EEX102.05 System Grounding Schemes

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
SYSTEM GROUNDING SCHEMES
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical File Reference: EEX-102.05
For additional information on this subject, contact PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes
CONTENT
PAGE
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS ............................................ 6 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 6 Voltage Profiles................................................................................................................. 6 Normal Conditions ................................................................................................ 6 Fault Condition Magnitudes ................................................................................. 7 Transient Overvoltages......................................................................................... 8 Current Profiles.................................................................................................................. 9 Normal Conditions ................................................................................................ 9 Fault Condition Magnitudes ...............................................................................10 CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS ...............................................11 Types of Grounded Power Systems .............................................................................11 Solidly Grounded (Neutral Point) .......................................................................12 Corner-of-the Delta Grounded ...........................................................................13 Impedance Grounded .........................................................................................14 Solidly Grounded Systems.............................................................................................18 Applications .........................................................................................................18 Advantages..........................................................................................................20 Disadvantages ....................................................................................................20 Low Resistance Grounded Systems.............................................................................21 Applications .........................................................................................................21 Advantages..........................................................................................................21 Disadvantages ....................................................................................................22 High Resistance Grounded Systems............................................................................23 Applications .........................................................................................................23
Advantages..........................................................................................................23 Disadvantages ....................................................................................................24 Reactance Grounded Systems......................................................................................24 TYPES OF GROUND FAULT DETECTION AND COORDINATION SCHEMES...............25 Single Voltage Levels Versus Transformer Connections ...........................................25 Low Voltage Systems.....................................................................................................27 NEC Detection Requirements ...........................................................................27 Coordination Using Solid-State Static Trips....................................................27 Medium Voltage Systems - Solidly Grounded .............................................................29 Residual Connection/Coordination...................................................................29 Sensitivity.............................................................................................................30 Medium Voltage Systems - Low Resistance Grounded.............................................30 Source Neutral Detection/Coordination............................................................30 Zero Sequence Detection/Coordination...........................................................32 Sensitivity.............................................................................................................32 CT Saturation.......................................................................................................33 Medium Voltage Systems - High Resistance Grounded ............................................33 Overvoltage Relays and Alarms ........................................................................33 Special Precautions............................................................................................34 Summary..........................................................................................................................34 GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................37 ADDENDUM ...............................................................................................................................39 CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS (UNBALANCED CONDITIONS)................................................................................................39 Symmetrical Components..............................................................................................39 Balanced System ................................................................................................39 Unbalanced System............................................................................................40
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Sequence Components......................................................................................41 Operators (j, a).....................................................................................................43 Analysis ................................................................................................................46 Fault Condition Phasor Diagrams.................................................................................50 Normal Conditions ..............................................................................................50 Three-Phase Faults.............................................................................................51 Phase-to-Phase Faults.......................................................................................52 Line-to-Ground Faults .........................................................................................53 Sequence Currents .............................................................................................53 Sequence Voltages ............................................................................................54 Line-to-Ground Fault Equations.....................................................................................57 Zero Sequence Transformer Model..................................................................57 Fault Conditions (Current) ..................................................................................59 Fault Conditions (Voltage) .................................................................................60
List of Figures
Figure 1. Ungrounded System Voltage Profiles (Normal Conditions) ...................................6 Figure 2. Ground Fault Voltage Profile ......................................................................................7 Figure 3. Transient Overvoltage Profiles from Restriking Ground Fault.................................8 Figure 4. Current Profile (Normal Conditions) ..........................................................................9 Figure 5. Ground Fault Current Profiles...................................................................................10 Figure 6. Grounded Power Systems........................................................................................11 Figure 7. Solidly Grounded System (Neutral Point)................................................................12 Figure 8. Corner-of-the Delta Grounded System....................................................................14 Figure 9. Low Resistance Grounded System .........................................................................15 Figure 10. High Resistance Grounded System ......................................................................16
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Figure 11. Reactance Grounded System................................................................................17 Figure 12. Line-to-Ground Fault Current Magnitudes ............................................................19 Figure 13. Typical Ground Systems.........................................................................................26 Figure 14. Solid-State Low Voltage Ground Fault Detection................................................28 Figure 15. Residual CT Connection Scheme .........................................................................29 Figure 16. Source Neutral Detection/Coordination................................................................31 Figure 17. Zero Sequence CT Connection Scheme..............................................................32 Figure 18. High Resistance Ground Fault Detection Schemes............................................33 Figure 19. Ground System Characteristics.............................................................................35 Figure 20. Ground System Industry Recommendations ........................................................36 Figure 23. Example of a Balanced System.............................................................................40 Figure 24. Example of an Unbalanced System ......................................................................41 Figure 25. Positive (+) Sequence Components .....................................................................42 Figure 26. Negative (-) Sequence Components.....................................................................42 Figure 27. Zero (0) Sequence Components ...........................................................................43 Figure 28. The j Operator........................................................................................................44 Figure 29. The a Operator ......................................................................................................45 Figure 30. Normal Conditions Phasor Diagram.....................................................................50 Figure 31. Three-Phase Fault Phasor Diagram .....................................................................51 Figure 32. Phase B-to-C Fault Phasor Diagram....................................................................52 Figure 33. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Phasor Diagram ..........................................................53 Figure 34. Sequence Current Components ............................................................................55 Figure 35. Sequence Voltage Components ...........................................................................56 Figure 36. Transformer Zero Sequence Models ....................................................................58 Figure 37. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Circuit Diagram ...........................................................59 Figure 38. Sequence Network Connection Diagram.............................................................61
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INTRODUCTION One of the most important, but probably the most misunderstood and controversial element of an industrial power system design, is the subject of grounding. The term grounding of a power system is often used to describe both system and equipment grounding, although each have somewhat different objectives. Electrical systems and circuit conductors are grounded to limit voltages due to lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with other higher voltage lines. System grounding ensures longer insulation life for electrical equipment such as motors and transformers by suppressing overvoltages associated with different types of faults. System grounding also stabilizes the voltage to ground under normal operation and improves protection of the electrical system by providing fast and selective operation of protective devices in the event of ground faults. Equipment grounding on the other hand, relates to the grounding of non-electrical conductive material which encloses or is adjacent to energized conductors. Similar to system grounding, equipment grounding also limits the voltage to ground and provides fast and selective operation of protective devices in the event of ground faults. The purpose of this Module is to describe 1) the characteristics of ungrounded power systems (not permitted by Saudi Aramco design standards), 2) the characteristics of grounded power systems, and 3) the different types of ground fault detection and coordination schemes. This Module also includes an Addendum which contains an Information Sheet that describes the characteristics of line-toground faults. The Addendum is provided for the Participants information only and it will not be formally discussed in class. Note: Additional grounding topics are covered in other courses as follows:
Equipment Grounding - EEX 103.03 Substation Grounding - EEX 104.07 Selecting Grounding Resistors - EEX 205.01
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CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS Introduction The decision to ground or not to ground an electrical system is a choice all design engineers usually will have to make during their careers. By definition an ungrounded system is a system which has no intentional connection to ground. A grounded system is a system which has an intentional connection to ground. Voltage Profiles
Normal Conditions
An ungrounded system is a system which has no intentional connection to ground. Although the system is referred to as ungrounded, it is actually connected to ground through the stray capacitance of the phase conductors. Without a ground fault, the neutral of an ungrounded system is close to ground potential. The neutral voltage is held there by the balanced stray capacitance between each phase conductor and ground. Figure 1 displays both the theoretical ungrounded system and the actual ungrounded system with stray capacitance to ground. Line-to-line and line-toneutral voltages are also shown for balanced phase-to-ground capacitance.
Title: 10205-1.EPS from CorelDRAW! Creator: CorelDRAW! CreationDate: Tue Mar 14 16:22:10 1995
Figure 1. Ungrounded System Voltage Profiles (Normal Conditions)
Fault Condition Magnitudes
When the neutral (midpoint connection) of a system is ungrounded, a ground fault on any one phase causes full line-toline voltage to appear throughout the entire system (Figure 2). The normal line-to-ground voltage stress is V LL/ 3 and therefore under ground fault conditions the voltage is VLL, which is 73% greater than under normal conditions. Typically, the insulation between each phase conductor and ground is adequate to withstand the increased voltage. However, prolonged periods of increased voltage will reduce the cables rated life and may even result in failure if the cable is already deteriorated due to age or severe service conditions.
Figure 2. Ground Fault Voltage Profile
Transient Overvoltages
Field experience has shown that restriking ground faults on ungrounded systems can produce transient voltages as high as six times normal. This transient voltage causes stress on the insulation of other equipment connected to the bus. Overstressed insulation results in equipment failure. The phenomena of a restriking ground fault on an ungrounded system is demonstrated in Figure 3. Grounding the system would reduce this transient voltage buildup, and also would greatly reduce the likelihood of equipment damage.
Figure 3. Transient Overvoltage Profiles from Restriking Ground Fault
Current Profiles
Normal Conditions
An actual ungrounded system, without a ground fault present, is modeled in Figure 4 with stray phase-to-ground capacitance XC0 included and stray line-to-line capacitance ignored. Under this balanced normal condition, the current to ground (IG) is zero as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Current Profile (Normal Conditions)
Fault Condition Magnitudes
If one of the phase conductors of an ungrounded system faults to ground, no current will flow in the capacitance between that phase and ground since the voltage is zero. The voltage across the other two capacitances to ground will increase by the square root of three ( 3 ) because the impressed voltage will increase from lineto-neutral in the unfaulted state to line-to-line in the faulted state. In addition, the line-to-ground voltages of the unfaulted phases have a phase displacement of 60 rather than the normal 120 separation. The current flowing into the fault is the vectorial sum of the stray capacitance currents in the unfaulted phases. This sum is no longer zero but rather 3.0 per unit times the original or unfaulted capacitive current to neutral. Figure 5 displays a ground fault on an actual ungrounded system with the corresponding vector diagram.
Figure 5. Ground Fault Current Profiles
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS Types of Grounded Power Systems A grounded system is a system of conductors where at least one conductor or point (e.g., the neutral point of a transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through an impedance (resistance or reactance). Figure 6 shows the three types of grounded systems.
Figure 6. Grounded Power Systems
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Solidly Grounded (Neutral Point)
A solidly grounded system is a system which has an intentional and direct connection to ground usually through the middle wire or neutral point of a transformer or generators windings. No intentional impedance is added in the path from the neutral to ground. In a solidly grounded system, line-to-ground fault current magnitudes are very high (thousands of amperes). They approach and may exceed three-phase fault current magnitudes. Figure 7a shows an example of a solidly grounded system and Figure 7b show the corresponding voltage profile.
Figure 7. Solidly Grounded System (Neutral Point)
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Corner-of-the Delta Grounded
Figure 8 shows a corner-of-the delta grounded system. Because of the disadvantages listed below, it is not widely used in industrial power systems. - The advantages of the corner-of-the delta grounded system are as follows:
Advantages
Least costly method of converting an ungrounded delta system to a grounded system. There is a high probability of sustaining arcing for 480 volts or higher, phase-to-phase, single-phase circuit extension, without escalation to a three-phase fault. Effectively controls transient overvoltages; however, a maximum of 3 times the normal phase-to-neutral voltage can exist between two conductors and the ground. Phase-to-ground faults are easily detected and located.
The disadvantages of the corner-to-the delta grounded system are as follows:

