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Anangpuria Institute of Technology & Management Subject Code: CSE-208 E Subject Name: Internet Fundamentals UNIT: 2 (The Internet)
2.1
A computer network may be defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, and communication satellites can also be used. The term autonomous computers means, the computer system that can be controlled by itself by having own memory unit, control unit, and processor.
Privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of upto a few kilometers in size. LANs often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all the machines the machines are attached. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delay (tens of microseconds) and make very few errors. Newer LANs may operate at higher speeds, upto hundreds of megabits/seconds. LANs might be related to the telephone lines. 2.1.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A bigger version of a LAN. It cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public. Might be related to the local cable television network. 2.1.3 Wide Area Network (LAN)
Spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These machines are called as hosts. 2.1.4 Internetworks
2.2
Introduction to Internet
The Internet sometimes called the Information Superhighway, is a world wide publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a network of networks that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the World Wide Web. Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, etc.
2.3
History of Internet
The foundation of Internet is found by the global interconnection of hundreds of thousands of independent computers, communication entities, and the information systems. What makes the interconnection possible is the use of a set of communication standards, procedures and formats in common among the networks and the various devices and computational facilities connected to them. The procedures by which computers communicate with each other are called protocols. The history of Internet can be explained as follows: 2.3.1 In 1970s. Initially the protocols used by the Internet were the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP is the protocol that determines how computers connect, send, and receive information on the Internet. TCP permits communication between the various computers on the Internet and IP specify how the data is routed from computer to computer. In 1969, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (variously called ARPA/DARPA), an agency within the Department of Defense, commissioned a wide area computer network called ARPANET, to share super-computing power. This network made use of the new packet switching concepts for interconnecting computers and initially linked computers at Universities and other research institutions in the United States and in selected NATO countries. In 1970s, the ARPANET was essentially the only realistic wide-area computer network in existence with a base of several dozens organizations, perhaps twice that number of computers and numerous researchers at those sites. In Packet Switching, the data to be transmitted is divided into small packets of information and labeled to identify the sender and receiver. The packets were sent over a network and then reassembled at their destination. 2.3.2 In 1980s.
In 1980s, as the Internet grew, the Domain Name System (DNS) was developed, to allow the network to expand more easily by assigning names to host computers in a distributed fashion. 2.3.2 In 1990s. In 1990s, lots of commercial organizations started getting online. Graphical browsing tools were developed, and the programming language HTML allowed users all over the world to publish on what was called the World Wide Web. Millions of people went online to work, shop, bank and be entertained. The Key reasons for the Internets great success: 1. Decisions were made on a technical rather than political basis. 2. The Internet did not require a centralized structure that would not scale up; it was and is a distributed operation. 3. The Internet allowed people to do things of inherent interest, such as sending and receiving emails. 4. The software involved was free or very low cost. Based on the past history, it can be assumed that the Internet will continue to grow, change, support new applications.
2.4
Working of Internet
Working of Internet can be better explained by considering various issues as mentioned below: Network Benefits Interconnected Networks & Communication Physical Components Network Connections IP Addresses IPv6 Web Page Retrieval
Generate Savings: Networked computers can provide more computing power for less money. Several small computers connected on a network can provide as mush as or more computing power than a single, large computer and will cost much less. Also, since resources can be shared, not everyone needs their own peripherals, which can result in a substantial cost savings. Provide Reliability: If one part of a network is down, useful work may still be possible using a different network path. Simplify Scalability: It is relatively easy to add more computers to an existing network.
In addition to the message pieces, each packet of data also contains information about the computer that sent it, the computer it is being sent to, a sequence number indicating where the packet fits in the overall message and error checking information to ensure that packet is not corrupted while in transit. The packets are reassembled after being received at the destination computer. A message is sent from the destination computer to the sending computer to resend any missing or corrupted packets. This method of packet switching does not require the packets to be sent in sequential order. Packets IP is used to 1 2 3 1 2 3 Route the 4 5 6 TCP converts message Network 4 5 6 7 8 9 message into Original Message a stream of 7 8 9 packets 5 Source 1 4 7 2 3 6 9 8
Destination
Destination Computer
Client
Server
Service The client server model is based on the request serve principle as shown above. The client makes a request to the server for any information or resources over network by sending a request message. Then the server serves the client on his request by providing the required information or resources.
2.4.6 IP Addresses
Each computer connected over a network must have a unique name or address to be identified uniquely. Computers are best suited to manipulate numbers, thus every computer is assigned a numeric address, called IP Address. An IP Address is a 32 bit or four byte address, each byte separated by a dot. One byte represent a number from 0 (00000000) to 255 (11111111). Each IP Address consists of a network component and a Host Component.
