Data Link

Datalink Layer
Prepared by Bhavesh Borisaniya
Introduction
Responsibilities of the data link layer include:
Framing
Addressing Flow control Error control, and Media access control
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Functions of the Data Link Layer
Relationship between packets and frames
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Services provided to the Network Layer

Three reasonable possibilities: 1. Unacknowledged connectionless service
appropriate when the error rate is very low appropriate for real-time traffic, such as voice
2. Acknowledged connectionless service

useful over unreliable channels, such as wireless systems
3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service

the source and destination machines establish a connection before
any data are transferred Each frame sent over the connection is numbered guarantees that each frame sent is indeed received
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Framing
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Framing
Framing in data link layer,
separates a message from one source to a destination, or from other
messages to other destinations

Why framing ?
Large frame will make flow and error control very inefficient
Single-bit error would require the retransmission of the whole
message
Types of framing
Fixed-Size Framing Variable-Size Framing
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Variable Size Framing

Breaking the bit stream up into frames is more difficult..
One way is to insert time gaps between frames Not work because network rarely make any guarantees about timing Another framing method
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Character-oriented protocols
Data to be carried are 8-bit characters from a coding system such as ASCII
A frame in a character-oriented protocol
8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at beginning and the end of a frame
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Character-Oriented Protocols Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte whenever there is a flag or escape character in the text
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Byte stuffing and unstuffing
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Bit-Oriented Protocols
the data section of frame is a sequence of bits to be interpreted by
upper layer as text, graphic, audio, video and so on. Most protocols use a special 8-bit pattern flag 01111110 as the delimiter.
A frame in a bit-oriented protocol
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Bit-Oriented Protocols
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Bit stuffing and unstuffing
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Flow Control and Error Control
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Flow Control and Error Control

Flow Control
what to do with a sender that systematically transmits frames faster
than the receiver can accept them Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that the sender can send before waiting for acknowledgement
Error Control
how to make sure all frames are eventually delivered to the network
layer at the destination and in the proper order. Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic repeat request, which is the retransmission of data
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Error Detection and Correction

Data can be corrupted during transmission.
Some applications require that errors be detected and corrected
Types of errors
Single-Bit Error Only 1 bit in the data unit has changed Burst Error A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed
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Types of errors
Single-bit error
In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit has changed
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Types of Errors
Burst Error
A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed
Redundancy
The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is
redundancy used to detect or correct errors

need to send some extra bits with data
redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by the
receiver
Their presence allows the receiver to detect or correct corrupted
bits
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Detection versus Correction

The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection.
In error detection
looking only to see if any error has occurred
The answer is a simple yes or no

not even interested in the number of errors
single-bit error is the same for us as a burst error
In error correction
need to know the exact number of bits that are corrupted
their location in the message
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Forward Error Correction Versus Retransmission

There are two main methods of error correction. Forward error correction
is the process in which the receiver tries to guess the message by using
redundant bits works if the number of errors is small Uses error-detecting codes
Correction by retransmission
is a technique in which the receiver detects the occurrence of an error and
asks the sender to resend the message resending is repeated until a message arrives that the receiver believes is error-free Uses error-detecting codes
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Coding
Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes.
The sender adds redundant bits through a process that creates
a relationship between the redundant bits and the actual data bits. The receiver checks the relationships between the two sets of bits to detect or correct the errors. The ratio of redundant bits to the data bits and the robustness of the process are important factors Coding schemes can be divided into two broad categories
Block Coding
Convolution Coding complex and beyond the scope
Coding
The structure of encoder and decoder

Block Coding
Message will be divided into blocks
each block will be of k bits, called datawords r redundant bits will be added to each block to make the length
n=k+r, called codewords (n>k)
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Example
In 4B/5B block coding scheme, k = 4 and n = 5 we have 2k =
16 datawords and 2n = 32 codewords. How many codewords will be used for message transfer.
16 out of 32 codewords are used for message transfer and the
rest are either used for other purposes or unused.
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Error Detection
Process of error detection in block coding

Example
Let us assume that k = 2 and n = 3 and the sender encodes
the dataword 01 as 011 and sends it to the receiver. Table shows the list of datawords and codewords.
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Example
Consider the following cases: 1. The receiver receives 011.
It is a valid codeword.The receiver extracts the dataword 01 from it.
2.
The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 111 is received.