Disadvantages -
Cannot supply dual-voltage service for lighting and power loads. Phase identification of the grounded phase throughout the system is difficult. Higher line-to-ground voltages on two phases. Ground fault current magnitudes can be higher than threephase fault current magnitudes.
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Figure 8. Corner-of-the Delta Grounded System
Impedance Grounded
Low impedance grounding involving a principally resistive grounding element is known as low resistance grounding. Low resistance grounding is achieved by the intentional insertion of resistance between a generator or transformer neutral and ground. When a line-to-ground fault occurs, the voltage across the resistor equals the normal line-toneutral voltage of the system (E L-N), and the ground fault current (IF) equals EL-N divided by the value of the grounding resistor. Generally, the line-to-ground fault currents are limited to between 100 and 1200 amperes. Figure 9 is an example of a low resistance grounded system. Note: Saudi Aramco typically use 400A low resistance grounded systems in the industrial power system and 1000A in the residential power system.
Low Resistance Grounded -
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Figure 9. Low Resistance Grounded System
High impedance grounding involving a principally resistive grounding element is known as high resistance grounding. In high resistance grounding, the value of the limiting resistor is selected to provide a resistive fault current slightly greater than or equal to three times the normal current flowing in the stray line-to-ground capacitance per phase. Generally, line-to-ground fault currents are limited to between 1 and 10 amperes. A line-to-ground fault on phase B of a high resistance grounded system is shown in Figure 10. Note: Saudi Aramco does not typically use high resistance grounded systems.
High Resistance Grounded -
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Figure 10. High Resistance Grounded System
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High impedance grounding involving a principally reactance grounding element is known as reactance grounding. Generally, line-to-ground fault currents should be at least 25% and preferably 60% of the three-phase fault current magnitudes to limit serious transient overvoltages. Figure 11 is an example of a reactance grounded system. Note: Saudi Aramco does not use reactance grounding.
Reactance Grounded -
Figure 11. Reactance Grounded System
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Solidly Grounded Systems

Applications
National Electric Code (1993), Article 250-5 (b)(50 V to 1000 V), requires the following classes of systems to be solidly grounded: Note: Saudi Aramco standards require compliance with the NEC. Where the system can be so grounded that the maximum voltage to ground on the ungrounded conductor does not exceed 150 volts. Where the system is 3-phase, 4-wire wye in which the neutral is used as a circuit conductor, i.e., (480Y/277 V, 208Y/120 V). Where the system is nominally rated 240/120-volt, 3-phase, 4-wire in which the midpoint of one phase is used as a circuit conductor. Where a service conductor is uninsulated in accordance with the exceptions to Sections 230-22, 230-30 and 230-41.
Utility practice in recent years has favored solid grounding. This method permits the use of grounded-neutral-type lightning arresters with the resulting reduced lightning arrester investment and improve level of protection. In addition, solid grounding offers savings in the use of graded insulation in transformers at 69 kV and above. A large percentage of ground faults on utility systems occurs by means of insulator flashovers, and the high ground-fault current due to solid grounding does not cause expensive damage to equipment at the point of fault. Most other low-voltage systems should also be solidly grounded, because solid grounding is the least expensive way to limit transient overvoltages while obtaining enough ground fault current for fast, selective fault isolation.
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In medium voltage systems solid grounding has the lowest initial cost of all grounding methods. It is recommended for overhead distribution systems and for systems supplied by transformers which are protected by primary fuses. This is necessary to provide enough fault current to melt the primary fuses on a secondary ground fault. However, it is not the preferred scheme for most industrial and commercial systems because of the severe damage potential of high magnitude fault currents (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Line-to-Ground Fault Current Magnitudes
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Advantages
The primary advantages of solidly grounding are the following: To improve differential relay protection motors, generators and transformers. To reduce electrical shock hazards (lower touch and step potentials) to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the return path. To reduce initial first cost versus resistance grounded systems. To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who are close to the ground fault because of the very fast tripping action of the protective devices. To allow use of grounded neutral type arrestors. To improve safety because single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared. To improve reliability because ground faults are readily located and repaired. to limit voltage on the system all the time to line-to-ground magnitudes. To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of solidly grounding are the following: System continuity versus an ungrounded system because detection of a ground fault leads to an immediate trip of the protective device. (Also seen as an advantage as per previous discussion). High ground fault current magnitudes sometimes exceeding three-phase fault values.
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Low Resistance Grounded Systems

