Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
6
FEBRUARY 9, 1983
OPTIMISM OR PESSIMISM?
E. F. SCHUMACHER's A Guide for the Small things, Schumacher maintained, are
Perplexed came out late in 1977, a little after he beautiful for a variety of reasons, the first being
died of a heart attack (on September 4). It was that they are within reach of the poor. Another
for him to be the book of books. During his life reason:
he reached conclusions about what people needed Small-scale operations, no matter how
to do in order to save the world from numerous, are always less likely to be harmful to the
immeasurable disaster and to save themselves natural environment than large-scale ones, simply
from personal defeat. Like a few other humans, because their individual force is small in relation to
he was a man who, once he had found something the recuperative forces of nature. There is wisdom in
smallness if only on account of the smallness and
out, began to act on it. This is one of the secrets patchiness of human knowledge, which relies on
of greatness. After protracted visits (as an experiment far more than on understanding. The
economic consultant) to Burma and India, during greatest danger invariably arises from the ruthless
which he began to see that the sort of aid given to application, on a vast scale, of partial knowledge such
these countries was not what was needed, he as we are currently witnessing in the application of
nuclear energy, of the new chemistry in agriculture,
formed the Intermediate Technology Group in
of transportation technology, and countless other
London in 1965. Another secret of greatness lies things.
in knowing how to get things done, and
Schumacher also had this quality. The full record Technology on a human scale, he pointed out,
of his achievements must await publication of a leaves ample room for creativity. It extends
good biography (now under way, we have been human capacities instead of turning people into
told), but a book by his associate, George automatons. Finally, there is the moral judgment:
McRobie, a co-founder of the Intermediate Economically our wrong living consists
Technology Group, Small Is Possible, gives some primarily in systematically cultivating greed and envy
idea of its accomplishments—in India, Pakistan, and thus building up a vast array of totally
unwarrantable wants. It is the sin of greed that has
and Sri Lanka, and several African countries. delivered us over into the power of the machine. If
Schumacher's inspiration was Gandhian, as greed were not the master of modern man—ably
becomes clear in Small Is Beautiful (published in assisted by envy—how could it be that the frenzy of
economism does not abate as higher "standards of
1973). He wrote: living" are attained, and that it is precisely the richest
Methods and machines cheap enough to be societies which pursue their economic advantage with
accessible to virtually everyone—why should we the greatest ruthlessness? How could we explain the
assume that our scientists and technologists are almost universal refusal on the part of the rulers of
unable to develop them? This was a primary concern the rich societies—whether organized along private
of Gandhi: "I want the dumb millions of our land to enterprise or collectivist enterprise lines—to work
be healthy and happy, and I want them to grow toward the humanization of work? It is only
spiritually. . . . If we feel the need of machines, we necessary to assert that something would reduce the
certainly will have them. Every machine that helps "standard of living," and every debate is instantly
every individual has a place," he said, "but there closed. That soul-destroying, meaningless,
should be no place for machines that concentrate mechanical, monotonous, moronic work is an insult
power in a few hands and turn the masses into mere to human nature which must necessarily and
machine mincers, if indeed they do not make them inevitably produce either escapism or aggression, and
unemployed." that no amount of "bread and circuses" can
compensate for the damage done—these are facts
which are neither denied nor acknowledged but are
met with an unbreakable conspiracy of silence— he has concentrated is so mixed and so massive that
because to deny them would be too obviously absurd his original point frequently gets lost.
and to acknowledge them would condemn the central
preoccupation of modern society as a crime against "I hope not completely lost," Cox adds, since
humanity. "Schumacher surely has something important to
say."