This is not a valid codeword and is discarded.
3.
The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 000 is received.

This is a valid codeword. The receiver incorrectly extracts the dataword 00. Two corrupted bits have made the error undetectable.
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Error Correction
Structure of encoder and decoder in error correction

Example
k=2 and n=5. The sender assume dataword 01 and sends 01011.
The codeword is corrupted and 01001 is received.
A code for error correction

Hamming Distance
The Hamming distance between two words is the number of
differences between corresponding bits.

Hamming distance of two words x and y is d(x,y)
Can be found by applying XOR operation on the two words and
count the number of 1s in the result.
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Hamming Distance
Hamming distance between two pairs of words.
1.
The Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because
2.
The Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because
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Minimum Hamming Distance

The minimum Hamming distance is the smallest Hamming
distance between all possible pairs in a set of words. Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding scheme in Table:
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The dmin in this case is 2.
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Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding scheme in
Table:
The dmin in this case is 3.


Three parameters for coding scheme C(n,k)
n codeword size k dataword size dmin minimum hamming distance
Example
C(3,2) with dmin = 2
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To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the
minimum hamming distance in a block code must be dmin = s + 1
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To guarantee correction of up to t errors in all cases, the
minimum Hamming distance in a block code must be dmin = 2t + 1
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Example
A code scheme has a Hamming distance dmin = 4. What is the error
detection and correction capability of this scheme?
Solution This code guarantees the detection of up to three errors (s = 3), but it can correct up to one error. If this code is used for error correction, part of its capability is wasted.
Error correction codes need to have an odd minimum distance (3, 5, 7, . ).
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Linear Block Codes

A linear block code is a code in which the exclusive OR (addition
modulo-2) of two valid codewords creates another valid codeword.

XORing any codeword with any other codeword is a valid codeword
all four codewords can be retrieved by XORing two other codewords

Parity Check
A simple parity-check code is a single-bit error-detecting
code in which n = k + 1 with dmin = 2.
Simple parity-check code C(5, 4)

Parity Check
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Encoder and decoder for simple parity-check code
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Two dimensional parity check
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Hamming Code
use of extra parity bits to allow the position identification of a single
error 1. Mark all bit positions that are powers of 2 as parity bits. (positions 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) 2. All other bit positions are for the data to be encoded. (positions 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, etc.) 3. Each parity bit calculates the parity for some of the bits in the code word. The position of the parity bit determines the sequence of bits that it checks.

Position 1: checks bits (1,3,5,7,9,11,...) Position 2: checks bits (2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15,...) Position 4: checks bits (4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,...) Position 8: checks bits (8-15,24-31,40-47,...)
4.
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Set the parity bit to create even parity.

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Hamming Code
Bit position Encoded data bits 1 p1 2 p2 3 d1 4 p4 5 d2 6 d3 7 d4 8 p8 9 d5 10 d6 11 d7 12 d8 13 d9 14 d10 15 d11 16 p16
p1
p2 Parity bit coverage p4 p8 p16
X
X
X
X X
X
X X X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X X X X
X
X X X X .
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Hamming Code Example

Encoder process
Data word : 1011
1 0 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 p1 p2 d1 p4 d2 d3 d4
- data word - bit position - encoded data bits
p1 = d1 + d2 + d4 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 0 p2 = d1 + d3 + d4 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 p4 = d2 + d3 + d4 = 0 + 1 + 1 = 0
Codeword : 1011010
Hamming Code Example

Decoder process
Code word : 1010010
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 p1 p2 d1 p4 d2 d3 d4
- code word - bit position - encoded data bits
p1 = d1 + d2 + d4 = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1 p2 = d1 + d3 + d4 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 0 p4 = d2 + d3 + d4 = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1
Error is in p1, p2 and p4 bit, i.e., 1+ 2 + 4 = 7th bit (d4) is erroneous
Cyclic Codes
Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra
property
In a cyclic code, if a codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the
result is another codeword