Applications
Low resistance grounding is not used on low-voltage systems (1000 volts and below), primarily because the limited available ground fault current is insufficient to positively operate the series trip units and fuses that would be necessary for both phase-tophase and phase-to-ground fault protection on some or all of the circuits. Low resistance grounding is the preferred method for most medium voltage systems (1001 through 15,000 volts), especially systems that directly connect to rotating devices. To limit fault damage, use the lowest ground fault current (highest resistance) consistent with adequate ground relay sensitivity. As a rule of thumb, enough current must be available for the least-sensitive ground relay to respond to 10 percent of the maximum ground fault current under minimum ground source conditions. Low resistance grounding schemes are not typically used in high voltage systems (above 15 kV) because neutral grounding equipment at these voltage levels is cost prohibitive.
Advantages
The primary advantages of low resistance grounding are the following: To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents. To reduce electrical shock hazards (lower touch and step potentials) to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the ground return path. To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who are close to the ground fault.
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To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of a ground fault because of the low current magnitudes. To improve safety because single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared. To improve reliability because ground faults are readily located and repaired. To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% or normal) on the system.
Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of low resistance grounding are the following: Initial first costs of resistor and relays versus solidly grounded system. System continuity versus an ungrounded system because detection of a ground fault leads to an immediate trip of the protective device. (Also seen as an advantage as per previous discussion). It cannot be used if the transformer primary protective devices are fuses since the magnitude of fault current (primary side) is too low to clear the fuse.
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High Resistance Grounded Systems

Applications
High resistance grounding of low voltage systems should be considered only when service continuity is of paramount importance, and a policy of immediately locating and repairing ground faults is enforced. High resistance grounding is generally applied to medium voltage (less than 5 kV) distribution systems but is also acceptable on 13.8 kV systems. There are few applications of high resistance grounding above 13.8 kV. It allows continuity of service under ground faults (similar to an ungrounded system) but limits the transient overvoltages. The primary areas of application are as follows: For maximum service continuity where unplanned shutdowns cannot be tolerated. Where a captive transformer serves a single rotating machine. In situations where an existing system has been historically operated ungrounded and no ground protection schemes are installed. For circumstances where limitation of both fault damage and overvoltages is desired and ground protection selectivity is not required.
Advantages
The primary advantages of high resistance grounding are the following: To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents. To limit fault current magnitudes to 1 to 10 amperes. To reduce electrical shock hazards (lower touch and step potentials) to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the ground return path.
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To reduce the blast or flash hazard to personnel who are close to the ground fault because of the very low current magnitudes. To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of a ground fault. To avoid shutdown of a faulted circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault (system continuity). To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of high resistance grounding are the following: Initial first costs of resistor, relay, and transformers versus a solidly grounded system. The fault remains on the system until located and removed. It requires a dedicated alarm system and standard operating procedures (SOPs) to locate and clear faults. It does not immediately segregate the fault. (Also seen as an advantage per previous discussion).
Reactance Grounded Systems Because reactance grounded systems permit much higher levels of fault current than in resistance grounded systems, it is usually not considered as an alternative to resistance grounding. For this reason, reactance grounding has very limited application (generator grounding). Reactance grounding is not considered as an alternative to solid or low resistance grounding and it is usually only applied on generators to limit the line-to-ground fault currents to values no greater than the three-phase fault values.
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TYPES OF GROUND FAULT DETECTION AND COORDINATION SCHEMES Single Voltage Levels Versus Transformer Connections A grounding system consists of all interconnected grounding connections in a specific power system (Figure 13) and is defined by its isolation from adjacent grounding systems. The isolation is provided by transformer primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by magnetic means. Thus, the system boundary is defined by the lack of a physical connection that is either metallic or through a significantly high impedance. Because of these transformer connections, zero sequence currents cannot pass through a delta connection. Therefore, ground fault coordination and detection is usually limited to one voltage level. Referring to Figure 13, the six ground systems (seven sources) identified are the following: GS#1 - Low resistance grounding on two transformers (T1 and T3). GS#2 - High resistance grounding on the 2.4 kV bus. GS#3 - High Resistance grounding on the generator (G). GS#4 - Solid grounding on the transformer (T4). GS#5 - Solid grounding on the transformer (T5). GS#6 - Solid grounding on the transformer (T7).
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Title: 10205-13.EPS from CorelDRAW! Creator: CorelDRAW! CreationDate: Wed Mar 15 10:08:28 1995
Figure 13. Typical Ground Systems
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Low Voltage Systems

