relation to a specic task or goal; it is inferred from behavior (Blanchard et al. 2003, ss. 32, 33). Table 1 describes the four different developmental levels. Once the developmental level is diagnosed, an appropriate leadership style can be applied. The challenge occurs after the diagnosis of developmental level and selection of leadership style has been completed. Different strategies and techniques are used to effectively apply situational leadership, as the traditional work setting is much different from a virtual workplace 485

Situational leadership
Situational leadership is based on the following principles: there is not one leadership style that works in all situations, the appropriate style is based on the subordinate and the task, and the leadership styles all have varying levels of directive and supportive behaviour (Blanchard et al. 2003). It is a model for developing people and talent. It is [also] a way for leaders to help the people they work with grow and become self-reliant achievers (Blanchard et al. 2003, ss. 11).This model is based on matching the leadership style to the developmental level of the subordinate. Directive and supportive behaviour is described by Irgens (1995) as the following. Directive behaviour is characterized by the leader giving detailed rules and instructions while monitoring closely that they are followed. The leader decides what is to be done, how it is to be done and when. Supportive behaviour is characterized by the leader listening, communicating, recognizing and encouraging. The behaviour rests on mutual
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Table 1 Developmental levels (Famous Models 2004) Developmental level Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1 Level of competence and commitment High competence and high commitment High competence and variable commitment Some competence and low commitment Low competence and low commitment Description Experienced at the job and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. May even be more skilled than the leader Experienced and capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it well/quickly May have some relevant skills, but won't be able to do the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to them Generally lacking the specific skills required for the job in hand, and lacks any confidence and/or motivation to tackle it

Table 2 Leadership styles (Blanchard et al. 2003) Style Style Style Style Style 4 3 2 1 Level of direction and support Low directive and low supportive behaviour Low directive and high supportive behaviour High directive and high supportive behaviour High directive and low supportive behaviour Description Delegating Supporting Coaching Directing

(Blanchard et al. 2003). Table 2 describes the four different types of leadership styles and their characteristics.

that can serve as mentor, clearly communicating standards of communication among team members, providing adequate resources and helping to eliminate roadblocks (Cascio 2000). According to Gibson et al. (2002) a D1 needs a leader who can provide lots of communication in the form of instruction. Support is always provided, but at this level a much lower level of support is needed. All of these strategies can be used by the Situational Leader to better meet the needs of the D1 who is also a telecommuter. Developmental level 2 Two more developmental levels must be obtained before moving to the level of a D4. A developmental level 2 (D2) is characterized by having some skills but is often frustrated and unmotivated. The needs of a D2 are clear goals, frequent feedback, opportunities to discuss concerns or feelings, involvement in problem-solving and decision-making and coaching. The style 2 (S2) or coaching leadership style is most appropriate. During this stage the telecommuter has learned many of the fundamentals of the job but still lacks experiences to be independent. Sue goes through this stage when she is feeling better about her ability to do her job but is unmotivated. At this point, a leader needs to provide more encouragement and support to the worker (Gibson et al. 2002). Continuous, direct and personal communication is necessary with a D1 and should also be continued with a D2. Strategies used to further develop a worker at this level include biweekly meetings between supervisor and worker, providing frequent feedback on progress, providing encouragement and promoting involvement in team activities (Blanchard et al. 2003). Many managers have to learn different types of communication skills so that telecommuters will feel less isolated. Managers must not solely rely on e-mail, which is one-way communication. Managers should learn how to conduct effective audio meetings and to balance e-mail, voice mail, video-conferencing and face-to-face communications (Cascio 2000, p. 8).
2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 13, 483489