Here is sufficient explanation of why
conventional economists seldom mention Well, it would have been more useful, surely,
Schumacher's name, and why he developed so if the critic, instead of picking at a writer for
large an audience in the counter culture and putting together too large a bouquet of
among the disenchanted, and, here and there, quotations, to have extricated the good and
those who combined human decency with a grasp important things from the text. Prof. Cox makes a
of what he was saying. passing reference to Schumacher's discussion of
problems that can't be "solved," only coped with,
We return, then, to his Guide for the
but neglects the essential comparison of the "Two
Perplexed, the book in which he tried to set out
Types of Problems," the content of the book's last
his underlying philosophy, disclosing the
chapter. Here Schumacher divides human life into
assumptions and processes of reasoning which led
two orders of experience, the one bringing finite
to his course of action. It is a small book of only
problems which have solutions, the other
140 pages, structured as an account of the ascent
involving us in situations which cannot be
to self-awareness. He knew what he wanted to
resolved but must be outgrown. These latter
say about this progression and found in various
problems have incommensurable elements in them,
books quotations which seemed to him to say it
and they are only made worse by attempts to
best. Plotinus, Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, and
reduce them to finite terms. The point of the
Jacques Maritain are Westerners he draws upon,
comparison is to show that the modern world is
and in the East he quotes from Taoist, Buddhist,
continually worsening all its problems by trying to
and Islamic texts. A few perceptive moderns are
deal with the "unsolvable" problems with the
also briefly cited. The most valuable part of the
methods of science. Science can have nothing to
book, however, toward the end, seems entirely his
do with immeasurable or undefinable realities.
own.
The unsolvable problems are the natural
Guide for the Perplexed was widely conditions of a life in which growth, and not
reviewed, as would be anything Schumacher "problem-solving," is called for.
wrote, and the New York Times obtained the
Schumacher's illustrations are clarifying. He
comment of Harvey Cox, a Harvard Divinity
begins:
School theologian. While an unqualified admirer
of Small Is Beautiful, Prof. Cox claimed that in We know that there are solved problems and
unsolved problems. The former, we may feel, present
Guide the author "violates his own advice." He
no issue, but as regards the latter: Are there not
said in the Times (Oct. 7, 1977): problems that are not merely unsolved but insoluble?
I kept feeling that something urgent was being First let us look at solved problems. Take a
said about how the reductionist logic of modern design problem—say, how to make a two-wheeled,
science has indeed misled us and is useless when it man-powered means of transportation. Various
comes to the most perplexing questions we face. solutions are offered which gradually and
Ironically, however, the man who has taught so many increasingly converge until, finally, a design emerges
of us the virtues of modesty and restraint has resorted which is "the answer"—a bicycle—an answer that
to a kind of scatter-shot and overkill. Not only has he turns out to be amazingly stable over time. Why is
tried to do too much in one small book—repudiate this answer so stable? Simply because it complies
scientism, reinstate the hierarchical mode of thinking, with the laws of the Universe—laws at the level of
reclaim the perennial philosophy—but the firepower inanimate nature.
The design and making of a bicycle he discipline and obedience would be a perfect thing . . .
decides to call a "convergent problem." It is a and the school would become a prison house.
problem which is solved by doing what we know Our second group of advisers, on the other hand,
how to do the elements of a bicycle are definable, argue that in education freedom is "a good thing." If
its principle limited and knowable. Time is so, more freedom would be an even better thing, and
perfect freedom would be an even better thing, and
required, but we are continually formulating such perfect freedom would produce perfect education.
problems and turning them over to the engineers The school would become a jungle, even a kind of
to solve, which eventually they do. lunatic asylum.
But curiously, while our physical lives may Freedom and discipline (obedience) here is a
become simpler through the solution of these pair of perfect opposites. No compromise is possible.
It is either the one or the other. It is either "Do as you
problems, they also become more complex. And
like" or "Do as I tell you."
solving the convergent problems does not make us
either wiser or happier, just more comfortable Logic does not help us because it insists that if a
thing is true its opposite cannot be true at the same
and, as we say, "efficient," for a time.
time. It also insists that if a thing is good, more of it
Schumacher continues: will be better. Here we have a very typical and very
It also happens, however, that a number of basic problem, which I call a divergent problem, and
highly able people may set out to study a problem and it does not yield to ordinary, "straight-line" logic; it
come up with answers which contradict one another. demonstrates that life is bigger than logic.