NEC Detection Requirements
National Electric Code (1993 Article 230-95) states that ground fault protection is required for low voltage solidly grounded systems more than 150 V to ground but not exceeding 600 V phase-to-phase, and that the minimum level of protection shall be applicable to service disconnecting devices rated 1000 amperes or more. The article further states that the ground detection device shall have a maximum setting of 1200 amperes and shall function to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit in one second or less for ground fault currents equal to or greater than 3000 amperes. This requirement is considered minimum protection and to obtain selective tripping with lower rated downstream devices, it is recommended that these lower rated devices, for example feeder breakers, also be equipped for ground fault detection and interruption. Note: Saudi Aramco standards comply with NEC Art. 230-95.
Coordination Using Solid-State Static Trips
Low voltage system ground detection schemes are accomplished using solid-state static trip breakers (Figure 14). Ground faults in low voltage systems are immediately sensed and automatically isolated from the system. The NEC only requires ground fault protection (GFP) on the main breaker, but recommends GFP protection on other downstream devices (e.g., feeder breakers) as well, to prevent tripping of the main breaker and subsequent loss of all power resulting from a downstream ground fault. In a system as shown in Figure 14, the static trip GFP on the feeder breaker is set at 0.2 seconds and the static trip GFP on the main breaker is set at 0.35 seconds. These typical settings allow for electrical coordination between the GFP devices.
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Figure 14. Solid-State Low Voltage Ground Fault Detection
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Medium Voltage Systems - Solidly Grounded

Residual Connection/Coordination
The detection and coordination of ground faults in solidly grounded medium voltage systems (2.4 to 5 kV) is accomplished through use of overcurrent relays (ANSI Device Nos. 50/51N) connected residually as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Residual CT Connection Scheme
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Sensitivity
The residual detection scheme, as shown in Figure 15, has very limited sensitivity because of the relatively high ratios of the phase current transformers (CTs). Because of the high ratios of phase CTs, conventional residual relaying would require hundreds or thousands of amperes of fault current to obtain the desired 10 percent relay sensitivity (industry rule-of-thumb). The fault current necessary with residual relaying can be reduced through use of auxiliary CTs in the phase CT neutral circuit. With CTs applied in conventional switchgear, an auxiliary CT with a ratio of 1:10 or lower will adequately improve the sensitivity of the residually connected ground relay. The performance should be checked with the current transformer excitation curve since the auxiliary CT adds additional burden to the circuit. For example, referring to Figure 15, the ground fault relays shown would require a minimum of 100 amperes of current to detect (1000/5 x 0.5) a ground fault. In contrast, the auxiliary ground fault relay would detect a fault current of just 10 amperes (1000/5 x 1/10 x 0.5).
Medium Voltage Systems - Low Resistance Grounded

