Slmpllfled

PROTOCOLS AND PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

When compuLers Lermlnals and/or oLher daLa processlng devlces exchange daLa
Lhe scope of concern ls much broader Lhan Lhe concerns we have dlscussed ln SecLlons
12 and 13 Conslder for example Lhe Lransfer of a flle beLween Lwo compuLers
1here musL be a daLa paLh beLween Lhe Lwo compuLers elLher dlrecLly or vla a
communlcaLlon neLwork 8uL more ls needed 1yplcal Lasks Lo be performed are

1 1he source sysLem musL elLher acLlvaLe Lhe dlrecL daLa communlcaLlon paLh or
lnform Lhe communlcaLlon neLwork of Lhe ldenLlLy of Lhe deslred desLlnaLlon
sysLem

2 1he source sysLem musL ascerLaln LhaL Lhe desLlnaLlon sysLem ls prepared Lo
recelve daLa

3 1he flle Lransfer appllcaLlon on Lhe source sysLem musL ascerLaln LhaL Lhe flle
managemenL program on Lhe desLlnaLlon sysLem ls prepared Lo accepL and
sLore Lhe flle for Lhls parLlcular user

4 lf Lhe flle formaLs used on Lhe Lwo sysLems are lncompaLlble one or Lhe oLher
sysLem musL perform a formaL LranslaLlon funcLlon

lL ls clear LhaL Lhere musL be a hlgh degree of cooperaLlon beLween Lhe Lwo
compuLer sysLems 1he exchange of lnformaLlon beLween compuLers for Lhe purpose
of cooperaLlve acLlon ls generally referred Lo as compotet commoolcotloos
Slmllarly when Lwo or more compuLers are lnLerconnecLed vla a communlcaLlon
neLwork Lhe seL of compuLer sLaLlons ls referred Lo as a compotet oetwotk 8ecause
a slmllar level of cooperaLlon ls requlred beLween a user aL a Lermlnal and one aL a
compuLer Lhese Lerms are ofLen used when some of Lhe communlcaLlng enLlLles are
Lermlnals

ln dlscusslng compuLer communlcaLlons and compuLer neLworks Lwo concepLs
are paramounL
roLocols
CompuLercommunlcaLlons archlLecLure or proLocol archlLecLure

A proLocol ls used for communlcaLlon beLween enLlLles ln dlfferenL sysLems
1he Lerms enLlLy and sysLem are used ln a very general sense Lxamples of
enLlLles are user appllcaLlon programs flle Lransfer packages daLabase managemenL
sysLems elecLronlc mall faclllLles and Lermlnals Lxamples of sysLems are
compuLers Lermlnals and remoLe sensors noLe LhaL ln some cases Lhe enLlLy and
Lhe sysLem ln whlch lL resldes are coexLenslve (eg Lermlnals) ln general an enLlLy
ls anyLhlng capable of sendlng or recelvlng lnformaLlon and a sysLem ls a physlcally
dlsLlncL ob[ecL LhaL conLalns one or more enLlLles lor Lwo enLlLles Lo communlcaLe
successfully Lhey musL speak Lhe same language WhaL ls communlcaLed how lL
ls communlcaLed and when lL ls communlcaLed musL conform Lo some muLually
accepLable convenLlons beLween Lhe enLlLles lnvolved 1he convenLlons are referred
Lo as a proLocol whlch may be deflned as a seL of rules governlng Lhe exchange of
daLa beLween Lwo enLlLles

1he key elemenLs of a proLocol are

Syntax lncludes such Lhlngs as daLa formaL and slgnal levels
Semant|cs lncludes conLrol lnformaLlon for coordlnaLlon and error handllng
1|m|ng lncludes speed maLchlng and sequenclng

Pavlng lnLroduced Lhe concepL of a proLocol we can now lnLroduce Lhe concepL
of a proLocol archlLecLure lL ls clear LhaL Lhere musL be a hlgh degree of cooperaLlon
beLween Lhe Lwo compuLers lnsLead of lmplemenLlng Lhe loglc for Lhls as a
slngle module Lhe Lask ls broken up lnLo subLasks each of whlch ls lmplemenLed
separaLely As an example llgure 14 suggesLs Lhe way ln whlch a flle Lransfer faclllLy
could be lmplemenLed 1hree modules are used 1asks 3 and 4 ln Lhe precedlng
llsL could be performed by a flle Lransfer module 1he Lwo modules on Lhe Lwo sysLems
exchange flles and commands Powever raLher Lhan requlrlng Lhe flle Lransfer
module Lo handle Lhe deLalls of acLually Lransferrlng daLa and commands Lhe flle
Lransfer modules each rely on a communlcaLlons servlce module 1hls module ls
responslble for maklng sure LhaL Lhe flle Lransfer commands and daLa are rellably
exchanged beLween sysLems Among oLher Lhlngs Lhls module would perform Lask