They do not converge. On the contrary, the more
Well, some will say, Of course, we know that.
they are clarified and logically developed, the more
they diverge, until some of them appear to be exact You do have to compromise, to provide limited
opposites of the others. For example, life presents us freedom and sensible rules. But defining these
with a very big problem—not the technical problem relativities is far from easy, as various sorts of
of two-wheeled transport, but the human problem of schools around the country make plain. Required
how to educate our children. We cannot escape it; we are teachers who are both sympathetic and
have to face it, and we ask a number of equally
intelligent people to advise us.
rigorous, and these teachers need the freedom to
exercise discretion. They need the latitude to
Well, some of the experts will speak of the suspend the rules as well as to work within them.
importance of discipline and order. Teachers can't As Schumacher puts it:
teach what they know, and the young can't learn
Love, empathy, participation mystique,
from them, unless there is enough authority and understanding compassion—these are faculties of a
obedience to allow teaching and learning to higher order than those required for the
proceed. But other educators will say that while implementation of any policy of discipline or of
the nourishment of learning is needed, the children freedom. To mobilize these higher faculties or forces,
have to develop under their own steam. Learning, to have them available not simply as occasional
impulses but permanently, requires a high level of
they point out, is a creative act, and the children
self-awareness, and that is what makes a great
need room and scope in performing it. "In other educator. . . .
words," as Schumacher says, "education as seen
"How do you make people better?" That this is a
by this second group calls for the establishment, question constantly being asked merely shows that the
not of discipline and obedience, but of freedom— essential point is being missed altogether. Making
the greatest possible freedom." people better belongs to the level of manipulation, the
If our first group of advisers is right, discipline same level at which the opposites exist and where
and obedience are "a good thing," and it can be their reconciliation is impossible.
argued with perfect logic that if something is "a good The task, then, is to distinguish convergent
thing," more of it would be a better thing, and perfect from divergent problems, and never to try to solve
the one sort of problem with the means of the
other. But in life, of course, the two are mixed, my fellow Jews, I accept the sociopolitical structure of
and then neither solution will work without some Israel as a Jewish state in which Arab citizens will
continue to be a minority whose national aspirations
application of the other solution also. In such
will not be realized."
situations exquisite judgment, extraordinary
patience, and the freedom to try different things One of the basic questions that haunt a number
of sensitive Jews and Arabs in the project is: If the
are necessarily involved. inequality in status between Jew and Arab in the
In the spring of 1981, Haim Gordon, a larger Israeli society is to remain unchanged, what
teacher at Ben Gurion University in Israel, then is the purpose of teaching Jews and Arabs in the
project the art of relating to each other as if they were
attempted an experiment in "peace-making" by equal? I remember a young Jewish woman in the
bringing together a group of twenty participants project telling me with a lot of agony: "I feel as if the
with about equal number of Israeli Jews, Israeli project is a game that we play. We pretend that we
Arabs, and Egyptians, to carry on Buberian are all equal while all the time we know that we are
dialogue for mutual understanding and fellowship. not. Sometimes I feel that it would be kinder to stop
pretending, to simply accept the fact that we are
Gordon's object was to "diminish existential
living in an unfair society, an unfair world." And I
mistrust between Jews and Arabs." Tensions, he also recall the words of a young Arab man who spoke
said, are "high." "The four wars in three decades, perhaps for many in his group when he said, "I feel
the hatred and the dread, the stereotypes of the that the real purpose of the project is to give us an
former enemy, the anguish, the rage, the fear, the opportunity to express our anger so that we would be
suffering—all these are poignantly revived." The emotionally neutralized and become passive."