Source Neutral Detection/Coordination
Ground faults in medium voltage systems using low resistance grounding schemes and detected by overcurrent relays (ANSI Device 51G) (Relay A) are connected in a source neutral configuration as shown in Figure 16. An even better protection scheme would be to add another overcurrent relay (151G) (Relay B) which would trip a primary breaker; this protects the system for ground faults above breaker number 1. Standard industry practice is to size the current transformer primary at one-half the magnitude of the resistor current (0.5IG) and the secondary rating is the standard 5 A.
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Figure 16. Source Neutral Detection/Coordination
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Zero Sequence Detection/Coordination
The detection and coordination of ground faults in a low resistance grounded system is also accomplished through use of instantaneous trip relays (ANSI Device 50) and zero sequence CTs as shown in Figure 16 (Relay C) and Figure 17.
Figure 17. Zero Sequence CT Connection Scheme
Sensitivity
The zero sequence CT detection method is more sensitive than the previously discussed residual scheme because of the low ratio CTs (50/5). With properly applied ground fault relaying, about 50 to 150 A of ground fault current is adequate to obtain 1 percent relay sensitivity. For example, with the combination of the 50:5 type BYZ zero sequence CT and a 0.25-0.5 A type instantaneous current relay, which has a combination CT relay pickup of approximately 5 A, a maximum ground fault of 50 A is sufficient for 10 percent sensitivity.
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CT Saturation
The zero sequence CT detection and coordination scheme should not be used on solidly grounded systems because of the high fault currents available in solidly grounded systems. The high fault currents will saturate the CT and not produce enough secondary CT current to trip the relay. Even on low resistance grounded systems, a 400 A ground fault saturates the zero sequence CT. However, using a low burden instantaneous trip relay (ANSI Device 50) instead of a high burden time overcurrent relay (ANSI Device 51) on low resistance grounded systems with zero sequence CTs, will produce enough secondary CT current to trip the relay. Medium Voltage Systems - High Resistance Grounded
Overvoltage Relays and Alarms
Ground faults in medium voltage systems using high resistance grounding are detected by use of overvoltage relays (ANSI Device 59G) and alarms as shown in Figure 18b. Note: High resistance schemes are also permitted by the NEC as shown in Figure 18a.
Figure 18. High Resistance Ground Fault Detection Schemes
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Overvoltage relays (ANSI Device 59) are used in high resistance schemes because the low magnitude fault currents (1-10 A) would be impossible to detect with conventional CTs and overcurrent relays. If the 59G relay is used to immediately trip a breaker, both the resistor and transformers ratings can be reduced to approximately 10 percent of the calculated values. However, the alarm method contributes to better service continuity by permitting continued operation with only one ground fault on the system.
Special Precautions
High resistance grounding requires special operational procedures to ensure the first ground is located and corrected prior to a second ground occurrence (phase-to-phase fault). As a rule, it is preferable to detect and clear the fault rather than letting it persist. This limits localized damage at the fault point. Alarm-only schemes are often used when service continuity is very critical, although they present a risk that a sustained ground fault in a small place such as a rotating machine stator slot will progress to a catastrophic phase-to-phase fault. Alarm-only schemes require 100 percent rated resistors and transformers. Summary The characteristics of the different types of grounded systems are summarized in Figure 19 and the industry recommended grounding methods for the different voltage levels are summarized in Figure 20.
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Figure 19. Ground System Characteristics
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Figure 20. Ground System Industry Recommendations
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GLOSSARY grounded system A system in which at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through an impedance. Connected to earth or to some extended conducting body that serves instead of the earth, whether the connection is intentional or accidental. A grounded system with a purposely inserted resistance that limits ground-fault current such that the current can flow for an extended period without causing more damage. This level of current is typically less than 10 A. A resistance-grounded system in which the purposely inserted resistance has lower ohmic value than would meet the high-resistance grounding criteria. This level of current is typically between 100 and 1200 A. The current (V L-N/Xco) that passes through one phase of the system to charge the distributed capacitance per phase to ground of the system. VL-N is the line-to-neutral voltage and Xco is the per-phase distributed capacitive reactance of the system. Three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120o in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors. Three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120o in phase, and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors. Grounded through an impedance, the principal element of which is inductive reactance. Grounded through an impedance, the principal element of which is resistance.
grounded
high resistance grounded
low resistance grounded
per-phase charging current (Ico)
negative sequence components positive sequence components reactance grounded resistance grounded
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solidly grounded system
Connected directly through an adequate ground connection in which no impedance has been intentionally inserted. A grounding system consists of all interconnected grounding connections in a specific power system and is defined by its isolation from adjacent grounding systems. The isolation is provided by transformer primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by magnetic means. The total distributed capacitive charging current (3VL-N/Xco) of a three-phase system. A system of alternating current supply comprising four conductors, three of which are connected as in a three-phase three-wire system, the fourth being connected to the neutral point of the supply or midpoint of one-phase in case of a deltaconnected transformer secondary, which may be grounded. A system of alternating current supply comprising three conductors, between successive pairs of which are maintained alternating differences of potential successively displaced in phase by one third of a period. The temporary overvoltage of short duration associated with the operation of the switching device, a fault, a lightning stroke, or during arcing ground faults on the ungrounded system. A system, without an intentional connection to ground, except through potential indicating or measuring devices or other very high impedance devices. Three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from each other.
