age 1 of 12

uS Supreme CourL
MAk8Uk v MADISCN S US 137 (1803)
S US 137 (Cranch)
WILLIAM MAk8Uk
v
IAMLS MADISCN Secretary of State of the Un|ted States
Iebruary 1erm 1803
A1 Lhe uecember Lerm 1801 Wllllam Marbury uennls 8amsay 8oberL 1ownsend Pooe and Wllllam Parper by Lhelr counsel 3 uS 137 138 severally moved Lhe courL for
a rule Lo !ames Madlson secreLary of sLaLe of Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo show cause why a mandamus should noL lssue commandlng hlm Lo cause Lo be dellvered Lo Lhem
respecLlvely Lhelr several commlsslons as [usLlces of Lhe peace ln Lhe dlsLrlcL of Columbla
1hls moLlon was supporLed by affldavlLs of Lhe followlng facLs LhaL noLlce of Lhls moLlon had been glven Lo Mr Madlson LhaL Mr Adams Lhe laLe presldenL of Lhe unlLed
SLaLes nomlnaLed Lhe appllcanLs Lo Lhe senaLe for Lhelr advlce and consenL Lo be appolnLed [usLlces of Lhe peace of Lhe dlsLrlcL of Columbla LhaL Lhe senaLe advlsed and
consenLed Lo Lhe appolnLmenLs LhaL commlsslons ln due form were slgned by Lhe sald presldenL appolnLlng Lhem [usLlces c and LhaL Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes was ln
due form afflxed Lo Lhe sald commlsslons by Lhe secreLary of sLaLe LhaL Lhe appllcanLs have requesLed Mr Madlson Lo dellver Lhem Lhelr sald commlsslons who has noL
complled wlLh LhaL requesL and LhaL Lhelr sald commlsslons are wlLhheld from Lhem LhaL Lhe appllcanLs have made appllcaLlon Lo Mr Madlson as secreLary of sLaLe of Lhe
unlLed SLaLes aL hls offlce for lnformaLlon wheLher Lhe commlsslons were slgned and sealed as aforesald LhaL expllclL and saLlsfacLory lnformaLlon has noL been glven ln
answer Lo LhaL lnqulry elLher by Lhe secreLary of sLaLe or any offlcer ln Lhe deparLmenL of sLaLe LhaL appllcaLlon has been made Lo Lhe secreLary of Lhe senaLe for a cerLlflcaLe
of Lhe nomlnaLlon of Lhe appllcanLs and of Lhe advlce and consenL of Lhe senaLe who has decllned glvlng such a cerLlflcaLe whereupon a rule was made Lo show cause on Lhe
fourLh day of Lhls Lerm 1hls rule havlng been duly served 3 uS 137 139 Mr !acob Wagner and Mr uanlel 8renL who had been summoned Lo aLLend Lhe courL and were
requlred Lo glve evldence ob[ecLed Lo be sworn alleglng LhaL Lhey were clerks ln Lhe deparLmenL of sLaLe and noL bound Lo dlsclose any facLs relaLlng Lo Lhe buslness or
LransacLlons of Lhe offlce
1he courL ordered Lhe wlLnesses Lo be sworn and Lhelr answers Laken ln wrlLlng buL lnformed Lhem LhaL when Lhe quesLlons were asked Lhey mlghL sLaLe Lhelr ob[ecLlons Lo
answerlng each parLlcular quesLlon lf Lhey had any
Mr Llncoln who had been Lhe acLlng secreLary of sLaLe when Lhe clrcumsLances sLaLed ln Lhe affldavlLs occurred was called upon Lo glve LesLlmony Pe ob[ecLed Lo
answerlng 1he quesLlons were puL ln wrlLlng
1he courL sald Lhere was noLhlng confldenLlal requlred Lo be dlsclosed lf Lhere had been he was noL obllged Lo answer lL and lf he LhoughL any Lhlng was communlcaLed Lo
hlm confldenLlally he was noL bound Lo dlsclose nor was he obllged Lo sLaLe any Lhlng whlch would crlmlnaLe hlmself
1he quesLlons argued by Lhe counsel for Lhe relaLors were 1 WheLher Lhe supreme courL can award Lhe wrlL of mandamus ln any case 2 WheLher lL wlll lle Lo a secreLary of
sLaLe ln any case whaLever 3 WheLher ln Lhe presenL case Lhe courL may award a mandamus Lo !ames Madlson secreLary of sLaLe