discussion by Gordon of what happened during The I-Thou mode of relating requires that the I
this encounter—which was ongoing for weeks and and the Thou treat each other justly, not being
months—is of great interest. The participants exploitative or manipulative in any way. Where
justice is lacking, the I-Thou dialogue degenerates
were working on a divergent problem. Here we into an I-It mode of communication.
turn to the report of an Islamic woman, Riffat
Hassan, who teaches at the University of Yet in her conclusion Riffat Hassan tempers
Kentucky in the United States, for the most this judgment with appreciation:
penetrating comment. She tells (in Teachers With all its imperfections, the project has
College Record for the Fall of 1982) why, in her provided a setting—perhaps the only one in Israel—
view, the Education for Peace project could not where Jews and Arabs can meet as persons and not as
stereotypes. It has also taught its members the art of
succeed. It was "because the dialogue that is the
confronting much that is difficult to accept, thus
means of this education is, in some ways, releasing them from the bondage of repression and
incomplete and inauthentic." She explains: passive suffering. The project has made its members
Dialogue between Jews and Arabs is a virtual aware of both the need for and the possibility of
impossibility in Israel given the fact that Jews and acquiring deeper knowledge and wisdom as well as
Arabs are not equal in that society and that the Israeli greater maturity and strength of character even within
Arabs are in a particularly vulnerable position, being the constraints imposed on them by the larger reality
mistrusted by many among Israeli Jews as well as that encompasses them. I believe that each Jew or
Palestinian Arabs. Arab who has entered the project with commitment
has learned from it and has somehow become more
Not only is Dr. Gordon aware of this fact of fully human as a result of engaging in dialogical
inequality between Jews and Arabs in Israel, but he is encounter with other Jews and Arabs. All of this
also committed to preserving that inequality. His constitutes a considerable good and all of this I
statement on this point is clear and candid. He says: personally value. However, what is for me the
"As initiator of the Education for Peace project I highest good that has come out of the Education for
firmly believe that Israel should be a Jewish state, and Peace project is that it has provided to a few human
not a Palestinian or secular state where Jews and beings—Jews and Arabs—the opportunity to
Arabs live together. . . . In other words, like most of transcend the enmity and alienation of the ages and to
this token, Brunhilde is caused to exchange a state In another essay, Marco Pallis seeks a
which, though it bespeaks superior powers, remains Buddhist equivalent of the Christian doctrine of
peripheral, in favour of the human state, which is
central. Thus the seeming punishment becomes a
"grace," finding it in what is called "Pure Land
real reward. As a further result, according to the Buddhism."
myth, Brunhilde, now a woman, becomes the spouse A certain Bodhisattva . . . was about to enter the
of Siegfried, type of the Solar Hero and let us not state of enlightenment when, moved by compassion,
forget that traditionally "solarity" is an attribute of the he said to himself: How can I bear to enter nirvana
Buddha himself. If we translate the episode into when all the multitude of beings have to stay behind,
Buddhist terms, Brunhilde's good karma, due to her a prey to indefinite transmigration and suffering?
having shown true discernment when faced with a Rather than leave them in that state, I vow that if I
crucial choice, won her a place on the axis of am not able to deliver them down to the last blade of
deliverance. This is the essential point; the grass, then let me never reach enlightenment!" But in
"punishment" is only incidental. This all came to me fact (so the argument runs) he did reach
in a flash, as I sat under the spell of that glorious enlightenment and now reigns, as the Buddha
music, which thus served as an upaya, as a catalyst of Amitabha, over the Western quarter; therefore his
wisdom hidden in old German and Scandinavian vow cannot have failed of his object; suffering beings
mythology, which otherwise I might never have can and must be delivered, if only they will have faith
discovered for myself. in Amitabha's vow and call upon his name.