Example
1011000 0110001
Cyclic codes are used to correct the errors in networks (LAN
and WAN) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
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Cyclic Redundancy Check
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A CRC code with C(7, 4)
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Cyclic Redundancy Check
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CRC encoder and decoder
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CRC Encoder
Division in CRC encoder
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CRC Decoder
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Polynomials
A better way to understand cyclic codes and how they can be
analyzed is to represent them as polynomials
A polynomial to represent a binary word

Polynomials
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CRC Division using Polynomials
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Cyclic Code Analysis

The divisor in a cyclic code is normally called the generator
polynomial or simply the generator. Dataword: d(x) Syndrome: s(x) Codeword: c(x) Error: e(x) Generator: g(x)
In a cyclic code, If s(x) 0, one or more bits is corrupted. If s(x) = 0, either a. No bit is corrupted. or b. Some bits are corrupted, but the decoder failed to detect them.
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Cyclic Code Analysis

Received codeword =c(x) + e(x)
Received codeword = c(x)/g(x) + e(x)/g(x)
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Checksum
The checksum is used in the Internet by several protocols
although not at the data link layer
It is based upon the concept of redundancy Example

We want to send list of 4-bit numbers (7, 11, 12, 0, 6)
We send (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 36), where 36 is the sum of original no.
If we send (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, -36), called the checksum
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Using Ones Complement for Checksum
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
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Internet Checksum
Uses 16-bit checksum
Sender site:
1.
2.
3. 4. 5.
The message is divided into 16-bit words. The value of the checksum word is set to 0. All words including the checksum are added using ones complement addition. The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum. The checksum is sent with the data.
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Checksum
Receiver uses following steps for error detection
Receiver site:
The message (including checksum) is divided into 16-bit words. 2. All words are added using ones complement addition. 3. The sum is complemented and becomes the new checksum. 4. If the value of checksum is 0, the message is accepted; otherwise, it is rejected.
1.
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Protocols
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Protocols
Noiseless Channels
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Simplest Protocol
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The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error control
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Simplest Protocol
Flow diagram
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
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Design of Stop-and-Wait Protocol
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Stop-and-Wait Protocol
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Flow diagram
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Protocols
Noisy Channels
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Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Error correction in Stop-and-Wait ARQ is done by keeping a
copy of the sent frame and retransmitting of the frame when the timer expires. In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, we use sequence numbers to number the frames.
The sequence numbers are based on modulo-2 arithmetic.
In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the acknowledgment number always
announces in modulo-2 arithmetic the sequence number of the next frame expected.
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Stop-and-Wait ARQ
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Design of the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
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Stop-and-Wait ARQ
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Flow diagram
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Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Efficiency Protocol is inefficient if our channel is thick and long
Thick channel has a large bandwidth
Long the round-trip delay is long
The product of these two is called bandwidth-delay product The bandwidth-delay product
is a measure of the number of bits we can send out of our system
while waiting for news from the receiver.
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Example
Assume that, in a Stop-and-Wait ARQ system, the bandwidth of the
line is 1 Mbps, and 1 bit takes 20 ms to make a round trip. What is the bandwidth-delay product? If the system data frames are 1000 bits in length, what is the utilization percentage of the link?
Solution The bandwidth-delay product is
The link utilization is only 1000/20,000, or 5 percent
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Example
What is the utilization percentage of the link in Example if we have
a protocol that can send up to 15 frames before stopping and worrying about the acknowledgments?
Solution The bandwidth-delay product is
The link utilization is only 15,000/20,000, or 75 percent
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Go-Back-N ARQ
To improve the efficiency of transmission (filling the pipe),
multiple frames must be
in transition while waiting for
acknowledgement
In this protocol
we can send several frames before receiving acknowledgements
we keep a copy of these frames until the acknowledgments arrive
Sequence numbers are modulo-2m (i.e. 0 to 2m-1) Sliding window is an abstract concept that defines the range of
sequence numbers that is the concern of the sender and receiver.