Principles applicable to the case study

Developmental level 1 In this case study Sue progresses from a developmental level 1 (D1) to a developmental level 4 (D4) and must have a leadership style that is most appropriate for the level. Tables 1 and 2 can be referred to for more information on the development levels and leadership styles. According to the case study, initially Sue is excited about her new role but is also hesitant because she is so far away and realizes that there are many aspects of her job that she does not know. This developmental level can be referred to as a level 1. The D1 level is characterized by interest and enthusiasm while lacking skills and experience (Blanchard et al. 2003). This level requires a more supportive and directive style of leadership. When leading a DI, the style 1 (S1) or directing style is most appropriate and this style can be applied to the initial few months that Sue begins to telecommute. The major needs of a D1 as stated by Blanchard et al. (2003) are recognition of enthusiasm, clear goals and expectations, hands-on training, opportunities to practice, frequent feedback and one of the most important is goal and limit setting. Strategies for leading a telecommuting D1 must be modied as those used in a traditional work setting may not be successful. Strategies include regularly scheduled weekly meetings, virtual demonstrations of processes, pairing the telecommuter with another telecommuter 486

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Cascio (2000) further explained that e-mail can be used for reports and computer-based chat rooms can be implemented so a team can discuss issues and problem solve. When virtual meetings are scheduled attendance must be enforced so that telecommuters can interact with the team. As personal communication is necessary, requirements for the frequency of visits to the telecommuters remote worksite or to the ofce must be communicated and followed through. Set schedules for visits can help along with initial training in the ofce. In this case study, Sue is over 500 miles away, so coming into the ofce frequently is not a likely possibility. Although frequent visits may not occur, face-to-face visits should occur as often as permitted as this contact promotes communication between the worker and the leader (Gibson et al. 2002). Developmental level 3 Blanchard et al. (2003) describes a person at the developmental level 3 (D3) as the capable but cautious performer that has some additional needs resulting in improved performance. Some of those needs include: an approachable mentor, opportunities to express ideas, praise and removing obstacles. Sue can be classied as a D3 when she feels more competent with her responsibilities but encounters a situation that she has never been in before and this causes her to doubt herself. A telecommuter that is diagnosed to be a D3 still needs direction and support but at a different level; the style 3 (S3) or supporting leadership style is most appropriate at this time. This style is more of a participating style in which the leader becomes a facilitator while encouraging the worker to be independent. Strategies that a leader can use when leading a D3 include regular meetings, providing feedback within a preset time frame and offering encouragement. As it is much easier to communicate with someone in the traditional work setting, the leader has to take some extra steps to provide that feedback and encouragement. Developmental level 4 A D4 is described by Blanchard et al. (2003) as a selfreliant achiever who needs a variety of challenges, a leader who is a mentor, autonomy and opportunities to share knowledge and skill with others. This developmental level needs a leader who provides a low level of direction and support. This leadership style is classied as style 4 (S4) or delegating. This worker needs very little daily assistance. Sue can be classied as a D4 at her 1 year anniversary when she feels condent, excited, motivated and ready to take on new projects that her manager assigns.
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On the contrary, when providing little daily direction or assistance, the telecommuter can feel isolated and disconnected. The leader must implement communication techniques resulting in less isolation. Regular monthly meetings should still be done as well as allowing and encouraging the telecommuter to stay involved in the team. Ways to promote involvement include allowing the telecommuter to lead discussions and encouraging them to serve as a mentor to other newer telecommuters. Gibson et al. (2002) describe techniques such as scheduled chat rooms, daily e-mail contact, weekly phone calls and video or audio staff meetings as effective ways for communication. Gibson et al. (2002) continued to explain that face-to-face meetings are still important; personal meeting time is essential [and] any company with dispersed employees has to be willing and able to take on the overhead and the downtime that result from face-to-face meetings (p. 83).

