WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?

An ocraiing sysicm is a rogram iIai managcs iIc comuicr Iardwarc and

rovidcs a lasis for alicaiion rograms and acis as an inicrmcdiary lciwccn
iIc comuicr uscr and iIc Iardwarc.
A comuicr sysicm can lc dividcd inio four comoncnis .
(1} iIc Iardwarc (CPU, Mcmory, I/O dcviccs lasic comuiing rcsourccs for
iIc sysicm} (2} iIc ocraiing sysicm, (3} iIc alicaiion rograms sucI as
word roccssors, srcadsIcci rograms, wcl lrowscrs cic.- dcfincs iIc way iIc
rcsourccs arc uscd io solvc uscrs comuiing rollcms} and (4} iIc uscrs.

ABSTRACT VIEW OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM




DesIgn oI OperatIng System from
(1}Uscrs Vicwoini
(2} Sysicms Vicwoini

Users VIew (SIngIe user vIew poInt)- wIndows XP

Ocraiing Sysicm is dcsigncd for onc uscr io monoolizc iis rcsourccs. TIc
goal is io maimizc iIc iIrougIui of iIc worl iIc uscr is crforming. Mosi
aiicniion is aid io dcsign iIc ocraiing sysicm for iIc casc of usc. Somc
aiicniion is aid io crformancc and nonc aid io rcsourcc uiilizaiion i.c Iow
various Iardwarc and sofiwarc rcsourccs arc sIarcd.
Users VIew (MuItIpIe user vIew poInt)-MaInIrame systems wIndows 2000 J
wIn ? etc

Ocraiing Sysicm is dcsigncd for muliilc uscrs io sIarc iis rcsourccs. TIc
goal is io maimizc iIc rcsourcc uiilizaiion io assurc iIai all availallc CPU
iimc , mcmory and I/O arc uscd cfficicnily and no individual uscr ialcs morc
iIan Iis/Icr fair sIarc.

Systems VIew - Resource aIIocator and controIIer oI varIous IJO devIces
and user programs.

RoIe pIayed In muItIprocessor systems -
OiIcr iIan iIc funciions lilc rcsourcc allocaiion , maimizing
iIrougIui cic also crforms load sIaring lciwccn roccssors in icrms
of rograms iIrcads, rcsuliing in arallcl roccssing.
Coal is io maimizc iIrougIui
Coal is io incrcasc rclialiliiy




oadIng oI OperatIng System
Sic 1. Siari luiion is rcsscd.
Sic 2. TIc DOOT-STFAP rogram in iIc FOM or EEPFOM ialcs iIc
conirol iniiially.
Sic 3. TIc DOOT-STFAP Program iniiializcs all asccis of iIc sysicm
from dcvicc drivcrs io mcmory conicnis io siacls and io rcgisicrs.
Sic 4. TIc looisira rogram lnows iIc ocraiing sysicm lcrncl
addrcss in iIc Iard disl and so loads iIc lcrncl inio iIc main
mcmory.
Sics 5. TIc lcrncl now ialcs conirol and cccuics iIc firsi roccss INIT
and dislays iIc dcslio.
Sic 6. Finally iIc comuicr sysicm is rcady io ocraic.

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
l. Poccss Munugcncnt
2. Mcno Munugcncnt
J. Fc Sstcn Munugcncnt
4. Muss Stougc Munugcncnt (Fcc succ ngt,
Stougc uocuton, DsI ScIcdung).
5. Contong I/O Sstcns
b. Potccton Sccut.
?. NctuoI Mgt.


Concept oI Process & Tbread
A rogram sulmiiicd ly iIc uscr io iIc roccss is callcd a jol or a
process.
An ocraiing sysicm furiIcr lrcals down a roccss inio small uniis
callcd tbreads.
Eamlc . a (l+c} -(d+c}
- onc iIrcad comuics (l+c}
- anoiIcr iIrcad comuics (d+c}
EacI iIrcad rciurns comuicd valuc io iIc arcni roccss for final
comuiaiion of a.





Concept oI MuItItaskIng & MuItIprogrammIng
Scvcral roccsscs arc sulmiiicd arallcly io iIc sysicm. TIc roccssor
scrvcs vcry quiclly cacI roccss on round rolin lasis or morc comlc
scIcduling iccIniqucs and givcs a flavour io iIc uscr iIai iIc uscr is
doing scvcral worls ai iIc samc iimc. TIis is MUTITASKING
MULTIPFOCFAMMINC is a similar concci lui Icrc a roccss
coniinucs io run iill iIcrc is an I/O call from iIc rogram iisclf. Till iIcn
oiIcr roccsscs rcmain suscndcd.

