Drilling Fluids Flow Behavior

Fluid Mechanics for Drilling
Fluid Rheology& Flow

Regimes
Dr Reza Ettehadi Osgouei
Petroleum Engineering
Department
PAB4333 - Advanced Drilling Engineering
The concept that a fluid cannot maintain a rigid shape is a basic,
but important characteristic, which means that fluids cannot
sustain a shear stress (a tangential force applied to the surface).
Rheology is the study of the deformation of fluids.
The fluid flow behavior is described by an applied shear stress
and the resulting shear rate within that fluid.
In general
DRILLING FLUIDS
shear stress
Two parallel fluid layers are separated by a distance dy. An applied
force, F, acting over an area, A, causes the layers to slide past one
another. The resistance to this sliding movement, the frictional drag, is
called shear stress.
Shear stress, t, is defined as the force per unit area required to sustain a
constant rate of fluid movement.
Or, an applied force, F, acting along a unit surface area, A, tending to
deform the fluid element.
Mathematically:
F
A
t =
DRILLING FLUIDS
shear rate: Consider that a fluid is placed between two parallel
plates that are 1.0 cm apart, the upper plate moving at a velocity of 1.0
cm/sec and the lower plate fixed. The fluid layer at the lower plate is
not moving and the layer nearest the top plate is moving at 1.0 cm/sec.
Halfway between the plate, a layer is moving at 0.5 cm/sec. The velocity
gradient is the rate of change of velocity with distance from the plates.
This simple case shows the uniformvelocity gradient with shear rate (v1
- v2)/h = shear rate = (cm/sec)/(cm/1) = 1/sec.
Shear rate, , is the velocity gradient, i.e., is the rate of change of
velocity at which one layer of fluid passes over an adjacent layer.
Mathematically:
DRILLING FLUIDS
dv
dy
=
It has been shown experimentally that the force per unit
area (shear stress) applied to a fluid is proportional to the
velocity change of two fluid layers (shear rate) a unit
distance apart:
where n (power index) depends on the type of fluid.
DRILLING FLUIDS
Time
independent
Fluid
Newtonian
Fluids
Non
Newtonian
Fluids
Pseudoplastic
Power law
Herschel-
Bulkley
Bingham
plastic
Dilatant
DRILLING FLUIDS
Newtonian fluid
Newtonian fluids are those whose flow
behavior call be fully described by a
single term called the Newtonian
viscosity, .
For these fluids. examples of which
include water and light oil.
The shear stress is related to shear rate
linearly with the proportionality
constant being the Newtonian
constant viscosity, .
In engineering units,
t is in dyne/cm
2
= 4.79 lbs/100 ft
2
is in s
-1
is in poise= dyne x s/cm
2
The field unit of viscosity is the
centipoise (1 poise = 100 centipoise).
The field unit of shear stress-is lbs/100
ft
2
.
t =
non-Newtonian fluid
A fluid whose viscosity is not
constant at all shear rates and
does not behave like a Newtonian
fluid.
Most successful drilling fluids
are non-Newtonian.
Within that group are several
general types and rheological
mathematical models to describe
them.
Pseudoplastic is a general type of
shear-thinning, non-Newtonian
behavior that is desirable for
drilling fluids.
Source / Illustrations: glossary.oilfield.slb.com
Pseudoplastic
Pseudoplastic is a general type of
shear-thinning, (i.e., the apparent
viscosity decreases as the shear rate
increases) non-Newtonian behavior
that is desirable for drilling fluids.
Pseudoplastic rheology: low viscosity
at high shear rates and high viscosity
at low shear rates, benefits several
aspects of drilling-higher drilling rate
and improved cuttings lifting.
Bingham plastic and power-law
models describe a psuedoplastic
behavior using only two
measurements (two parameters).
The Herschel-Bulkley model is a
three-parameter rheological model
t =
( )
n
K t =
y p
t t = +
( )
n
y
K t t = +
Bingham plastic model. Fluids that
conformto the Bingham plastic model
do not have a constant viscosity and
require a certain minimum stress to
initiate flow. The yield point, or
threshold stress, is the y intercept.
Bingham Plastics include thickened
hydrocarbon greases, certain asphalts
and bitumen, some emulsions
PV should be as low as possible for
fast drilling and is best achieved by
minimizing colloidal solids.
YP must be high enough to carry
cuttings out of the hole, but not so
large as to create excessive pump
pressure when starting mud flow.
DRILLING FLUIDS
y p
t t = +
Power-law fluid
A fluid described by the two-parameter rheological model of a pseudo
plastic fluid, or a fluid whose viscosity decreases as shear rate increases
In this equation, K is the consistency index and n is the flow behavior
index. The flow behavior index is readily determined as the slope of a
plot of t vs on logarithmic coordinates. The value of n is less than
unity for Power Law .
Example: Water-base polymer muds, especially those made with XC
polymer
( )
n
K t =
DRILLING FLUIDS
Herschel-Bulkley fluid (Yield
Power Law)
A fluid described by a three-
parameter rheological model. A
Herschel-Bulkley fluid can be
described mathematically as
follows:
Many clay-water behave as
Herschel-Bulkley fluid
( )
n
y
K t t = +
DRILLING FLUIDS
Some Important Definitions
Viscosity : Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow. It is
equal to the ratio of shearing stress to the rate of shearing strain.
Plastic Viscosity : The plastic viscosity is the part of the flow
resistance of the fluid caused by mechanical friction within the fluid.
This mechanical friction is due to
1. the interaction of individual solid particles,
2. solid and liquid particles
3. the deformation (shearing) of the liquid particles under shear
stress.
The amount of solid particles, their size, distribution and their shape
have direct effect on the plastic viscosity.
DRILLING FLUIDS
Some Important Definitions
Yield Stress : The yield stress is the part of the flow
resistance of the fluid caused by electrochemical forces
within the fluid.
These electrochemical forces are due to
1. the electrical charges on the surface of reactive
particles,
2. the electrical charges on the sub-micron particles
3. the presence of the electrolytes in the case of water-
base muds.
DRILLING FLUIDS
Effective Circulating Viscosity
Most drilling muds commonly used in the field exhibit viscous
properties which are shear rate dependent. During normal drilling, the
mud being circulated experiences different velocities in the various
sections of the circulating system ranging from practically 0 ft/s in the
pits to over 300 ft/s across the jets of the drill bit. These wide ranging
velocities give rise to mud shear rates of less than 5 sec
-1
in mud pits to
over 100,000 sec
-1
across the bit jets.
The effective circulating viscosity: therefore, can be defined as the
viscosity of the mud at a given shear rate in a particular section of the
circulating systemunder given conditions of pressure and temperature.
where
e
is in cp, K is in lbf/ft
2
(sec
-1
)
n
, annular velocity, v
a,
is in ft/s and
wellbore diameter, D
w
, and pipe diameter, D
p
, are in inches.
1
47913.6
n
a
e
w p
v
K
D D