Postdiagnosis
After diagnosis is complete a leader must demonstrate exibility and partner with the telecommuter for performance (Blanchard et al. 2003). Ways to partner with the worker have been discussed previously. Diagnosing can be more difcult as the evaluation has to take place virtually rather than in person, so different actions must be completed to ensure that the model is implemented effectively. Clear goals and expectations have to be set and must be consistent whether the employee is in the ofce or at another location. Gibson et al. (2002) explained that the essential job of a leader is to assess the readiness level or developmental level of the worker in respect to a specic task. When keeping this in mind it emphasizes that it is task-specic and that usually when someone is given a new task, the worker begins at the rst developmental level. Because communication primarily occurs over e-mail or the telephone, the leader must be attentive to vocal inections and also keeping notes about someones personal life can help the leader maintain a personal relationship. Gibson et al. (2002) further explained that relationship management is much more difcult to do virtually, but is worth it as it enhances the developmental level of the worker.

Performance management
Cascio (2000) stated that performance management is often the most difcult for a manager to provide to a telecommuter. Performance management requires the manager to do three things: dene, facilitate and 487

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encourage performance. The author continued to explain that these principles are important in a traditional work setting and is even more important in the virtual setting. Managers that are most successful in managing telecommuters recognize two main responsibilities: eliminating obstacles and providing adequate resources (Cascio 2000, p. 8). Managers and other team members need to be available by e-mail to promote effective communication and guidelines have to be set regarding response times to e-mail, etc. When evaluating telecommuters the same methods must be used as for in-ofce workers. Those methods include evaluating the quality of work, customer satisfaction, ability to meet deadlines and quantity of work completed (Davis 2000). Also Davis (2000) continued to explain that clear expectations have to be communicated to telecommuters and suggested that telecommuters work in the ofce for at least 6 months prior to telecommuting. In order for employees to maintain performance and improve, feedback must be communicated by the leader. Telecommuters are not in-ofce to obtain frequent feedback, so it is important for supervisors to make conscious efforts to give different forms of feedback. Communication is an imperative step that the leader must take resulting in improved performance (United States Ofce of Personnel Management, s. 5).

not use situational leadership (Silverthorne & Wang 2001). This adaptability is positively correlated to protability, units produced and quality of work (Silverthorne & Wang 2001).

Conclusions
Although technology has opened the doors for communication and information transfer, organizations and leaders can feel unprepared when leading telecommuters. A basic understanding of situational leadership allows the nursing leader to interact more efciently and effectively with the telecommuter. Nursing leaders should continually reassess telecommuters while focusing on the three core competencies of a Situational Leader including: diagnosis, exibility and partnering with the telecommuter for performance. The Situational Leader should work cooperatively with the telecommuter to best meet their different needs. The basic principles of situational leadership can be used in both a traditional and a virtual work setting. When used in a virtual setting, the nursing leader must use different techniques resulting in enhanced communication, increased connection with the organization, team and co-workers. By adopting the right style to suit the followers development level, work gets done, relationships are built up, and most importantly, the followers development level will rise to D4, to everyones benet (Famous Models 2004).

Evaluating the effectiveness of situational leadership

The key to the effective use of situational leadership is to periodically monitor the efcacy of the model. The main objective in this case study was to more effectively lead the telecommuter by applying situational leadership. There are several methods that the nursing leader can use to evaluate this model. Methods include an assessment performed by the leader and the follower and the evaluation of job satisfaction levels, absenteeism, turnover rates, quality of work, productivity and the progress towards the overall goal of the telecommuter and leader. An instrument that has been used in research studies to determine the effectiveness of leadership styles includes the Leadership Effectiveness and Adaptability Description (LEAD) instrument (Silverthorne & Wang 2001). This instrument can be completed by both the leader and the follower to determine if the leader and the follower rate the leader as being more adaptable prior to the implementation of situational leadership. When situational leadership is used effectively, the adaptability of the leader has been shown to be higher than leaders that do 488

References
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Manochehri G. & Pinkerton T. (2003) Managing telecommuters: opportunities and challenges. American Business Review 21 (1), 816. Silverthorne C. & Wang T. (2001) Situational leadership style as a predictor of success and productivity among Taiwanese business organizations. The Journal of Psychology 135 (4), 399412.

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