3 uS 137 133
Mr Chlef !usLlce MA8SPALL dellvered Lhe oplnlon of Lhe courL
AL Lhe lasL Lerm on Lhe affldavlLs Lhen read and flled wlLh Lhe clerk a rule was granLed ln Lhls case requlrlng Lhe secreLary of sLaLe Lo show cause why a mandamus 3 uS
137 134 should noL lssue dlrecLlng hlm Lo dellver Lo Wllllam Marbury hls commlsslon as a [usLlce of Lhe peace for Lhe counLy of WashlngLon ln Lhe dlsLrlcL of Columbla
no cause has been shown and Lhe presenL moLlon ls for a mandamus 1he pecullar dellcacy of Lhls case Lhe novelLy of some of lLs clrcumsLances and Lhe real dlfflculLy
aLLendlng Lhe polnLs whlch occur ln lL requlre a compleLe exposlLlon of Lhe prlnclples on whlch Lhe oplnlon Lo be glven by Lhe courL ls founded
1hese prlnclples have been on Lhe slde of Lhe appllcanL very ably argued aL Lhe bar ln renderlng Lhe oplnlon of Lhe courL Lhere wlll be some deparLure ln form Lhough noL ln
subsLance from Lhe polnLs sLaLed ln LhaL argumenL
age 2 of 12

ln Lhe order ln whlch Lhe courL has vlewed Lhls sub[ecL Lhe followlng quesLlons have been consldered and declded
1 Pas Lhe appllcanL a rlghL Lo Lhe commlsslon he demands?
2 lf he has a rlghL and LhaL rlghL has been vlolaLed do Lhe laws of hls counLry afford hlm a remedy?
3 lf Lhey do afford hlm a remedy ls lL a mandamus lssulng from Lhls courL?
1he flrsL ob[ecL of lnqulry ls
1 Pas Lhe appllcanL a rlghL Lo Lhe commlsslon he demands?
Pls rlghL orlglnaLes ln an acL of congress passed ln lebruary 1801 concernlng Lhe dlsLrlcL of Columbla
AfLer dlvldlng Lhe dlsLrlcL lnLo Lwo counLles Lhe elevenLh secLlon of Lhls law enacLs LhaL Lhere shall be appolnLed ln and for each of Lhe sald counLles such number of dlscreeL
persons Lo be [usLlces of Lhe peace as Lhe presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes shall from Llme Lo Llme Lhlnk expedlenL Lo conLlnue ln offlce for flve years 3 uS 137 133 lL
appears from Lhe affldavlLs LhaL ln compllance wlLh Lhls law a commlsslon for Wllllam Marbury as a [usLlce of peace for Lhe counLy of WashlngLon was slgned by !ohn Adams
Lhen presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes afLer whlch Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes was afflxed Lo lL buL Lhe commlsslon has never reached Lhe person for whom lL was made ouL
ln order Lo deLermlne wheLher he ls enLlLled Lo Lhls commlsslon lL becomes necessary Lo lnqulre wheLher he has been appolnLed Lo Lhe offlce lor lf he has been appolnLed
Lhe law conLlnues hlm ln offlce for flve years and he ls enLlLled Lo Lhe possesslon of Lhose evldences of offlce whlch belng compleLed became hls properLy
1he second secLlon of Lhe second arLlcle of Lhe consLlLuLlon declares Lhe presldenL shall nomlnaLe and by and wlLh Lhe advlce and consenL of Lhe senaLe shall appolnL
ambassadors oLher publlc mlnlsLers and consuls and all oLher offlcers of Lhe unlLed SLaLes whose appolnLmenLs are noL oLherwlse provlded for
1he Lhlrd secLlon declares LhaL he shall commlsslon all Lhe offlcers of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
An acL of congress dlrecLs Lhe secreLary of sLaLe Lo keep Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo make ouL and record and afflx Lhe sald seal Lo all clvll commlsslons Lo offlcers of Lhe
unlLed SLaLes Lo be appolnLed by Lhe presldenL by and wlLh Lhe consenL of Lhe senaLe or by Lhe presldenL alone provlded LhaL Lhe sald seal shall noL be afflxed Lo any