system charging current three-phase four-wire system
three-phase three-wire system
transient overvoltage
ungrounded system
zero-sequence components
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ADDENDUM CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS (UNBALANCED CONDITIONS) Symmetrical Components The method of symmetrical components (mathematical operations) is the foundation for obtaining and understanding fault data on three-phase power systems. In short, the method of symmetrical components is one of the relay engineers most powerful technical tools. While the method and mathematics are quite simple, the practical value lies in the ability to think and visualize in symmetrical components. This skill requires practice and experience. The method of symmetrical components consists of reducing an unbalanced three-phase system of phasors into three balanced or symmetrical systems: the positive, negative, and zero phase sequence components. This reduction can be performed in terms of current, voltage, and impedance.
Balanced System
A balanced system (i.e., a three-phase fault) consists of three phasors, all equal in magnitude and 120o apart (Figure 23). For example: IA = 1 0o = 1.0 + j0 IB = 1240o = -0.5 - j0.866 IC = 1120o = -0.5 + j0.866 IA + IB + IC = 0 |IA | = |IB| = |IC|
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Unbalanced System
An unbalanced system (i.e., a line-to-ground fault) consists of three-phasors, not all equal in magnitude or degrees apart (Figure 24). For example: IA = 10o = 1.0 + j0 IB = 2 225o = -1.0 - j1.0 IC = 190o = 0 + j1.0 IA + IB + IC = 0 |IA | = |IC| |IB|
Figure 23. Example of a Balanced System
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Figure 24. Example of an Unbalanced System
Sequence Components
The sequence components consist of three sequence sets: positive (+) sequence, negative (-) sequence, and zero (0) sequence.
Positive Sequence (+) components consist of three phasors equal in
magnitude, displaced from each other by 120o in phase, and having the same phase sequence (abc) as the original phasors (abc). The term positive derives from the fact that IbI is a positive (+) 120o behind Ia1 (Figure 25). Note: Subscript 1 identifies the positive sequence component, subscript 2 identifies the negative sequence component, and the subscript 0 identifies the zero sequence component. This subscript notation is applicable to the entire Addendum.
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Figure 25. Positive (+) Sequence Components
Negative Sequence (-) components consist of three phasors equal in
magnitude, displaced from each other by 120o in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite (acb) to that of the original phasors (abc). The term negative derives from the fact that Ib2 is a negative (-) 120o behind Ia2 (Figure 26).
Figure 26. Negative (-) Sequence Components
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components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from each other (Figure 27).
Zero Sequence (0)
Figure 27. Zero (0) Sequence Components
Operators (j, a)
The j operator is a unit phasor with an angle displacement of 90o (Figure 28). j j2 j3 j4 -j = 1 90o = 0 + j = j = 1 180o = -1.0 + j0 = -1.0 = 1 270o = 0 - j = -j = 1 360o = 1.0 + j0 = 1.0 = 1 270o = 0 - j1.0 = -j = j3
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Figure 28. The j Operator
The a operator is a unit phasor with an angle displacement of 120o (Figure 29). a -a a2 -a2 a3 -a3 = 1 120o = 1 300o = 1 240o = 1 60o = 1 360o = 1 180o = - 0.5 + j0.866 = + 0.5 - j0.866 = - 0.5 - j0.866 = + 0.5 + j0.866 = + 1.0 + j0 = 1.0 = - 1.0 + j0 = - 1.0
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Figure 29. The a Operator
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Analysis
Each unbalanced phaser (IA , IB, IC) can be broken into its individual symmetrical components as follows: IA = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 IB = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 IC = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0 Ib1 = Ia1 240o = a2 Ia1 Ic1 = Ia1 120o = a Ia1 Ib2 = Ia2 120o = a Ia2 Ic2 = Ia2 240o = a2 Ia2 Ic0 = Ia0 = Ib0 Rewriting the equations and substituting the symmetrical components of phases IB and IC into their IA equivalent symmetrical components leads to: IA = 1 Ia1 + 1 Ia2 + 1 Ia0 IB = a2 Ia1 + a Ia2 + 1 Ia0 IC = a Ia1 + a2 Ia2 + 1 Ia0 Solving for Ia1, Ia2, and Ia0 leads to the following basic formulas for symmetrical components. Ia1 = 1/3 (IA + aIB + a2 IC) (Equation 1) Ia2 = 1/3 (IA + a2 IB + aIC) (Equation 2)
Note: Three equations and three Notes: 1. Three equations and seven
unknowns because (Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0). 2. These equations are also valid for V A , VB, and V C.
unknowns.
46
Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) (Equation 3) In a three-wire system the sum of the phase currents equal zero, which leads to the following conclusion:
Three-Wire Delta System -
IA + IB + IC = 0 Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 0, Iao = 0 Therefore, no zero sequence currents can flow in a three-wire delta system. In a four-wire system the sum of the phase currents equals the neutral current, which leads to the following conclusion:
Four-Wire Wye System -
IA + IB +IC = IN Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 1/3 IN, IN = 3Ia0 Example A: A wye-connected load (no neutral) has line voltages as follows. Find the symmetrical components (V a1, Va2, Va0) and perform a check calculation to determine if VA and VB equals the sum of its symmetrical components. VA = 0.8 82.8 o Answer: 1) VB = 1.2 -41.4 o VC = 1.0 180o
Determine the symmetrical components of VA , VB, and V C. Va1 = 1/3 (V A + aVB + a2VC) = 1/3 (0.8 82.8 o + 1.2 (120o - 41.4 o) + 1.0 (240o + 180o)) = 1/3 (.1002 + j.7937 + .2372 + j1.1763 + 0.5 + j.866) = 1/3 (.8374 + j2.836) = .2791 + j.9453
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= .9856 73.55o V Va2 = 1/3 (V A + a2VB + aVC) = 1/3 (0.8 82.8 o + 1.2 (240o - 41.4 o) + 1.0 (120o + 180o)) = 1/3 (.1002 + j.7937 - 1.1373 - j.3828 + 0.5 - j.866) = 1/3 (-.5371 - j.4551) = -.1790 - j.1517 = .2346 220.28o V Va0 = 0 (no neutral connection) = 1/3 (V A + V B + B C) = 1/3 (0.8 82.8 o + 1.2 -41.4 o + 1.0 180o) = 1/3 (.1002 + j.7937 + .9001 - j.7936 - 1.0 + j0) =0V 2) Check the calculation to determine if VA and VB equals the sum of its symmetrical components. VA = V a1 + V a2 + V a0 = .2791 + j.9454 - .1790 - j.1517 + 0 = .1001 + j.7937 = 0.8 82.8 o V
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VB
= V b1 + V b2 + V b0 = a2 Va1 + aVa2 + V a0 = .9856 (73.55o + 240o) + .2346 (220.28o + 120o) + 0 = .9856 313.55o + .2346 340.28o = .6791 - j.7143 + .2208 - j.0792 = .8999 - j.7935 = 1.2 -41.4 o V
VC
= V c1 + V c2 + V c0 = aVa1 + a2Va2 + V a0 = .9856 (73.55o + 120o) + .2346 (220.28o + 240o) + 0 = .9856 193.55o + .2346 460.28o = .9852 - j.2308 - .0418 + j.2308 = -1.0 + j0 = 1 180o V
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Fault Condition Phasor Diagrams