Host
00000100
01111100
IP Address plays an important role in the routing of packets over the Internet. Source and Destination IP Addresses are included in each packet. In essence, the address provide directions on where the packets should go. A central authority manages IP Addresses; otherwise conflicts might arise. The Network Information Center (NIC) is in charge of assigning IP Addresses.
IP Addresses are 32 bit numbers, whereas Domain Names are easy to remember symbolic strings. A program called a Resolver takes care of the translation i.e., conversion of a symbolic name into its corresponding IP Address. Types of IP Addresses: 2.4.6.1 Static IP Address. A permanently assigned IP Address, one that is given to a computer or router connected to the Internet is called a static IP address. 2.4.6.2 Dynamic IP Address. If one is connected to the Internet through an ISP, then typically each time the user connects, he will be assigned a different IP address, called a dynamic IP address, from the ISPs pool of IP addresses.
http://www.bsaitm.org/cs.php The Web Page is retrieved using following steps: 1. Based on the actions, the browser determines that the URL selected was http://www.bsaitm.org/cs.php using the http protocol. 2. The browser queries the Domain Name System for the IP Address www.bsaitm.org. 3. Suppose the Domain Name System responds with the IP Address 192.1.123.25 4. The browser next establishes the TCP connection to 192.1.123.25. The default port for web servers is Port 80.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The browser then sends a message asking for the what part of the URL i.e., cs.php The server, www.bsaitm.org, services this request and sends back the file cs.php. The TCP connection is closed. This ends the conversation between the client and the server. The browser renders the text portion of the HTML code contained in the file cs.php. The browser repeats these steps to obtain any in line images contained in the file cs.php. The browser displays the image as they are retrieved.
2.5
Internet Congestion
The number of users and their demands continue to grow almost without bound, causing the congestion on the Internet. Once a user get a network connection, the factor limiting how quickly one can view Web Pages often becomes the speed with which the computer renders the pages. The computer speed depends on a complex balance of CPU speed, bus speed, memory quantity, disc speed, and so on. The slowest link speed involved in a connection determines the overall level of performance.
Some of the solutions offered involve HTTP itself, as well as improvements in the way HTTP and TCP/IP interact. The researchers have focused on the following issues: Improving the process of connecting to a Web Server. Introducing new techniques to expedite Web Page requests. Refining how a URL is resolved, using persistent connections that make it more efficient to retrieve pages from the same Web server. Since the Web page content (i.e. the graphics, sound, text, and/or video) dictates download time, one recommendation is to avoid unnecessary graphics. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), Web page design tool also has the potential to improve download time. Researchers recommend using PNG (Portable Network Graphics) format over the GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) for images on Web pages, since images are generally smaller than GIF and they render more quickly. Another step being taken is, reduction in size of router tables by rearranging how blocks of addresses are identified.
2.6
Internet Culture
Internet has emerged from being a research medium to one that includes advertising, commerce, and forums for exchanging ideas on a nearly infinite set of subjects.
The Platform for internet Content Selection (PICS) provides a set of technical specifications for designating labels to identify the content of Web pages. The PICS specifications works with vendor supplied filtering software and rating services like pop up blockers. Although PICS provides an alternative to government control of Internet content, many are still concerned about promoting any censorship technology.
While video conferencing is a way to include the otherwise missing audio and video, this technology is still in its infancy. To save time when typing messages, users sometimes employ a friendly shorthand for commonly used phrases like: BRB Be Right Back BTW By The Way LOL Laughing Out Loud TTYL Talk To You Later GM Good Morning
HRU How Are You Being rude or overly confrontational is called flaming, and such messages are called flames. Some people find it easy to be rude when they do not have to confront a person face to face. Flaming is not considered appropriate on the Internet; it violates the commonly accepted guidelines of netiquettes.
2.6.4 Advertising
Ads generate huge incomes for companies like Yahoo, Rediffmail, India Times, and so on. The web pages of these companies get millions of hits per day, so an ad placed on one of their web pages has a tremendous audience and provides the marketing experts a potential consumer base. Most of the ads shown on web pages are clickable images. Many of the most popular web pages have revolving advertisements; i.e. each time the user revisit the page, or while the user is visiting the page, he gets a different ad. Many users manage to browse the web without paying too much attention to the advertisements, other than noticing that the ads slow down the loading process. Obviously, the ads influence some people, because companies continue to invest huge amounts of money in them. The style, forms and content of ads is a rapidly emerging part of the Internet culture.
Business Culture
Many businesses are recognizing opportunities in on line activities. So Internet is being used for business purposes very widely.