commlsslon before Lhe same shall have been slgned by Lhe presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
1hese are Lhe clauses of Lhe consLlLuLlon and laws of Lhe unlLed SLaLes whlch affecL Lhls parL of Lhe case 1hey seem Lo conLemplaLe Lhree dlsLlncL operaLlons
1 1he nomlnaLlon 1hls ls Lhe sole acL of Lhe presldenL and ls compleLely volunLary
2 1he appolnLmenL 1hls ls also Lhe acL of Lhe presldenL and ls also a volunLary acL Lhough lL can only be performed by and wlLh Lhe advlce and consenL of Lhe senaLe 3 uS
137 136
3 1he commlsslon 1o granL a commlsslon Lo a person appolnLed mlghL perhaps be deemed a duLy en[olned by Lhe consLlLuLlon Pe shall says LhaL lnsLrumenL commlsslon
all Lhe offlcers of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
1he acLs of appolnLlng Lo offlce and commlsslonlng Lhe person appolnLed can scarcely be consldered as one and Lhe same slnce Lhe power Lo perform Lhem ls glven ln Lwo
separaLe and dlsLlncL secLlons of Lhe consLlLuLlon 1he dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe appolnLmenL and Lhe commlsslon wlll be rendered more apparenL by adverLlng Lo LhaL
provlslon ln Lhe second secLlon of Lhe second arLlcle of Lhe consLlLuLlon whlch auLhorlses congress Lo vesL by law Lhe appolnLmenL of such lnferlor offlcers as Lhey Lhlnk
proper ln Lhe presldenL alone ln Lhe courLs of law or ln Lhe heads of deparLmenLs Lhus conLemplaLlng cases where Lhe law may dlrecL Lhe presldenL Lo commlsslon an
offlcer appolnLed by Lhe courLs or by Lhe heads of deparLmenLs ln such a case Lo lssue a commlsslon would be apparenLly a duLy dlsLlncL from Lhe appolnLmenL Lhe
performance of whlch perhaps could noL legally be refused
AlLhough LhaL clause of Lhe consLlLuLlon whlch requlres Lhe presldenL Lo commlsslon all Lhe offlcers of Lhe unlLed SLaLes may never have been applled Lo offlcers appolnLed
oLherwlse Lhan by hlmself yeL lL would be dlfflculL Lo deny Lhe leglslaLlve power Lo apply lL Lo such cases Cf consequence Lhe consLlLuLlonal dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe
appolnLmenL Lo an offlce and Lhe commlsslon of an offlcer who has been appolnLed remalns Lhe same as lf ln pracLlce Lhe presldenL had commlssloned offlcers appolnLed by
an auLhorlLy oLher Lhan hls own
age 3 of 12

lL follows Loo from Lhe exlsLence of Lhls dlsLlncLlon LhaL lf an appolnLmenL was Lo be evldenced by any publlc acL oLher Lhan Lhe commlsslon Lhe performance of such publlc
acL would creaLe Lhe offlcer and lf he was noL removable aL Lhe wlll of Lhe presldenL would elLher glve hlm a rlghL Lo hls commlsslon or enable hlm Lo perform Lhe duLles
wlLhouL lL
1hese observaLlons are premlsed solely for Lhe purpose of renderlng more lnLelllglble Lhose whlch apply more dlrecLly Lo Lhe parLlcular case under conslderaLlon 3 uS 137
137 1hls ls an appolnLmenL made by Lhe presldenL by and wlLh Lhe advlce and consenL of Lhe senaLe and ls evldenced by no acL buL Lhe commlsslon lLself ln such a case
Lherefore Lhe commlsslon and Lhe appolnLmenL seem lnseparable lL belng almosL lmposslble Lo show an appolnLmenL oLherwlse Lhan by provlng Lhe exlsLence of a
commlsslon sLlll Lhe commlsslon ls noL necessarlly Lhe appolnLmenL Lhough concluslve evldence of lL
8uL aL whaL sLage does lL amounL Lo Lhls concluslve evldence?