Normal Conditions
Under normal conditions the phase current (IA ) lags the phase voltage (V A ) as shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30. Normal Conditions Phasor Diagram
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Three-Phase Faults
Under three-phase fault conditions, the phase currents (IA , IB, IC) are equal (balanced conditions) and the line voltages (V A , VB, VC) collapse to zero (eventually) at the point of the fault, as shown in Figure 31.
Figure 31. Three-Phase Fault Phasor Diagram
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Phase -to-Phase Faults
For a phase B to C fault, phase current IA equals zero and phase B current is equal to the negative of phase C current as shown in Figure 32. The line voltages VB and VC are equal, also as shown in Figure 32.
Figure 32. Phase B-to-C Fault Phasor Diagram
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Line-to-Ground Faults
For a phase A to ground fault, phase A line voltage and phases B and C currents equal zero as shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Phasor Diagram
Sequence Currents
Figure 34 shows the current sequence component sets for threephase faults, line-to-line faults, line-to-line-to ground faults, and line-to-ground faults as follows: No negative or zero sequence currents flow for three-phase faults, only positive sequence currents flow. Only positive and negative sequence currents flow for line-toline faults. Positive, negative, and zero sequence currents flow for faults involving ground.
53
Sequence Voltages
Figure 35 shows the voltage sequence component sets for threephase faults, line-to-line faults, line-to-line-to ground faults, and line-to-ground faults as follows: No negative or zero sequence voltages exist for a threephase fault and the positive sequence voltage collapses to zero at the point of the fault. No zero sequence voltages exist for line-to-line faults. Positive, negative, and zero sequence voltages exist for faults involving ground.
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Figure 34. Sequence Current Components
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Figure 35. Sequence Voltage Components
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Line-to-Ground Fault Equations

