Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis

(see Chapter 20: Unifying Concepts of Animal Structure and Function in Campbell et al.) Powerpoint slides Background Much of the second semester of the 129/130 sequence will focus on the processes of human physiology. Physiology is fundamentally the study of how the body functions in terms of physical and chemical processes, or as a machine. Not so long ago, even the best trained doctors and scientists had little understanding of the complex processes that allow humans and other animals to live. It was commonly believed that all life differed from non-living things by the possession of a mysterious life force. Blood, lymph, and other fluids contained by the body were termed vital humors and were believed to impart particular qualities to a person. Over the past century, there was an explosion in our understanding of how the body works in terms of observable, measurable processes of chemistry and physics. Physiology is an exciting, dynamic field that continues to uncover a deeper understanding of the mechanisms controlling our bodys many functions. We are beginning to make connections directly between genetic information and physiological function and this level of understanding will continue to grow, particularly with the completion of the Human Genome Project. To understand even basic physiology, it is essential to possess at least a basic understanding of chemistry, physics, and cell biology. Our bodies are composed of tissues and organs that are built from specialized cells, which are in turn composed of atoms and molecules. This hierarchical organization of our bodies means that physiology encompasses multiple levels of study, from genetics and cell biology to the study of integrated organ systems. In order to fully understand physiological processes, we need to introduce some basic definitions. Levels of Organization As cells become specialized for specific functions, they are called tissues. Tissues represent a basic division of labor, where certain tissues carry out specific functions. Muscle tissues, for example, are specialized for the production of mechanical work. These cells impart the ability for voluntary movement, as well as the pumping of our hearts and the unconscious control provided by smooth muscles. We generally recognize four basic primary tissues types, from which more complex organs and organ systems are built. These tissues are the following: 1. Muscle tissue: produce mechanical work through shortening. Skeletal muscles are responsible for moving us through the world, primarily through voluntary muscle contraction. Cardiac muscles form the bulk of the heart and provide the active

pumping of blood throughout our bodies. Smooth muscles are embedded in our digestive tracts, blood vessels, and other places throughout the body. Both cardiac and smooth muscles are outside of our conscious control. 2. Nervous tissue: provide communication and coordinate organ systems via rapid electrical signaling. Neurons are the cells of the nervous systems responsible for the production and propagation of electrical impulses. Neuroglial cells represent a diverse group of cells that play a supportive role in the nervous system. 3. Epithelial tissue: cover surfaces both outside and inside our bodies. The skin is a familiar example of epithelial tissue, but in reality only the outermost layer is epithelial tissue. (Most of our skin is composed of a complex assemblage of connective tissue, muscles, and nerves.) Epithelial tissues also line the inside of our digestive tract, urinary tract, blood vessels, ducts, and other structures. In some cases, epithelial tissues act as a barrier, preventing water and other compounds from crossing. In other cases, epithelial tissues are instrumental in selectively regulating the passage of specific compounds into our blood and other fluids. 4. Connective tissue: is a catch all group that includes a diverse set of tissues. Connective tissue is defined as possessing a few cells, surrounding by a large amount of extracellular matrix. The definition applies equally to tendons, bone, ligaments, adipose tissue, and even blood. However, in many cases connective tissue provide a level of physical support. Primary tissue types generally function as part of a more complex organ. Organs are defined as a structures consisting of two or more primary tissue types that carry out a common function. When we think of organs, we often think of things like the liver, stomach, kidneys, etc. While these structures are certainly organs, other examples are less obvious. Our skin, for example, is composed of multiple primary tissue types. Starting with the outside, epithelial cells form a barrier that separates our bodies from the rest of the world. Supporting this epithelial layer is a thicker layer of connective tissue that contains the collagen, elastin, and other structural proteins that give our skin its familiar physical properties. Coursing through the connective tissue are nerves and smooth muscles that provide sensory information and other processes. Through this example, we can see that the skin is, in fact, an organ, not just simple epithelial tissue. Our skin serves multiple purposes, from simple protection, to providing sensory information, to controlling body temperature. Similarly, most of our bodys organs serve multiple roles. Individual organs are built into organ systems, which are comprised of two or more organs functioning together in an integrated fashion. The cardiovascular system, for

example, is comprised of two different sets of organs. First, the heart provides the driving force to propel blood though our bodies; and second, the vasculature (blood vessels) carry the blood to and from the heart. The major organ systems of the body include: 1. digestive system, 2. respiratory system, 3. cardiovascular system, 4. lymphatic system, 5. immune system, 6. urinary system, 7. endocrine system, 8. reproductive system, 9. nervous system, 10. muscular system, 11. skeletal system, and 12. the integumentary system. Finally, our bodies are composed of multiple organ systems that work together in a coordinated way. One example of this coordination of multiple systems is the regulation of blood sugar (glucose). Blood glucose levels are normally maintained at about 90 mg/dL and supply all of our cells with energy. If glucose levels fall very much below this level, the hormone glucagon is released from the pancreas, stimulating the release of glucose from glycogen stores in the liver. Before glucose can be utilized by the cells, the hormone insulin must be secreted from the pancreas to stimulate glucose uptake by the cells. In addition, as blood is filtered in the kidney, the kidney tubules must efficiently reabsorb glucose so that it is not lost in the urine. As this example illustrates, simply maintaining the concentration of a single solute in the blood requires the coordinate function of the digestive system (liver), endocrine system (insulin and glucagon in the pancreas), cardiovascular system (blood), and the urinary system (kidneys). Homeostasis As the above example illustrates, many of the parameters in our bodies are maintained within fairly narrow limits, through a process of homeostasis. Homeostasis is a dynamic constancy or equilibrium of the parameters of our bodies. The parameters include factors such as blood glucose concentrations, blood pH, body temperature, and blood ion concentrations to name a few. The term dynamic (changeable) is important here, because these levels are not absolutely stable or unchangeable, but are maintained within a relatively narrow range. Homeostasis is often achieved by a process of negative feedback, where the result of one process later inhibits that same process. A good example of negative feedback comes from the heating and cooling systems that operate in our homes. If the house becomes too cold, a sensor in the thermostat detects this change and a switch in the thermostat turns on the furnace. As the temperature rises to a critical level, the sensor in the thermostat detects the temperature change and the switch turns off the furnace. So, the process of heating the house eventually inhibits, or turns off, the furnace. Our bodies often work in the same fashion. If glucose levels fall too low, the alpha cells of the pancreas sense this change and respond by secreting glucagons. As glucose levels rise, glucagons secretion is inhibited and insulin secretion from the beta cells of the pancreas is stimulated. The secreted insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose and the

levels in the blood return to normal. In both of the above examples of negative feedback, the same basic components are in play. First, sensors are required to detect changes in a parameter. In the case of house temperature, the sensor is part of the thermostat; in blood glucose levels, the sensor resides in the pancreas. Next, a control center is required to respond to the needed changes. This is represented by the switch in the thermostat, or by the hormone secreting cells of the pancreas. Finally, effectors are required to cause the necessary type of change. The furnace in the house fits this bill, while the hormones insulin and glucagon stimulate change in blood glucose levels. As we begin to study the nervous system, we will see that it possesses the same components for responding to changes in the external or internal environment. Our complex sensory system detects changes of different kinds, our central nervous system processes this information, and our motor system responds with the appropriate reaction.