For companies, this means a greater selection of services and products. For consumers, this means a greater selection of services and products. Internet provides various options for business like: Advertising Marketing Software Availability Communication
Cookies.
Sometimes when a user visit a Web page, information about the user is collected. It might be the name, password, preferences, credit card number, phone number, address, etc. A web server sends this information to the users browser, and the data is written to the cookies file stored on the users disk. This process is known as setting a cookie. Using cookies file, a web server can keep track of the web page the user visits. The next time the user visit a particular web page, the server will search the cookies file, retrieve the information stored there, and use that to customize its web page to accommodate the user. As the amount of data that can be stored in a cookie is very limited, the server stores an id for the user, fetches that id from the cookie, and then looks up in the server database for users more detailed profile and history. The purpose of putting information in the cookies file on the hard disk is to reduce the servers search time in locating a specific cookie, as the cookies file is limited in size. The information stored in cookies file may be retrieved and used to determine ones personal habits. Credit card security is a valid concern, but such numbers are encrypted. But it is generally considered to be harmful.
2.8
Collaborative Computing
Collaborative computing is defined as application that allow the sharing of information and resources between two or more people. It is also referred to as teamware or groupware. The World Wide Web, with its collection of Web pages, is a collaborative computing platform that employs HTML and Web Browsers. For example, Lotus Notes, Novells GroupWise, and Microsoft Exchange.
2.8.2 Applications
From customer and account service to research and product development, collaborative computing can enhance many aspects of business. 1. E-mail. The most basic collaborative computing application is email. Email has replaced the written memo in many organizations, saving time (distributing the memo) as well as more (paper cost). 2. Intelligent Form. Collaborative computing can simplify the process of filling out an expense report. Using an intelligent form, an employee need only enter expense amount; the expense figures are then automatically calculated and the report is electronically submitted. At any point in the process, the employee can track the report to determine its status. Similarly, purchase orders can be filled in and dispatched. This method permits the fast and easy distribution, as well as convenient tracking. 3. Version Control. In this application, the software makes it possible for more than one people to work on a document at the same time. The software keeps the track of the latest versions of the document, and updates all other copies as needed. 4. Video Conferencing. One of the most exciting applications of collaborative computing involves real time interaction through video teleconferencing or simply videoconferencing (VC). Business communication has involved the exchange of data and voice information; VC enables the real time exchange of colorful video images and audio.
2.8.3 Impact
The major benefits of collaborative computing are convenience and time savings; these amount to money. 1. Employees can examine, organize and rout data efficiently, while managers can have access to data easily and can find information in a timely manner. 2. Electronically forwarding and accessing information saves time, since paper does not have to be physically distributed. 3. The use of audio, graphics, and video plus text in a collaborative computing environment provides the means for clearer communications. 4. This can result in fewer errors and misunderstandings. 5. Travel time and expenses can be significantly reduced by collaborative computing, since being in the same location is no longer a prerequisite for the exchange of ideas.
In response, groupware providers are trying not to compete directly with the web technology. Instead, they are trying to make their products compatible with the web by allowing browsers to access their databases. The ease and effectiveness with which groupware can meld with the Internet may determine its success. Many businesses are already improving workers productivity through the use of collaborative computing. As developers overcome some of the current hurdles, collaborative computing will become even more prevalent.
2.9
Domain Name
A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. These names appear as a component of a Web site's URL, e.g. wikipedia.org. This type of domain name is also called a hostname.
The following example illustrates the difference between a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and a domain name: URL: http://www.example.net/index.html Domain name: www.example.net
2.9.1Top-level domains
Every domain name ends in a top-level domain (TLD) name, which is always either one of a small list of generic names (three or more characters), or a two-character territory code.
2.9.2Other-level domains
In addition to the top-level domains, there are second-level domain (SLD) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top-level domains. As an example, in the domain en.wikipedia.org, "wikipedia" is the second-level domain. On the next level are third-level domains. These domains are immediately to the left of a second-level domain. In the en.wikipedia.org example, "en" is a third-level domain. There can be fourth and fifth level domains and so on, with virtually no limitation. An example of a working domain with five levels is www.sos.state.oh.us. Each level is separated by a dot or period symbol between them. Domains of third or higher level are also known as subdomains, though this term technically applies to a domain of any level, since even a top-level domain is a "subdomain" of the "root" domain (a "zeroth-level" domain that is designated by a dot alone). Traditionally, the second level domain has been chosen based on the name of a company (i.e. microsoft.com). The third level was commonly used to designate a particular host server.
