CircuIatory System

Introduction
The circulatory system consists oI blood, a heart, and blood vessels.
Functions of the CircuIatory System
The circulatory system Iunctions with other body systems to provide the Iollowing:
Transport oI materials:
Gasses transported: Oxygen is transported Irom the lungs to the cells. CO
2
(a waste) is
transported Irom the cells to the lungs.
Transport other nutrients to cells - For example, glucose, a simple sugar used to produce ATP, is
transported throughout the body by the circulatory system. Immediately aIter digestion, glucose
is transported to the liver. The liver maintains a constant level oI glucose in the blood.
Transport other wastes Irom cells - For example, ammonia is produced as a result oI protein
digestion. It is transported to the liver where it is converted to less toxic urea. Urea is then
transported to the kidneys Ior excretion in the urine.
Transport hormones - Numerous hormones that help maintain constant internal conditions are
transported by the circulatory system.
Contains cells that Iight inIection
Helps stabilize the pH and ionic concentration oI the body Iluids.
It helps maintain body temperature by transporting heat. This is particularly important in
homeothermic animals such as birds and mammals.

arge AnimaIs
Small animals may not need a circulatory system because the interior cells are close to the
surIace. Oxygen absorbed Irom the environment by surIace cells can diIIuse to interior cells.
Wastes produced by interior cells move a short distance to the surIace and diIIuse into the
environment.
Most invertebrates and all vertebrates have interior cells that are too Iar Irom the body surIace to
exchange substances eIIiciently. They require a circulatory system.
A circulatory system is not needed in small, Ilat, or porous animals because they have a
high surface-to-volume ratio and can obtain suIIicient absorption directly through their skin.
as Exchange and Transport in Invertebrates
Only coelomate animals have a circulatory system.
The choanocytes oI sponges use cilia to move water through pores in the sides so that water
brings each oI the cells all oI the nutrients necessary Ior survival.
Cnidarians have a gastrovascular cavity that provides inner cells with exposure to water. They
are only two cell layers thick, so that all cells are exposed to the water Ior nutrient and gas
exchange.
Flatworms also have a gastrovascular cavity to provide Ior internal cells. Their small size and
Ilattened shape gives them a higher surIace-to-volume ratio Ior better absorption Irom the
environment.
Fluid contained within the body cavity oI pseudocoelomate animals Iunctions to transport
nutrients and wastes but these animals do not have a heart or blood vessels.
Echinoderms have gills on the surIace oI their skin Ior gas exchange. Nutrients are distributed by
coelomic Iluid. Amoeboid cells within the coelomic cavity transport some wastes. The water
vascular system Iunctions to operate the tube Ieet.
pen CircuIatory System
In an open circulatory system, blood is pumped Irom the heart through blood vessels but then it
leaves the blood vessels and enters body cavities, where the organs are bathed in blood, or
sinuses (spaces) within the organs.
Blood Ilows slowly in an open circulatory system because there is no blood pressure aIter the
blood leaves the blood vessels. The animal must move its muscles to move the blood within the
spaces.
In a closed system, blood remains within blood vessels, pressure is high, and blood is thereIore
pumped Iaster.
Arthropods and most mollusks (except cephalopods: nautilus, squid, octopus) have an open
circulatory system.
Insects
The coelom oI insects has been reduced to a cavity that carries blood (hemolymph). It is called a
hemocoel..
dorsal heart F aorta F hemocoel
stia (openings in the heart) close when heart contracts. When heart relaxes, the ostia open and
blood is sucked into openings.
The blood oI insects is colorless because it lacks respiratory pigments; it Iunctions to carry
nutrients, not gases.
Animals with open circulatory systems generally have limited activity due to limitations in the
oxygen delivery capability oI the system. Insects are able to be active because gas exchange is
via a tracheal system.
CIosed CircuIatory System
In a closed circulatory system, blood is not Iree in a cavity; it is contained within blood vessels.
Valves prevent the backIlow oI blood within the blood vessels.
This type oI circulatory system is Iound in vertebrates and several invertebrates
including annelids, squids and octopuses.
The blood oI animals with a closed circulatory system usually contains cells and plasma (liquid).
The blood cells oI vertebrates contain hemoglobin.
,7thwo72s
Earthworms have a dorsal and ventral blood vessel that runs the length oI the animal. Branches
Irom these vessels are Iound in each segment.
There are Iive vessels that pump blood Irom the dorsal vessel to the ventral vessel.
Earthworms have red blood (due to the pigment hemoglobin) but they have no cells. Hemoglobin
binds with oxygen to carry it to the tissues.
EvoIution of Vertebrate CircuIatory System
Chambers of the Heart
Vertebrate hearts contain muscular chambers called atria (sing. atrium) and ventricles.
Contraction oI the chamber Iorces blood out. Blood Ilows in one direction due to valves that
prevent backIlow.