1he answer Lo Lhls quesLlon seems an obvlous one 1he appolnLmenL belng Lhe sole acL of Lhe presldenL musL be compleLely evldenced when lL ls shown LhaL he has done
every Lhlng Lo be performed by hlm
Should Lhe commlsslon lnsLead of belng evldence of an appolnLmenL even be consldered as consLlLuLlng Lhe appolnLmenL lLself sLlll lL would be made when Lhe lasL acL Lo be
done by Lhe presldenL was performed or aL furLhesL when Lhe commlsslon was compleLe
1he lasL acL Lo be done by Lhe presldenL ls Lhe slgnaLure of Lhe commlsslon Pe has Lhen acLed on Lhe advlce and consenL of Lhe senaLe Lo hls own nomlnaLlon 1he Llme for
dellberaLlon has Lhen passed Pe has declded Pls [udgmenL on Lhe advlce and consenL of Lhe senaLe concurrlng wlLh hls nomlnaLlon has been made and Lhe offlcer ls
appolnLed 1hls appolnLmenL ls evldenced by an open unequlvocal acL and belng Lhe lasL acL requlred from Lhe person maklng lL necessarlly excludes Lhe ldea of lLs belng so
far as lL respecLs Lhe appolnLmenL an lnchoaLe and lncompleLe LransacLlon
Some polnL of Llme musL be Laken when Lhe power of Lhe execuLlve over an offlcer noL removable aL hls wlll musL cease 1haL polnL of Llme musL be when Lhe consLlLuLlonal
power of appolnLmenL has been exerclsed And Lhls power has been exerclsed when Lhe lasL acL requlred from Lhe person possesslng Lhe power has been performed 1hls
lasL acL ls Lhe slgnaLure of Lhe commlsslon 1hls ldea seems Lo have prevalled wlLh Lhe leglslaLure when Lhe acL passed converLlng Lhe deparLmenL 3 uS 137 138 of forelgn
affalrs lnLo Lhe deparLmenL of sLaLe 8y LhaL acL lL ls enacLed LhaL Lhe secreLary of sLaLe shall keep Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes and shall make ouL and record and shall afflx
Lhe sald seal Lo all clvll commlsslons Lo offlcers of Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo be appolnLed by Lhe presldenL provlded LhaL Lhe sald seal shall noL be afflxed Lo any commlsslon
before Lhe same shall have been slgned by Lhe presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes nor Lo any oLher lnsLrumenL or acL wlLhouL Lhe speclal warranL of Lhe presldenL Lherefor
1he slgnaLure ls a warranL for afflxlng Lhe greaL seal Lo Lhe commlsslon and Lhe greaL seal ls only Lo be afflxed Lo an lnsLrumenL whlch ls compleLe lL aLLesLs by an acL
supposed Lo be of publlc noLorleLy Lhe verlLy of Lhe presldenLlal slgnaLure
lL ls never Lo be afflxed Llll Lhe commlsslon ls slgned because Lhe slgnaLure whlch glves force and effecL Lo Lhe commlsslon ls concluslve evldence LhaL Lhe appolnLmenL ls
made
1he commlsslon belng slgned Lhe subsequenL duLy of Lhe secreLary of sLaLe ls prescrlbed by law and noL Lo be gulded by Lhe wlll of Lhe presldenL Pe ls Lo afflx Lhe seal of Lhe
unlLed SLaLes Lo Lhe commlsslon and ls Lo record lL
1hls ls noL a proceedlng whlch may be varled lf Lhe [udgmenL of Lhe execuLlve shall suggesL one more ellglble buL ls a preclse course accuraLely marked ouL by law and ls Lo
be sLrlcLly pursued lL ls Lhe duLy of Lhe secreLary of sLaLe Lo conform Lo Lhe law and ln Lhls he ls an offlcer of Lhe unlLed SLaLes bound Lo obey Lhe laws Pe acLs ln Lhls