The key idea here is that only embodied This, Pallis explains, gives the origin of the
humans, who are as likely to go wrong as to go practice, so puzzling to occidentals, of the
right, are able to work out their salvation. To continuous chanting (by some sects) of the
become a mere woman, an ordinary human, was formula, "Praise to Amitabha Buddha"—giving up
to seek engagement with destiny, something that all "self-will" and relying on the Buddha's vows to
gods can no longer do. This is Buddhist deliver them. "Who can speak of self-power when
reasoning from Buddhist premises. For the he lacks the first idea of what self means?"
Westerner, it may threaten to turn his world
upside down. However, Pallis says the Pure Land doctrine
explains that in the early days of Buddhism, men
Pallis has another example of Buddhist were stronger, with the capacity to save
reasoning, taken from an interchange with the themselves, but now they "have grown weak,
Dalai Lama in Britain in 1974. (The Dalai Lama is confused, and above all hopelessly passive." Yet
the unassuming head of loosely organized this weakness can be turned to good account, the
Mahayana Buddhism.) Pure Land teaching says; by relying on the grace
Someone had asked him how he felt about the of Amitabha's vow.
Chinese invaders of Tibet; did he not hate them for
the way they had treated and continued to treat his
Surely this can be only a second-class
countrymen? The person putting this question salvation! The idea is to "extinguish" the self in
doubtless expected some answer to the effect that the order to be free, but the freedom cannot reach
Buddha's teaching, like Christ's, excludes hatred and very far unless there had been a vigorous sort of
violence, even in return for a great wrong. But what self, one worth extinguishing.
he got was something quite different, of which the
matter-of-factness must have astonished anyone used This brings us to the Theravada doctrine of
to the habitual emotionalism of Western moralists, for Anatta, meaning "no Atma," no self or soul. No
what the Lama said amounted to this: Do the Buddhist view is so insistently—one might almost
Tibetans stand to benefit in some respect or other
say militantly—asserted as this one. It is closely
from hating the Chinese? Or, alternatively, will the
Chinese draw some benefit from being thus hated? related to the question of Nirvana. If, as Eastern
And if neither party is to derive any advantage, what's philosophy maintains, Nirvana is the dissipation of
the point, then, of hating? all form, all structure, all objectivity, then how can
provided no other way of being in the right," and succeeded in being in the thick of it—and had proved
Brecht elaborated: "One man has two eyes, the Party that this is no good place for a poet to be.
has a thousand eyes, the Party sees seven countries, From another poet, Randall Jarrell, a friend
one man sees one city. . . . One man can be destroyed,
but the Party can't be destroyed. For . . . it leads its
who read English poetry to her by the hour,
struggle with the methods of the classics, which were Hannah Arendt quotes a devastating sentence (in
drawn from knowledge of reality." Pictures from an Institution): "President Robbins
So, in 1929, when Stalin began his program was so well adjusted to his environment that
of eliminating all dissent in the Party, Brecht sometimes you could not tell which was the
wrote a play defending Moscow because what environment and which was President Robbins."
was needed, he felt, "was a defense of killing one's There is this on Jarrell:
own comrades and innocent people." His was not at all the case of the man who flees
Brecht never earned less thanks from his friends the world and builds himself a dream castle, on the
and comrades than with this play. The reason is contrary, he met the world head-on. And the world,
obvious. He had done what poets will always do if to his everlasting surprise, was as it was—not peopled
they are left alone: He had announced the truth to the by poets and readers of poetry, but the television
extent that this truth had then become visible. For watchers and readers of Reader's Digest and, worst of
the simple truth of the matter was that innocent all, by this new species, the "Modern Critic," who no
people were killed and that the Communists, while longer exists "for the sake of the plays and stories and
they had not stopped fighting their foes (this came poems (he) criticizes" but for his own sake, who
later), had begun to kill their friends. It was only a knows "how poems and novels are put together,"
beginning, which most people still excused as an whereas the poor writer "had just put them together.