The atrium Iunctions to receive blood that is returning to the heart. When it contracts, blood is
pumped into the ventricle.
The ventricle is the main pumping chamber oI the heart. When it contracts, blood is pumped
away Irom the heart to the body, lungs, or gills.
CircuIatory System of Fish
In the diagrams that Iollow, arrows represent the direction oI blood Ilow in blood vessels
(arteries and veins). Blood pressure is represented by the thickness oI the arrows. Thick arrows
indicate high blood pressure. Blood that is rich in oxygen is represented by red arrows. Blue
arrows represent blood that is low in oxygen aIter it has passed through the body tissues.
Fish have a two-chambered heart with one atrium (A) and one ventricle (V).

The gills contain many capillaries Ior gas exchange, so the blood pressure is low aIter going
through the gills. Low-pressure blood Irom the gills then goes directly to the body, which also
has a large number oI capillaries. The activity level oI Iish is limited due to the low rate oI blood
Ilow to the body.
CircuIatory System of Amphibians
Amphibians have a 3-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle.

Blood Irom the lungs (pulmonary Ilow) goes to the leIt atrium. Blood Irom the body
(systemic Ilow) goes to the right atrium.
Both atria empty into the ventricle where some mixing occurs.
The advantage oI this system is that there is high pressure in vessels that lead to both the lungs
and body.
CircuIatory System of Some ReptiIes
In most reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided. This reduces mixing oI oxygenated and
unoxygenated blood in the ventricle. The partial division oI the ventricle is represented by a
dashed line below.

CircuIatory System of CrocodiIians, Birds, and MammaIs
Birds and mammals (also crocodilians) have a Iour-chambered heart which acts as two separate
pumps. AIter passing through the body, blood is pumped under high pressure to the lungs. Upon
returning Irom the lungs, it is pumped under high pressure to the body. The high rate oI oxygen-
rich blood Ilow through the body enables birds and mammals to maintain high activity levels.

BIood VesseIs
heart F arteries F arterioles F capillaries F venules F veins F heart
Arteries
Arteries carry blood away Irom heart.
Arteries have a thick, elastic layer to allow stretching and absorb pressure. The wall stretches and
recoils in response to pumping, thus peaks in pressure are absorbed.
The arteries maintain pressure in the circulatory system much like a balloon maintains pressure
on the air within it. The arteries thereIore act as pressure reservoirs by maintaining (storing)
pressure.
The elastic layer is surrounded by circular muscle to control the diameter and thus the rate oI
blood Ilow. An outer layer oI connective tissue provides strength.
ArterioIes
Smooth muscle surrounding the arteries and arterioles controls the distribution oI blood. For
example, blood vessels dilate when O
2
levels decrease or wastes accumulate. This allows more
blood into an area to bring oxygen and nutrients or remove wastes.
CapiIIaries
The smallest blood vessels are capillaries. They are typically less than 1 mm long. The diameter
is so small that red blood cells travel single Iile.
The total length oI capillaries on one person is over 50,000 miles. This would go around the
earth twice.
Not all oI the capillary beds are open at one time because all oI them would hold 1.4 times the
total blood volume oI the all the blood in the body. 'asodilation and vasoconstriction reIer to
the dilation and constriction oI blood vessels. The diameter is controlled by neural and endocrine
controls. Sphincter muscles control the Ilow oI blood to the capillaries.
The total cross-sectional area oI the capillaries is greater than that oI the arteries or veins, so the
rate oI blood Ilow (velocity) is lowest in the capillaries. Blood pressure is highest in the arteries
but is considerably reduced as it Ilows through the capillaries. It is lowest in the veins.
Inte7stiti, f:id
The exchange oI substances between blood and the body cells occurs in the capillaries.
Capillaries are specialized Ior exchange oI substances with the interstitial fluid. No cell in the
body is more than 100 micrometers Irom a capillary. This is the thickness oI Iour sheets oI paper.
Interstitial Iluid surrounds and bathes the cells. This Iluid is continually being replaced by Iresh
Iluid Irom blood in the circulatory system.
Body cells take up nutrients Irom the interstitial Iluid and empty wastes into it.
By maintaining a constant pH and ionic concentration oI the blood, the pH and ionic
concentration oI the interstitial Iluid is also stabilized.
Although Iluid leaves and returns to the capillaries, blood cells and large proteins remain in the
capillaries.