Zero Sequence Transformer Model
The zero sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase transformers deserve special attention because of the different combinations of connections (e.g., delta-wye, wye-delta, etc.). Figure 36 shows the various transformer connection combinations and the corresponding zero sequence current flow equivalent diagram. Referring to Figure 36, the following observations are noted: If either one of the neutrals of a Y transformer bank is -Y ungrounded, zero sequence current cannot flow in either winding. Where both neutrals of a Y-Y transformer bank are grounded, zero sequence current flows in both windings. In delta-Y or Y-delta transformer grounded banks, zero sequence currents have a path through the Y. No zero sequence currents flow in a delta-delta transformer bank. If the connection from neutral to ground contains an impedance (ZN), the zero sequence equivalent circuit model must have an impedance of 3ZN.
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Figure 36. Transformer Zero Sequence Models

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Fault Conditions (Current)
The circuit diagram for a phase A-to-ground fault at the terminals of an unloaded generator is shown in Figure 37. The current conditions at the fault are expressed as follows: IB = IC = 0 (boundary conditions) Ia1 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 1/3 IA Ia2 = 1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC) = 1/3 IA Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + aIB + a2IC) = 1/3 IA Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = 1/3 IA IA = 3Ia0
Figure 37. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Circuit Diagram
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Fault Conditions (Voltage)
The circuit diagram sequence network for a phase A-to-ground fault at the terminals of an unloaded generator (Figure 37) is shown in Figure 38. The voltage conditions at the fault are expressed as follows: VA = 0 (boundary condition) VA = V a1 + V a2 + V a0 = 0 Va1 = E A - Ia1Z1, Va2 = -Ia1Z2, Va0 = -Ia1 (Z0 + 3ZN) -EA = -Ia1Z1 - Ia1Z2 - Ia1 (Z0 + 3ZN) = 0 EA = Ia1 (Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3ZN) Ia1 = E A /(Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3ZN) IA = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3Ia1 since Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia1 IA = 3EA /(Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3Zn)
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Figure 38. Sequence Network Connection Diagram
61

EEX102.05 System Grounding Schemes

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Engineering Encyclopedia

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SYSTEM GROUNDING SCHEMES

Chapter : Electrical File Reference: EEX-102.05

For additional information on this subject, contact PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556

Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 1. Ungrounded System Voltage Profiles (Normal Conditions)

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Fault Condition Magnitudes

Figure 2. Ground Fault Voltage Profile

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 3. Transient Overvoltage Profiles from Restriking Ground Fault

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 4. Current Profile (Normal Conditions)

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Fault Condition Magnitudes

Figure 5. Ground Fault Current Profiles

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 6. Grounded Power Systems

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Solidly Grounded (Neutral Point)

Figure 7. Solidly Grounded System (Neutral Point)

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Corner-of-the Delta Grounded

The disadvantages of the corner-to-the delta grounded system are as follows:

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 8. Corner-of-the Delta Grounded System

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 9. Low Resistance Grounded System

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 10. High Resistance Grounded System

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 11. Reactance Grounded System

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Solidly Grounded Systems

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

Figure 12. Line-to-Ground Fault Current Magnitudes

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes

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Electrical Power Systems II System Grounding Schemes