12
PROCESS
nformally a process is a program in execution
Stack
Heap
Data
Text
Stores temporary data
Memory that is dynamically
Allocated during process
runtime



15
PROCESS MANAGEMENT
ach process is represented in the operating system by a Process
Control Block
DAGRAM PCB(PROC CONTL BLCK)
!rocess State
Registers
Memory limits
List oI open Iiles
!rocess Number
State : new, ready running etc
!rocess IdentiIication Number
Files used by the process

Program Counicr . TIc counicr indicaiing iIc addrcss of iIc nci
insiruciion io lc cccuicd ly iIc roccss
CPU ScIcduling Informaiion siorcs roccss rioriiy valuc, oinicrs io
scIcduling qucucs
Accouniing Informaiions . Amouni of CPU usagc.
Wbat Is context swItcbIng ?

conici swiicI is iIc comuiing roccss of sioring and rcsioring siaic
(conici} of a CPU so iIai cccuiion can lc rcsumcd from iIc samc oini ai
a laicr iimc. TIis cnallcs muliilc roccsscs io sIarc a singlc CPU. TIc
conici swiicI is an csscniial fcaiurc of a muliiiasling ocraiing sysicm.
Conici swiicIcs arc usually comuiaiionally inicnsivc and mucI of iIc
dcsign of ocraiing sysicms is io oiimizc iIc usc of conici swiicIcs. A
conici swiicI can mcan a rcgisicr conici swiicI, a iasl conici swiicI, a
iIrcad conici swiicI, or a roccss conici swiicI.
18
PROC$$ $TAT$
New
Ready Running
Terminated
Waiting
I/O or event
wait
I/O or event
completion
Scheduler
Dispatch
Interrupt
Exit
Admitted

PROCESS SCHEDUING
TIc oljcciivc of muliirogramming / muliiiasling is io Iavc somc
roccsscs running ai all iimc io maimizc uiilizaiion of CPU.
TIc oljcciivc of iimc sIaring is io swiicI iIc roccssor amongsi
roccsscs so frcqucnily iIai uscrs can inicraci wiiI cacI rogram wIilc
ii is running.
To mcci iIcsc oljcciivcs wc rcquirc a roccss scIcdulcr.
ScbeduIIng Queues
As roccss cnicrs iIc sysicm iIcy arc ui in a JOD QUEUE.
TIc roccss iIai arc rcsiding in iIc main mcmory arc rcady and waiiing
io cccuic arc lci on a lisi callcd FEADY QUEUE
TIc ocraiing sysicm musi sclcci for scIcduling uroscs, roccsscs
from iIcsc qucuc in somc fasIion. TIc sclcciion roccss is carricd oui ly
a SCHEDULEF Programmc.
21
MULTL'L FDBACK QUU $CHDULNG
&ANT&M 8 ms Q0
Q&ANT&M 16ms Q1
FCFS Q2
TIc alovc figurc is an camlc of muliilcvcl fccdlacl qucuc numlcrcd
from 0 ai io and 3 ai loiiom. Q0 is iIc IigIcsi rioriiy qucuc.
A roccss cnicring iIc sysicm is ui in qucuc 0 wiiI iimc quanium of
<8ms. If ii docsnoi finisI in iimc ii is movcd io iIc iail of iIc q1. If q0 is
cmiy, iIc roccss ai Icad of q1 is givcn a iimc quanium of 16 ms. If ii
docsnoi comlcic ii is ui inio q2.
Proccsscs in Q2 runs in FCFS lasis lui only wIcn q0 and q1 arc cmiy
Long roccss auiomaiically sinl io lowcsi rioriiy qucuc.
Proccsscs arc assigncd io a qucuc wIcn iIcy cnicr iIc sysicm
Idca is io scaraic roccsscs according io iIc cIaracicrisiics of iIcir CPU
lursis. (CPU iimc nccdcd for a roccss io cccuic fully}
If a roccss uscs ioo mucI CPU iimc, ii will lc movcd io a low rioriiy
qucuc.
Advantage
A roccss if waiis in low rioriiy qucuc may lc movcd io a IigIcr rioriiy
qucuc. TIis rcvcnis siarvaiion.

MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Types of Memory
Registers(0.25ns)
Compilers
On -Chip Cache
Off -Chip Cache(Hardware)
Main Memory (80-250 ns)(O$)
Hard Disk (5*10^6 ns) (O$)
$
P

D
$

.
(0.5 25 ns)

TIc Ocraiing Sysicm irics io rcad / wriic daia from iIc fasicsi and
Smallcsi sioragc unii and gocs down iIc alovc yramid only wIcn ii
docsnoi gci daia in iIc mcmory ai iIc io of iIc yramid
CacbIng :
Informaiion is normally lci in main mcmory. As ii is uscd ii is coicd io
a fasicr sioragc sysicm iIc cacIc on a icmorary lasis. WIcn a
ariicular iccc of informaiion is nccdcd, iIc cacIc is firsi rcfcrrcd, if ii
is in iIc cacIc ii is uscd. TIis cvcni is callcd CACHE HIT.
If ii is noi in iIc cacIc iIc cvcni is callcd CACHE MISS.
MEMORY ALLOCATION (MULTIPLE FIXED SIZE PARTITIONING)
P2
FR
P1
FR
FIXED
PARTIONS
a) A Process is seIected from input queue and is Ioaded in free
partition.
b)When the process terminates the partition becomes free for
othe r processes.
.