excess of revolutionary zeal, but Brecht was In the same way, if a pig wandered up to you in a
intelligent enough to see the method in the madness, bacon-judging contest, you would say impatiently, 'Go
although he certainly did not foresee that those who away, pig! What do you know about bacon?' "
pretended to work for Paradise had just started On the poet in general:
establishing Hell on earth, and that there was no
The world, in other words, did not welcome the
meanness, no treachery they were not prepared to
poet, was not grateful to him for the splendor he
perpetrate. Brecht had shown the rules according to
brought, seemed unneedful of his "immemorial power
which the infernal game was being played, and, of
to make the things of this world seen and felt and
course, he expected applause. Alas, he had
living in words," and therefore condemned him to
overlooked a small detail: It was by no means the
obscurity, complaining then that he was too "obscure"
intention of the Party, or in the Party's interests, to
and could not be understood, until finally "the poet
have the truth told, least of all by one of its loudly
said, 'Since you won't read me, I'll make sure you
proclaimed sympathizers. On the contrary, the point,
can't'."
as far as the Party was concerned, was to deceive the
world. Hannah Arendt, happily, makes sure you can.
It was Brecht's "extraordinary intelligence," In one place, speaking of a talented writer's
Hannah Arendt says, "breaking like a light through inability to become part of an "influential group,"
the rumble of Marxist platitudes, that has made it she remarks that with this group of intellectuals,
so difficult for good men to forgive his sins, or "as with all such entities, only ideological
reconcile themselves to the fact that he could sin allegiance counted, since only ideology, not rank
and write good poetry." and quality, can hold a group together." The
But finally, when he went back to East
writer, being an artist, could not understand this.
Germany, essentially for artistic reasons, because its Will there ever, one wonders, be an association of
government would give him a theater—that is, for humans bonded by quality of mind, and not
that "art for art's sake" he had vehemently denounced ideology, becoming a challenge instead of a
for nearly thirty years—his punishment caught up refuge, a fraternity instead of a cadre for defense
with him. Now reality overwhelmed him to the point
and offense?
where he could no longer be its voice; he had
crystal. . . . The walls are unbelievable. The lights He points out that domed buildings of brick
are shining and breaking on them as on a piece of and clay—except for the menace of water—are
crumbled aluminum foil under the sun."
more durable than modern steel-and-concrete
While the glaze was still wet, the villagers had structures, surviving even devastating
clamored to carve their names on the walls. "They earthquakes. And they are also beautiful, as
wanted to become eternal," Khalali said. He saw his
own words immortalized inside the house—EARTH,
shown by the photograph of models used in his
WATER, FIRE, AIR. classes at Pitzer. If such dwellings begin to dot
the landscape of Southern California—where
The architect went on to fire a second there's plenty of adobe—the region might slowly
dwelling, then did eleven more, making the entire recover some of its original charm.
village a ceramic neighborhood. Then he built and
fired a twelve-room school house nearby.
More recently he returned to the United
States, "fired" by the idea of showing Native
Americans in the Southwest how to harden their
pueblos. He hopes to demonstrate this technique
to mud-hut dwellers around the world—in
Australia, Africa, and India. When he arrived
here, he talked to his friend, Paolo Soleri,
architect-builder of the Arcosanti community in
Arizona, then sent off the manuscript of the book
he had just completed to Soleri's publisher, Harper
& Row. (The book is scheduled for spring 1983
publication.) He is now a visiting professor at
Pitzer College in Claremont, California. Another
book he is working on will be a how-to guide for
building and firing adobe homes. He thinks that
eventually, this sort of self-help housing will be
taken up in the United States, when the economy
finally settles on the bottom. At present a Navajo
student at Pitzer is preparing to fire hogans on the
reservation, and representatives of the pueblos in
northern New Mexico have talked to Khalali
about the possibility of firing their adobe
dwellings.
Meanwhile, he has taken soil samples from
the coastal cliffs and palisades of Santa Monica,
California, to see whether he can fire such
material—to make terra firma, you could say.
And with students of the Southern California
Institute of Architecture he has been
experimenting with firing culverts in Malibu
Canyon.