2 now Lhe naLure of Lhe exchange beLween sysLems ls lndependenL of Lhe naLure of
Lhe neLwork LhaL lnLerconnecLs Lhem 1herefore raLher Lhan bulldlng deLalls of Lhe
neLwork lnLerface lnLo Lhe communlcaLlons servlce module lL makes sense Lo have
a Lhlrd module a neLwork access module LhaL performs Lask 1 by lnLeracLlng wlLh


A 1hreeLayer Mode|

ln very general Lerms communlcaLlons can be sald Lo lnvolve Lhree agenLs appllcaLlons
compuLers and neLworks Cne example of an appllcaLlon ls a flle Lransfer
operaLlon 1hese appllcaLlons execuLe on compuLers LhaL can ofLen supporL mulLlple
slmulLaneous appllcaLlons CompuLers are connecLed Lo neLworks and Lhe daLa Lo
be exchanged are Lransferred by Lhe neLwork from one compuLer Lo anoLher 1hus
Lhe Lransfer of daLa from one appllcaLlon Lo anoLher lnvolves flrsL geLLlng Lhe daLa
Lo Lhe compuLer ln whlch Lhe appllcaLlon resldes and Lhen geLLlng lL Lo Lhe lnLended
appllcaLlon wlLhln Lhe compuLer
WlLh Lhese concepLs ln mlnd lL appears naLural Lo organlze Lhe communlcaLlon
Lask lnLo Lhree relaLlvely lndependenL layers

neLwork access layer
1ransporL layer
AppllcaLlon layer

1he network access |ayer ls concerned wlLh Lhe exchange of daLa beLween a
compuLer and Lhe neLwork Lo whlch lL ls aLLached 1he sendlng compuLer musL provlde
Lhe neLwork wlLh Lhe address of Lhe desLlnaLlon compuLer so LhaL Lhe neLwork
may rouLe Lhe daLa Lo Lhe approprlaLe desLlnaLlon 1he sendlng compuLer may wlsh
Lo lnvoke cerLaln servlces such as prlorlLy LhaL mlghL be provlded by Lhe neLwork
1he speclflc sofLware used aL Lhls layer depends on Lhe Lype of neLwork Lo be used
dlfferenL sLandards have been developed for clrculL swlLchlng packeL swlLchlng
local area neLworks and oLhers 1hus lL makes sense Lo separaLe Lhose funcLlons
havlng Lo do wlLh neLwork access lnLo a separaLe layer 8y dolng Lhls Lhe remalnder
of Lhe communlcaLlons sofLware above Lhe neLwork access layer need noL be
concerned wlLh Lhe speclflcs of Lhe neLwork Lo be used 1he same hlgherlayer sofLware
should funcLlon properly regardless of Lhe parLlcular neLwork Lo whlch Lhe
compuLer ls aLLached

8egardless of Lhe naLure of Lhe appllcaLlons LhaL are exchanglng daLa Lhere ls
usually a requlremenL LhaL daLa be exchanged rellably 1haL ls we would llke Lo be
assured LhaL all of Lhe daLa arrlve aL Lhe desLlnaLlon appllcaLlon and LhaL Lhe daLa
arrlve ln Lhe same order ln whlch Lhey were senL As we shall see Lhe mechanlsms
for provldlng rellablllLy are essenLlally lndependenL of Lhe naLure of Lhe appllcaLlons
1hus lL makes sense Lo collecL Lhose mechanlsms ln a common layer shared
by all appllcaLlons Lhls ls referred Lo as Lhe transport |ayer

llnally Lhe app||cat|on |ayer conLalns Lhe loglc needed Lo supporL Lhe varlous
user appllcaLlons lor each dlfferenL Lype of appllcaLlon such as flle Lransfer a separaLe
module ls needed LhaL ls pecullar Lo LhaL appllcaLlon
llgures 13 and 16 lllusLraLe Lhls slmple archlLecLure llgure 13 shows Lhree
compuLers connecLed Lo a neLwork Lach compuLer conLalns sofLware aL Lhe neLwork
access and LransporL layers and sofLware aL Lhe appllcaLlon layer for one or
more appllcaLlons lor successful communlcaLlon every enLlLy ln Lhe overall sysLem
musL have a unlque address AcLually Lwo levels of addresslng are needed Lach
compuLer on Lhe neLwork musL have a unlque neLwork address Lhls allows Lhe neLwork
Lo dellver daLa Lo Lhe proper compuLer Lach appllcaLlon on a compuLer musL
have an address LhaL ls unlque wlLhln LhaL compuLer Lhls allows Lhe LransporL layer
Lo supporL mulLlple appllcaLlons aL each compuLer 1hese laLLer addresses are



FIGURE Protocol architectures and networks.