(MULTIPLE VARIABLE SIZE PARTITIONING - Dynamic Storage AIIocation)
P2
FR(Hole)
P1
FR(Hole)
VARIABLE
PARTITION
S
a. Operating system keeps a table indicating which part of
memory is free.
b. Memory is allocated to the processes until the remaining
free block of memory is unable to hold any process further.
nternal
Fragmentation
xternal
Fragmentation


WIcn a roccss arrivcs and nccd mcmory, iIc sysicm scarcIcs for a sci
of Iolc iIai is largc cnougI for iIc roccss. Ii iIc Iolc is largc cnougI, ii
is slii inio iwo, onc ari sufficicni io Iold iIc roccss and iIc frcc
oriion is rciurncd io iIc sci of Iolcs.
WIcn iIc roccss rclcascs iIc llocl of mcmory ii is rciurncd lacl io iIc
sci of Iolcs. If iIc ncw Iolc is adjaccni io iIc sci of Iolcs iIc adjaccni
Iolcs arc mcrgcd io form onc largcr Iolc.

Hole Filling $trategies
Firsi Fii Allocaic iIc firsi Iolc iIai is lig cnougI. ScarcI
can siari ciiIcr ai iIc lcginning of iIc sci of Iolcs or ai a
locaiion wIcrc iIc rcvious firsi fii scarcI cndcd.
Dcsi Fii- Allocaic iIc smallcsi Iolc iIai is lig cnougI. Wc
musi scarcI iIc cniirc lisi unlcss iIc lisi is ordcrcd ly sizc.
TIis siraicgy roduccs iIc smallcsi lcfiovcr Iolc.
Worsi Fii- Allocaic iIc largcsi Iolc. Wc musi scarcI iIc
cniirc lisi, unlcss ii is soricd ly sizc.
FIrst IIt and tbe best IIt suIIers Irom externaI
IragmentatIon

ExternaI FragmentatIon & InternaI FragmentatIon
Eicrnal Fragmcniaiion As roccsscs arc loadcd and rcmovcd from
mcmory, iIc frcc mcmory sacc is lrolcn inio liiilc icccs. Eicrnal
fragmcniaiion cisis wIcn iIcrc is cnougI ioial mcmory sacc io saiisfy
a rcqucsi lui iIc availallc saccs arc noi coniiguous.
InternaI FragmentatIon - WIcn a frcc Iolc is allocaicd io a roccss iIc
Iolc may lc a liiilc largcr iIan iIc rcqucsicd mcmory. For camlc lci
iIc roccss sizc lc 18462 lyics lui Iolc allocaicd is 18466 lyics so
inicrnal fragmcniaiion is 4 lyics.


PAGING CONCEPT
Paging is a mcmory managcmcni scIcmc iIai crmiis iIc Iysical
addrcss sacc in iIc main mcmory io lc non-coniiguous. Ii avoids
cicrnal fragmcniaiion and comaciion.
BASIC METHOD OF PAGING
PIysical mcmory is lrolcn inio ficd sizcd llocls callcd framcs.
Logical mcmory sacc ii iIc viriual mcmory sacc of a roccss is lrolcn
down inio llocls of ficd sizc callcd agcs. Sizc of a agc is iyically a
owcr of 2 lciwccn 512 lyics and 16 MD.
Evcry logical addrcss gcncraicd ly CPU is dividcd inio iwo aris
a} agc no. (}
l} agc offsci (d}.
TIc agc no is uscd as indc inio a agc iallc(cisis Iysically}.
TIc agc iallc coniains iIc lasc addrcss of cacI agc in Iysical
mcmory.
PAG 0
PAG 1
PAG 2
PAG 3
Logical Memory
1
4
3
7
Page Table
page 0
page 2
page 1
page 3
0
1
2
3
Physical Memory
FrameNumber
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
p d
CPU
f d
Logical
Address
Physical
Address


FIFO Page repIacement AIgorItbm
Simlcsi agc rclaccmcni algoriiIm
WIcn a agc musi lc rclaccd, iIc oldcsi agc is cIoscn.
TIcrc is a FIFO qucuc.
WIcn a agc is lrougIi inio iIc mcmory, wc inscri ii ai iIc iail of iIc
qucuc.
Wc rclacc a agc ai iIc Icad of iIc qucuc.

xample FFO Algo
Lets consider that pages need be brought in memory in
given sequence
7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 1 2
7 7
0
7
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
0
4
3
0
4
2
0
4
2
3
1
2
3