| |
=
|
|
\ .
DRILLING FLUIDS
1. Place a freshly stirred sample in a
container and immerse the rotor-sleeve
exactly to the scribed line.
2. Start the motor by placing the switch in
the high-speed position with the gear
shift all the way down. Wait for a steady
indicator dial value, and record the 600
RPM reading. Change gears only when
motor is running.
3. Change switch to the 300-RPM speed.
Wait for a steady value and record 300-
RPMreading.
4. Plastic viscosity in centipoise = 600
reading minus 300 reading (see Figure).
5. Yield Point in lb/100 ft2 = 300 reading
minus plastic viscosity in centipoise.
6. Apparent viscosity in centipoise = 600
reading divided by 2.
DRILLING FLUIDS
Field measurements of viscosity:
Newtonian Fluid :
where is the Newtonian viscosity in cp, u
N
is the viscometer dial
reading at rotational speed, N.
Bingham Plastic Fluid :
For N=300 and 600 rpm:
where
p
is the plastic viscosity in cp, t
y
is the yield point in lbf/100 ft
2
t =
300
N
N
u
=
y p
t t = + 300
y
N
p
N N
t
u
| |
=
|
\ .
600 300 p
u u =
300 600
2
y
t u u =
DRILLING FLUIDS
Power Law Fluid and Herschel-Bulkley fluid (Yield Power Law):
In filed units, ( Power Law )
where n is the Power Law index, K is the consistency index in eq.cp and
u
o
is the zero gel in lbf/100 ft
2
. The shear rate, (sec
-1
), can be expressed
in terms of N as
( )
n
K t =
2
3.32log
N o
N o
n
u u
u u
| |
=
|
\ . ( )
N o
n
N
K
u u