respecL as has been very properly sLaLed aL Lhe bar under Lhe auLhorlLy of law and noL by Lhe lnsLrucLlons of Lhe presldenL lL ls a mlnlsLerlal acL whlch Lhe law en[olns on a
parLlcular offlcer for a parLlcular purpose
lf lL should be supposed LhaL Lhe solemnlLy of afflxlng Lhe seal ls necessary noL only Lo Lhe valldlLy of Lhe commlsslon buL even Lo Lhe compleLlon of an appolnLmenL sLlll
when Lhe seal ls afflxed Lhe appolnLmenL ls made and 3 uS 137 139 Lhe commlsslon ls valld no oLher solemnlLy ls requlred by law no oLher acL ls Lo be performed on Lhe
parL of governmenL All LhaL Lhe execuLlve can do Lo lnvesL Lhe person wlLh hls offlce ls done and unless Lhe appolnLmenL be Lhen made Lhe execuLlve cannoL make one
wlLhouL Lhe co operaLlon of oLhers
AfLer searchlng anxlously for Lhe prlnclples on whlch a conLrary oplnlon may be supporLed none have been found whlch appear of sufflclenL force Lo malnLaln Lhe opposlLe
docLrlne
age of 12

Such as Lhe lmaglnaLlon of Lhe courL could suggesL have been very dellberaLely examlned and afLer allowlng Lhem all Lhe welghL whlch lL appears posslble Lo glve Lhem Lhey
do noL shake Lhe oplnlon whlch has been formed
ln conslderlng Lhls quesLlon lL has been con[ecLured LhaL Lhe commlsslon may have been asslmllaLed Lo a deed Lo Lhe valldlLy of whlch dellvery ls essenLlal
1hls ldea ls founded on Lhe supposlLlon LhaL Lhe commlsslon ls noL merely evldence of an appolnLmenL buL ls lLself Lhe acLual appolnLmenL a supposlLlon by no means
unquesLlonable 8uL for Lhe purpose of examlnlng Lhls ob[ecLlon falrly leL lL be conceded LhaL Lhe prlnclple clalmed for lLs supporL ls esLabllshed
1he appolnLmenL belng under Lhe consLlLuLlon Lo be made by Lhe presldenL personally Lhe dellvery of Lhe deed of appolnLmenL lf necessary Lo lLs compleLlon musL be made
by Lhe presldenL also lL ls noL necessary LhaL Lhe llvery should be made personally Lo Lhe granLee of Lhe offlce lL never ls so made 1he law would seem Lo conLemplaLe LhaL lL
should be made Lo Lhe secreLary of sLaLe slnce lL dlrecLs Lhe secreLary Lo afflx Lhe seal Lo Lhe commlsslon afLer lL shall have been slgned by Lhe presldenL lf Lhen Lhe acL of
llvery be necessary Lo glve valldlLy Lo Lhe commlsslon lL has been dellvered when execuLed and glven Lo Lhe secreLary for Lhe purpose of belng sealed recorded and
LransmlLLed Lo Lhe parLy
8uL ln all cases of leLLers paLenL cerLaln solemnlLles are requlred by law whlch solemnlLles are Lhe evldences 3 uS 137 160 of Lhe valldlLy of Lhe lnsLrumenL A formal
dellvery Lo Lhe person ls noL among Lhem ln cases of commlsslons Lhe slgn manual of Lhe presldenL and Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes are Lhose solemnlLles 1hls ob[ecLlon
Lherefore does noL Louch Lhe case
lL has also occurred as posslble and barely posslble LhaL Lhe Lransmlsslon of Lhe commlsslon and Lhe accepLance Lhereof mlghL be deemed necessary Lo compleLe Lhe rlghL
of Lhe plalnLlff
1he Lransmlsslon of Lhe commlsslon ls a pracLlce dlrecLed by convenlence buL noL by law lL cannoL Lherefore be necessary Lo consLlLuLe Lhe appolnLmenL whlch musL precede