The structure of domain names followed a strict hierarchy in which the top level domain indicated the type of organization (commercial, governmental, etc.), and addresses would be nested down to third, fourth, or further levels to express complex structures, where, for instance, branches, departments, and subsidiaries of a parent organization would have addresses which were subdomains of the parent domain. Also, hostnames were intended to correspond to actual physical machines on the network, generally with only one name per machine. Within a particular top-level domain, parties are generally free to select an unallocated domain name as their own on a first come, first served basis
DNS servers
The Domain Name System consists of a hierarchical set of DNS servers. Each domain or subdomain has one or more authoritative DNS servers that publish information about that domain and the name servers of any domains "beneath" it. The hierarchy of authoritative DNS servers matches the hierarchy of domains. At the top of the hierarchy stand the root nameservers: the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a top-level domain name (TLD).
DNS resolvers
A resolver looks up the resource record information associated with nodes. A resolver knows how to communicate with name servers by sending DNS queries and heeding DNS responses.
A non-recursive query is one where the DNS server may provide a partial answer to the query (or give an error). DNS servers must support non-recursive queries. A recursive query is one where the DNS server will fully answer the query (or give an error). DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.
The resolver (or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver) negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. Resolving usually entails iterating through several name servers to find the needed information. However, some resolvers function simplistically and can only communicate with a single name server. These simple resolvers rely on a recursive query to a recursive name server to perform the work of finding information for them.
2.11.2Types of Modems
1. Long haul modems In the 1960s, Bell began to digitize the telephone system, and developed early high-speed radio modems for this purpose. Once digital long-haul networks were in place, they were leased for every other purpose. Optic fibre manufacturing was mastered in the 1980s, and optic modems were first invented for these early systems. The first systems simply used light-emitting diodes and PIN diodes. Faster modulation was quickly adopted for long-haul networks. In the 1990s, multispectral optical modems were adopted as well. 2. Narrowband/Phone-line Dialup Modems A standard modem of today contains two functional parts: an analog section for generating the signals and operating the phone, and a digital section for setup and control. This functionality is actually incorporated into a single chip, but the division remains in theory. In operation the modem can be in one of two "modes", data mode in which data is sent to and from the computer over the phone lines, and command mode in which the modem listens to the data from the computer for commands, and carries them out. A typical session consists of powering up the modem (often inside the computer itself) which automatically assumes command mode, then sending it the command for dialing a number. After the connection is established to the remote modem, the modem automatically goes into data mode, and the user can send and receive data. When the user is finished, the escape sequence, "+++" followed by a pause of about a second, is sent to the modem to return it to command mode, and the command ATH to hang up the phone is sent. 3. Radio modems Direct broadcast satellite, WiFi, and mobile phones all use modems to communicate, as do most other wireless services today. Modern telecommunications and data networks also make extensive use of radio modems where long distance data links are required. Such systems are an important part of the PSTN, and are also in common use for highspeed computer network links to outlying areas where fibre is not economical. Even where a cable is installed, it is often possible to get better performance or make other parts of the system simpler by using radio frequencies and modulation techniques through a cable. 4. Broadband DSL modem ADSL modems, a more recent development, are not limited to the telephone's "voiceband" audio frequencies. Some ADSL modems use coded orthogonal frequency division modulation (DMT).
Cable modems use a range of frequencies originally intended to carry RF television channels. Multiple cable modems attached to a single cable can use the same frequency band, using a low-level media access protocol to allow them to work together within the same channel. Typically, 'up' and 'down' signals are kept separate using frequency division multiple access. New types of broadband modems are beginning to appear, such as doubleway satellite and powerline modems 5. Voice modem Voice modems are regular modems that are capable of recording or playing audio over the telephone line. They are used for telephony applications. See Voice modem command set for more details on voice modems. This type of modem can be used as FXO card for Private branch exchange systems
2.12.2 Complex Communications Software There are a couple of complex communications softwares but most of them involve transferring of data from, computer to computer, human to computer and vice versa. Satellite Communications One of the most complex functions for me is satellite communications. It would involve a lot of algorithm and sophisticated tools in order to make the communication work, it is one of the programs, being utilize to make our lives easier through tracking and allowing us to connect to it and seeing through its vision.
Cell Sites For me, Cellular technology is one of the best breakthroughs of the past 20 years since it now allows us to have simple, quick and reliable communication between any two mobile phones and other modes of communications in a push of a button. Overall, Communications software has been around for a long while and they had always been one of the most powerful programs out there however communication software always stays in the shadows of the flashy hardware that use them. Counter sites Free Counter sites also represent a good resource for webmasters and software developers. They enable you to keep track on how many visitors your are recieving while at the same time providing the visitors with feedback.