At the arterial end oI capillaries (the leIt side oI the diagram below), blood pressure Iorces Iluid
out and into the surrounding tissues. As blood moves through the capillary, the blood pressure
decreases so that near the veinule end, less is leaking into the surrounding tissues.

As blood Ilows through the capillary and Iluid moves out, the blood that remains behind
becomes more concentrated. The osmotic pressure in the capillary is thereIore greater near the
veinule end and results in an increase in the amount oI Iluid moving into the capillary near this
end.
The arrows on the diagram above represent the movement oI blood into and out oI the capillary.
Long and thick arrows are used to represent a large amount oI Iluid movement. The total amount
oI movement out oI the capillary is approximately equal to the amount oI movement into the
capillary. Notice that more blood tends to leave the capillary near the arteriole end and more
tends to enter it near the veinule end.
The lymphatic capillaries collect excess Iluid in the tissues.
VenuIes
Capillaries merge to Iorm venules and venules merge into veins.
Venules can constrict due to the contraction oI smooth muscle. When they are constricted there
is more Iluid loss in the capillaries due to increased pressure.
Veins
The diameter oI veins is greater than that oI arteries.
The blood pressure in the veins is low so valves in veins help prevent backIlow.
The contraction oI skeletal muscle during normal body movements squeezes the veins and assists
with moving blood back to the heart.
The vena cava returns blood to the right atrium oI the heart Irom the body. In the right atrium,
the blood pressure is close to 0.
'aricose veins develop when the valves weaken.
Veins act as blood reservoirs because they contain 50 to 60 oI the blood volume.
Smooth muscle in the walls oI veins can expand or contract to adjust the Ilow volume returning
to the heart and make more blood available when needed.
!ortaI Veins
Portal veins connect one capillary bed with another.
The hepatic portal vein connects capillary beds in the digestive tract with capillary beds in the
liver.
Human CircuIation
Chambers of the heart
The heart is actually two separate pumps. The leIt side pumps blood to the body (systemic
circulation) and the right side pumps blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation). Each side has
an atrium and a ventricle. See the diagram below

The atria Iunction to receive blood when they are relaxed and to Iill the ventricles when they
contract.
The ventricles Iunction to pump blood to the body (leIt ventricle) or to the lungs (right ventricle).
VaIves
Valves allow blood to Ilow through in one direction but not the other. They prevent backIlow.
trioventricular valves (diagram above) are located between the atria and the ventricles. They
are held in place by Iibers called chordae tendinae. The leIt atrioventricular valve is oIten called
the bicuspid or mitral valve; the right one is also called the tricuspid valve.
The semilunar valves (diagram above) are between the ventricles and the attached vessels.
The heartbeat sound is produced by the valves closing.
Below: The structure oI the mammalian heart is summarized using a model.