=
( )
( )
510
N
n
N
K
u
=
DRILLING FLUIDS
1.704 N =
Example
- You are given the following data
Mud, powerlaw
600= 65: 300 = 40;
10s/10min; gel = 15/25 lbs/l00 ft2
Drill pipe
OD = 4.5 in.
ID=4in.
Air weight = 14 lbs/ft
Drill collar
OD = 7.5 in.
ID=4in.
Air weight = 110 lbs/ft
LDC = 1,000 ft
flow rate of 400 gpm.
Hole
Last intermediate casing set
8.5 in. ID set at 16.000 ft TVD open hole
washed out to 8.5 in. using a 7.5 in. bit
-Determine
Plastic viscosity
Yield Point
Apparent viscosity
Effective Circulating
n is the Power Law index,
K is the consistency index
Viscosity in each section
Flow Regimes: A range of stream flows
having similar bed forms, flow resistance,
and means of transporting .
Laminar flow is a streamline flow where all
fluid particles move along lines parallel to the
axis of the conduit, and adjacent fluid layers
slip past each other with no mixing of
particles. In steady state conditions, inside
circular conduits, laminar flow can be
visualized as a series of concentric cylinders
slipping pass one another as shown in figure.
http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p
=C20E2B3106BCA23D
As the fluid velocity becomes higher, The
particle travel in irregular paths with no
observable pattern and no definite layer.
Turbulent flow is characterized by the
irregular movement of particles of the fluid.
Laminar Flow is usually found in
the annulus during drilling
operations.
This type of flow is generally desired in
the annulus since
it does not lead to hole erosion
does not produce excessive pressure
drops.
Smoke rising from a cigarette is
turbulent flow. For the first few
centimeters, the flow is certainly
laminar. Then smoke becomes
turbulent as its Reynolds number
increases
Turbulent Flow is the type of
flow regime found inside the
drill string during drilling
operations.
Since high mud velocities are
required to achieve turbulent flow,
this results in high pressure drops.
This type of flow is generally not
desired in the annulus due to its
tendency to cause excessive hole
erosion and high equivalent
circulating densities.
However, turbulent flow can
move the mud like a plug, causing
the mud to move at approximately
the same rate. This provides for
better hole cleaning and is
sometimes required on high angle
holes.
The Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. It is generally used to determine whether a
flow regime is laminar or turbulent. For Newtonian straight pipe flow, it has been
established experimentally that the critical Reynolds number, i.e., the number above
which flow is no more laminar, has a value approximately equal to 2100.
Mathematically, Reynolds number is given by
where is the fluid density, v is the average fluid velocity, D is the pipe
diameter and is the fluid viscosity. In field units, N
Re
can be expressed as
where is in ppg, v is in ft/s, D is in in and is in cp.
Re
v D
N

=
Re
928 v D
N

=
Example
An oil well is expected to produce at a rate of 480
SBPD (standard barrel per day). If the viscosity of the
oil is 5 cp and its specific gravity is 0.8, determine the
minimum size of production tubing to be installed in
the well such that laminar flow is maintained. Assume
fluid is Newtonian.
Introduction
The calculations of friction pressure losses in the
rotary rig circulating system are important and
essential because of their direct bearing on
Drill bit hydraulic program design
ECD during tripping in and out of wellbore
ECD during drilling and well control operations
Fluid Flow and Associated Pressure
Drill bit hydraulic program design
To ensure optimum drilling conditions, necessary calculations
Pump operating requirements,
optimum flow rates,
corresponding optimum drill bit nozzle sizes
In drilling, pump pressure (P
p
) required in order to drill to a
certain depth for a given set of operating conditions is equal to
the total friction pressure (P
f
) losses in the circulating system
plus the dynamic pressure changes (generally those across jet
bits P
B
)-that is,
where
P
p
is the required pump delivery pressure
P
f
is the circulating system friction pressure loss
P
B
is the dynamic pressure across bit nozzles
P
p
=P
f
+ P
B
Pressure changes during tripping and casing operations
(Swab/Surge Pressures)
What is swab pressure?
Swab Pressure: If a drill string , casing
string or logging tool is being pulled out of
hole too fast, due to bigger diameter
almost same hole size, BHA/ bit, casing or
logging tool will possibly swab mud out of
hole, like pulling small a piston of syringe.
For this reason, hydrostatic pressure of
bottom hole will be reduced. Pressure
reduction created by this situation is called
Swab Pressure. If swab pressure is too
much, kick (wellbore influx) may be into
the hole and well control must be
conducted in order to secure well.
Mathematically
where
P
aei
is the equivalent mud pressure at some well depth D
i
in the
annulus
P
ahi
is the mud hydrostatic pressure at D
i
P
a swb
is the swab pressure gradient in the annulus (in psi\ft)
or in terms of mud weight,
where