Send sliding window and receive sliding window
Go-Back-N ARQ
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Send window for Go-Back-N ARQ
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Go-Back-N ARQ
Receive window for Go-Back-N ARQ

Go-Back-N ARQ
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Design of Go-Back-N ARQ
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Go-Back-N ARQ
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Window size for Go-Back-N ARQ
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Go-Back-N ARQ
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Flow Diagram for Go-Back-N ARQ Example Scenario 1
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Go-Back-N ARQ
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Flow Diagram for Go-Back-N ARQ Example Scenario 2
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Selective Repeat ARQ

Go-Back-N ARQ is inefficient for noisy channel
In a noisy link a frame has a higher probability of damage, which
means the resending of multiple frames.

retransmission uses up the bandwidth and slows down the
transmission
Selective Repeat ARQ does not resend N frames when only one
frame is damaged; only the damaged frame is resent
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Design of Selective Repeat ARQ
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Selective Repeat ARQ, window size
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Flow diagram
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Piggybacking
The three protocols we discussed in this section
data frames flow in only one direction although control info-rmation such
as ACK and NAK frames can travel in the other direction
In real life, data frames are normally flowing in both directions.

Control information also needs to flow in both directions.
A technique called piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency
of the bidirectional protocols. When a frame is carrying data from A to B,

B;
When a frame is carrying data from B to A,
it can also carry control information about arrived (or lost) frames from
it can also carry control information about the arrived (or lost) frames
from A
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Piggybacking
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Design of piggybacking in Go-Back-N ARQ
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HDLC (High-level Data Link Control)
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HDLC
It is a bit-oriented protocol for communication over point-
to-point and multipoint links. Configuration and Transfer modes: HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different configurations:
normal response mode (NRM)
asynchronous balanced mode (ABM)
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HDLC
Normal Response Mode (NRM)
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HDLC
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
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HDLC
Frames Three types of frames
Information frames (I-frames) Used to transport user data and control information relating to user data Supervisory frames (S-frames) Used to transport only control information Unnumbered frames (U-frames) Reserved for system management
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HDLC
HDLC Frames
HDLC
Control field format for the different frame types
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HDLC
Control field for S-Frames Receive Ready (RR)
Code: 00, N(R): acknowledgement number
Receive Not Ready (RNR)

Code: 10, N(R): acknowledgement number
Reject (REJ)
Code: 01, N(R): negative acknowledgement number
Selective Reject (SREJ)

Code: 11, N(R): negative acknowledgement number
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HDLC
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U-frame control command and response
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HDLC
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Example of connection and disconnection
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HDLC
Example of piggybacking without error
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HDLC
Example of piggybacking with error
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Datalink Layer

Prepared by Bhavesh Borisaniya

Functions of the Data Link Layer

Relationship between packets and frames

Services provided to the Network Layer

2. Acknowledged connectionless service

3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service

messages to other destinations

Single-bit error would require the retransmission of the whole

Variable Size Framing

Variable Size Framing

A frame in a character-oriented protocol

8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at beginning and the end of a frame

Variable Size Framing

Byte stuffing and unstuffing

Variable Size Framing

A frame in a bit-oriented protocol

Variable Size Framing

Bit stuffing and unstuffing

Flow Control and Error Control

Flow Control and Error Control

Error Detection and Correction

In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit has changed

redundancy used to detect or correct errors

redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by the

Detection versus Correction

The answer is a simple yes or no

single-bit error is the same for us as a burst error

their location in the message

Forward Error Correction Versus Retransmission

is a technique in which the receiver detects the occurrence of an error and

The structure of encoder and decoder

n=k+r, called codewords (n>k)

rest are either used for other purposes or unused.

Process of error detection in block coding

It is a valid codeword.The receiver extracts the dataword 01 from it.

The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 111 is received.

The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 000 is received.

Structure of encoder and decoder in error correction

The codeword is corrupted and 01001 is received.

A code for error correction

differences between corresponding bits.

count the number of 1s in the result.

The Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because

The Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because

Minimum Hamming Distance

The dmin in this case is 2.

Minimum Hamming Distance

The dmin in this case is 3.

Minimum Hamming Distance

Minimum Hamming Distance

minimum hamming distance in a block code must be dmin = s + 1

Minimum Hamming Distance

minimum Hamming distance in a block code must be dmin = 2t + 1

detection and correction capability of this scheme?

Linear Block Codes

modulo-2) of two valid codewords creates another valid codeword.

all four codewords can be retrieved by XORing two other codewords

code in which n = k + 1 with dmin = 2.

Simple parity-check code C(5, 4)

Encoder and decoder for simple parity-check code

Two dimensional parity check

Two dimensional parity check