1he 1C]I rotoco| Arch|tecture

1wo proLocol archlLecLures have served as Lhe basls for Lhe developmenL of lnLeroperable
communlcaLlons sLandards Lhe 1Cl/ proLocol sulLe and Lhe CSl reference
model 1Cll ls Lhe mosL wldely used lnLeroperable archlLecLure and CSl has
become Lhe sLandard model for classlfylng communlcaLlons funcLlons ln Lhe
remalnder of Lhls secLlon we provlde a brlef overvlew of Lhe Lwo archlLecLures

1C/l ls a resulL of proLocol research and developmenL conducLed on Lhe
experlmenLal packeLswlLched neLwork A8AnL1 funded by Lhe uefense Advanced
8esearch ro[ecLs Agency (uA8A) and ls generally referred Lo as Lhe
1Cll proLocol sulLe 1hls proLocol sulLe conslsLs of a large collecLlon of proLocols
LhaL have been lssued as lnLerneL sLandards by Lhe lnLerneL ArchlLecLure 8oard l
(lA8) l

1here ls no offlclal 1Cll proLocol model as Lhere ls ln Lhe case of CSl Powever
based on Lhe proLocol sLandards LhaL have been developed we can organlze
Lhe communlcaLlon Lask for 1Cll lnLo flve relaLlvely lndependenL layers

AppllcaLlon layer
PosLLohosL or LransporL layer
lnLerneL layer
neLwork access layer
hyslcal layer
1he phys|ca| |ayer covers Lhe physlcal lnLerface beLween a daLa Lransmlsslon
devlce (eg worksLaLlon compuLer) and a Lransmlsslon medlum or neLwork 1hls
layer ls concerned wlLh speclfylng Lhe characLerlsLlcs of Lhe Lransmlsslon medlum
Lhe naLure of Lhe slgnals Lhe daLa raLe and relaLed maLLers

1he network access |ayer ls concerned wlLh Lhe exchange of daLa beLween an
end sysLem and Lhe neLwork Lo whlch lL ls aLLached 1he sendlng compuLer musL
provlde Lhe neLwork wlLh Lhe address of Lhe desLlnaLlon compuLer so LhaL Lhe neLwork
may rouLe Lhe daLa Lo Lhe approprlaLe desLlnaLlon 1he sendlng compuLer may
wlsh Lo lnvoke cerLaln servlces such as prlorlLy LhaL mlghL be provlded by Lhe neLwork
1he speclflc sofLware used aL Lhls layer depends on Lhe Lype of neLwork Lo be
used dlfferenL sLandards have been developed for clrculLswlLchlng packeLswlLchlng
(eg x23) local area neLworks (eg LLherneL) and oLhers 1hus lL makes
sense Lo separaLe Lhose funcLlons havlng Lo do wlLh neLwork access lnLo a separaLe
layer 8y dolng Lhls Lhe remalnder of Lhe communlcaLlons sofLware above Lhe neLwork
access layer need noL be concerned abouL Lhe speclflcs of Lhe neLwork Lo be
used 1he same hlgherlayer sofLware should funcLlon properly regardless of Lhe
parLlcular neLwork Lo whlch Lhe compuLer ls aLLached

1he neLwork access layer ls concerned wlLh access Lo and rouLlng daLa across
a neLwork for Lwo end sysLems aLLached Lo Lhe same neLwork ln Lhose cases where
Lwo devlces are aLLached Lo dlfferenL neLworks procedures are needed Lo allow daLa
Lo Lraverse mulLlple lnLerconnecLed neLworks 1hls ls Lhe funcLlon of Lhe |nternet
|ayer 1he lnLerneL proLocol (l) ls used aL Lhls layer Lo provlde Lhe rouLlng funcLlon
across mulLlple neLworks 1hls proLocol ls lmplemenLed noL only ln Lhe end sysLems
buL also ln rouLers A rouLer ls a processor LhaL connecLs Lwo neLworks and whose
prlmary funcLlon ls Lo relay daLa from one neLwork Lo Lhe oLher on lLs rouLe from
Lhe source Lo Lhe desLlnaLlon end sysLem
8egardless of Lhe naLure of Lhe appllcaLlons LhaL are exchanglng daLa Lhere ls
usually a requlremenL LhaL daLa be exchanged rellably 1haL ls we would llke Lo be
assured LhaL all of Lhe daLa arrlve aL Lhe desLlnaLlon appllcaLlon and LhaL Lhe daLa
arrlve ln Lhe same order ln whlch Lhey were senL

1hus lL makes sense Lo collecL Lhose mechanlsms ln a common layer shared
by all appllcaLlons Lhls ls referred Lo as Lhe hosttohost |ayer or transport |ayer
1he Lransmlsslon conLrol proLocol (1C) ls Lhe mosL commonlyused proLocol Lo
provlde Lhls funcLlonallLy

llnally Lhe app||cat|on |ayer conLalns Lhe loglc needed Lo supporL Lhe varlous
user appllcaLlons lor each dlfferenL Lype of appllcaLlon such as flle Lransfer a separaLe
module ls needed LhaL ls pecullar Lo LhaL appllcaLlon

1C/l proLocols are lmplemenLed ln end sysLemsand relaLes Lhls descrlpLlon Lo Lhe
communlcaLlons model of llgure lla noLe LhaLLhe physlcal and neLwork access layers
provlde lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe end sysLemand Lhe neLwork whereas Lhe LransporL and
appllcaLlon layers are whaL ls known asendLoend proLocols Lhey supporL lnLeracLlon
beLween Lwo end sysLems 1he lnLerneLlayer has Lhe flavor of boLh