me
is referred to as the equivalent circulating mud weight

mh
is the actual mud weight while not moving

a swb
is the change in mud weight due to the swab pressure
for safe drilling,
me
>
ff
where
ff
is the formation pressure gradient
P
aei
=P
ahi
-D
i
P
a swb
me
=
mh
-
a swb
Pressure changes during tripping and casing operations
(Swab/Surge Pressures)
What is surge pressure?
Surge Pressure: When pipe moves
downward with mud circulation
through drill string, additional
bottom hole pressure called Surge
Pressure is created. If surge
pressure is too much, many
problems will occur as formation
brake down, partial mud loss and
lost circulation.
And...
where
P
aei
is the equivalent mud pressure at some well depth D
i
in the annulus
P
ahi
is the mud hydrostatic pressure at D
i
P
a swb
is the surg pressure gradient in the annulus (in psi\ft)
or in terms of mud weight,
where

me
is referred to as the equivalent circulating mud weight

mh
is the actual mud weight while not moving

a swb
is the change in mud weight due to the surg pressure
for safe drilling,
me
<
frac
where
frac
is the formation fracture
gradient
P
aei
=P
ahi+
D
i
P
a surg
me
=
mh
+
a surg
Pressure changes during drilling
During drilling, the friction pressure losses in the
annulus will effectively increase the mud weight,
resulting in an ECD that ,as in the case of surge
pressures, may cause fracturing 0f formation:
where
a f
is the change in mud weight in annulus
owing to the friction pressure loss gradient in the
annulus.
For safe drilling,
me
<
frac
. A similar situation may be
encountered during well control operations.
me
=
mh
+
a f
Mechanical Energy and Pressure Balance
The study of fluid dynamics is based on three physical laws:
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of mass
These laws, when combined with
the fluid rheological models (Newtonian, Bingham, power law, and
yield power law)
the fluid state (compressible or incompressible)
fluid-flow regime (Laminar or turbulent)
the conduit type (pipe, annular or slot flow)
constitute all the conditions required in order to formulate a fluid dynamic
problem.
The mechanical energy balance equation
for an incompressible fluid entering a
physical system at point i and leaving it at
some point j can be written as
where
D is the elevation
is the fluid weight density
V is the average fluid velocity
P is the pressure
W
p
is the work done by pump
W
f
is the friction energy loss
(D
j
-D
i
)+(\2g)(V
2
j
-V
2
i
)+P
j
-P
i
=
Wp + W
f
The mechanical energy balance equation for an incompressible fluid entering a
physical system at point i and leaving it at some point j can be written as
where
P
h
is the hydrostatic head
P
d
is the dynamic pressure
P
p
is the pump pressure
P
f
is the pressure loss due to friction In drilling, the circulation system can
De visualized as a U-tube
P
h
+ P
d
+ P
j
-P
i
= P
p
-P
f
In drilling, the circulation systemcan be visualized as a U-tube
P
p
=P
f
+ P
B
The available pump surface pressure or what is normally
referred to as the circulating stand-pipe pressure is
expanded throughout the circulating system in the
following manner:
where P
p
is the operating pressure, P
s
is the frictional
losses at the surface connections, P
dp
is the frictional losses
inside the drillpipes, P
dc
is the frictional losses inside the
drill collars, P
adc
is the frictional losses in the annular space
of the wellbore and the drill collars, P
adp
is the frictional
losses in the annular space of the wellbore and the
drillpipes, and P
b
is the frictional losses at the bit.
p s dp dc adc adp b
P P P P P P P = + + + + +
Pressure Drop across the Bit Nozzles (Jets)
P
h
+ P
d
+ P
j
-P
i
= P
p
-P
f
P
i
-P
j
= (\2g)(V
2
j
-V
2
i
)
P
p
=0 P
f
, P
h
negligible
P
i
-P
j
= P
b
=(\2g)(V
2
j
)= (\2g)(V
2
exit
)
V
i
negligible
The actual exit velocity of the jets is always smaller than
will be predicted by this equation owing to the assumption
made regarding the frictionless state of the jets. To
compensate for this difference, a modifying factor called
the nozzle (jet) discharge coefficient. C
d
, which will be
implemented in equation
The value of C
d
, is assumed to be 0.95 unless otherwise specified.
when the following field units are used:
Q is in gpm
is in Ibs\gal
A
t
is in in.
2
C
d
is a nondimensional term
P
b
is in psi
Since
References
Slides presented were prepared with illustrations from the following
referenced documents:
-Drilling Engineering: Amazon.ca: J. J. Azar, G. Robello Samuel: Books
-http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
DRILLING FLUIDS

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