Click on the images to view an enlargement.
Cardiac cycIe
As the atria relax and Iill, the ventricles are also relaxed.
When the atria contract, the pressure Iorces the atrioventricular valves open and blood in the
atria is pumped into the ventricles.
The ventricles then contract, Iorcing the atrioventricular valves closed. The pulmonary artery
carries blood Irom the right ventricle to the lungs. The aorta carries blood Irom the leIt ventricle
to the body.
EIectricaI stimuIation
The heart does not require outside stimulation.
The sinoatrial (SA) node is a bit oI nervous tissue that serves as the cardiac pacemaker.
Stimulation Irom this node causes both oI the atria to contract at the same time because the
muscle tissue conducts the stimulation rapidly.
The contraction doesn't spread to the ventricles because the atria and ventricles are separated by
connective tissue.
As a wave oI stimulation (depolarization) spreads across the atria resulting in their contraction,
another bit oI nervous tissue called the atrioventricular (AV) node also becomes stimulated
(depolarized). It conducts the action potential slowly to the ventricles. The slow speed is due to
the small diameter oI the neurons within the node.
The slow speed oI conduction within the AV node ensures that the ventricles contract aIter the
atria contract..
The -:3/le of His then transmits impulse rapidly Irom the AV node to the ventricles.
e7;o:s Cont7o
etails oI nervous control oI the cardiac cycle are in the chapter on the nervous system.
Coronary circuIation
Coronary arteries supply the heart muscles with blood.
They have a very small diameter and may become blocked, producing a heart attack.
BIood !ressure
The units oI measurement are millimeters oI mercury (mm Hg). For example, 120 mm Hg/80
mm Hg is considered to be normal blood pressure.
The top number is reIerred to as the systolic pressure; the bottom number is the diastolic
pressure.
5e7tension - igh Bood P7ess:7e
High blood pressure is associated with cardiovascular disease.
In males under 45 years, pressures greater than 130/90 are considered to be high. In males over
45 years, pressures greater than 140 /95 are high.
BIood
Human blood has two parts, liquid (plasma) and cells.
!Iasma
Plasma contains dissolved gasses, nutrients, wastes, salts, and proteins.
Salts and proteins buIIer the pH so that it is approximately 7.4 and they maintain osmotic
pressure.
Plasma proteins also assist in transporting large organic molecules. For example, lipoproteins
carry cholesterol and albumin carries bilirubin (produced Irom the breakdown oI hemoglobin
when old blood cells are destroyed).
CeIIs
#ed Bood Ces (7th7octes)
#ed blood cells are biconcave disks Iilled with hemoglobin.
#ed blood cells are continuously produced in the red marrow oI the skull, ribs, vertebrae, and
ends oI the long bones. The nucleus oI the cell disappears as it matures.
Mammalian red blood cells loose their nucleus as they mature. As a consequence, human red
blood cells have a liIe span oI approximately 120 days. Other vertebrates have nucleated red
blood cells. Phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen remove old cells.
Anemia occurs when there are insuIIicient numbers oI red blood cells or the cells lack suIIicient
hemoglobin.
hite Bood Ces
White blood cells are covered in the chapter on the immune system.
BIood CIotting
amaged tissue produces spasms oI the smooth muscle and these spasms stop the blood Ilow Ior
a Iew minutes.
Platelets are Iragments oI larger cells produced in the bone marrow that assist in Iorming a clot.
They adhere to exposed collagen in damaged blood vessels. This causes some to rupture and
release substances that attract more platelets. Platelets and damaged tissue release substances that
cause a blood protein called Iibrinogen to be converted to Iibrin. Fibrin Iorms a mesh-like
structure that traps blood cells and platelets. The resulting plug that Iorms seals the leak.
et,is of Bood Cot Fo72,tion
When tissue damage occurs, muscles begin to spasm, which temporarily reduces blood Ilow to
the area. Blood Ilow is also reduced when platelets in the blood adhere to the damaged tissue.
Blood clotting is initiated when platelets and damaged tissue secrete prothrombin activator.
The platelets and damaged tissue release a clotting Iactor called prothrombin activator.
Prothrombin activator and calcium ions catalyze the conversion oI prothrombin to thrombin
which then catalyzes the conversion oI Iibrinogen to Iibrin threads.
Fibrin threads are sticky and trap more platelets, Iurther sealing the leak.

Review Activity
Be able to list the Iollowing structures in the order that blood would pass through them. Begin
with the vena cava.
Bood Vesses
aorta
pulmonary artery
pulmonary vein
vena cava
Ch,2-e7s of the e,7t
leIt atrium
leIt ventricle
right atrium
right ventricle
V,;es
leIt atrioventricular valve (mitral valve)
leIt semilunar valve
right atrioventricular valve
right semilunar valve
7a3s 7eceivi3 the -loo/
body
lungs

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