lL and whlch ls Lhe mere acL of Lhe presldenL lf Lhe execuLlve requlred LhaL every person appolnLed Lo an offlce should hlmself Lake means Lo procure hls commlsslon Lhe
appolnLmenL would noL be Lhe less valld on LhaL accounL 1he appolnLmenL ls Lhe sole acL of Lhe presldenL Lhe Lransmlsslon of Lhe commlsslon ls Lhe sole acL of Lhe offlcer Lo
whom LhaL duLy ls asslgned and may be acceleraLed or reLarded by clrcumsLances whlch can have no lnfluence on Lhe appolnLmenL A commlsslon ls LransmlLLed Lo a person
already appolnLed noL Lo a person Lo be appolnLed or noL as Lhe leLLer encloslng Lhe commlsslon should happen Lo geL lnLo Lhe posLofflce and reach hlm ln safeLy or Lo
mlscarry
lL may have some Lendency Lo elucldaLe Lhls polnL Lo lnqulre wheLher Lhe possesslon of Lhe orlglnal commlsslon be lndlspensably necessary Lo auLhorlze a person appolnLed
Lo any offlce Lo perform Lhe duLles of LhaL offlce lf lL was necessary Lhen a loss of Lhe commlsslon would lose Lhe offlce noL only negllgence buL accldenL or fraud flre or
LhefL mlghL deprlve an lndlvldual of hls offlce ln such a case l presume lL could noL be doubLed buL LhaL a copy from Lhe record of Lhe offlce of Lhe secreLary of sLaLe would
be Lo every lnLenL and purpose equal Lo Lhe orlglnal 1he acL of congress has expressly made lL so 1o glve LhaL copy valldlLy lL would noL be necessary Lo prove LhaL Lhe
orlglnal had been LransmlLLed and afLerwards losL 1he copy would be compleLe evldence LhaL Lhe orlglnal had exlsLed and LhaL Lhe appolnLmenL had been made buL noL LhaL
Lhe orlglnal had been LransmlLLed lf lndeed lL should appear LhaL 3 uS 137 161 Lhe orlglnal had been mlslald ln Lhe offlce of sLaLe LhaL clrcumsLance would noL affecL Lhe
operaLlon of Lhe copy When all Lhe requlslLes have been performed whlch auLhorlze a recordlng offlcer Lo record any lnsLrumenL whaLever and Lhe order for LhaL purpose
has been glven Lhe lnsLrumenL ls ln law consldered as recorded alLhough Lhe manual labour of lnserLlng lL ln a book kepL for LhaL purpose may noL have been performed
ln Lhe case of commlsslons Lhe law orders Lhe secreLary of sLaLe Lo record Lhem When Lherefore Lhey are slgned and sealed Lhe order for Lhelr belng recorded ls glven and
wheLher lnserLed ln Lhe book or noL Lhey are ln law recorded
A copy of Lhls record ls declared equal Lo Lhe orlglnal and Lhe fees Lo be pald by a person requlrlng a copy are ascerLalned by law Can a keeper of a publlc record erase
Lherefrom a commlsslon whlch has been recorded? Cr can he refuse a copy Lhereof Lo a person demandlng lL on Lhe Lerms prescrlbed by law?
Such a copy would equally wlLh Lhe orlglnal auLhorlze Lhe [usLlce of peace Lo proceed ln Lhe performance of hls duLy because lL would equally wlLh Lhe orlglnal aLLesL hls
appolnLmenL
lf Lhe Lransmlsslon of a commlsslon be noL consldered as necessary Lo glve valldlLy Lo an appolnLmenL sLlll less ls lLs accepLance 1he appolnLmenL ls Lhe sole acL of Lhe
presldenL Lhe accepLance ls Lhe sole acL of Lhe offlcer and ls ln plaln common sense posLerlor Lo Lhe appolnLmenL As he may reslgn so may he refuse Lo accepL buL nelLher
Lhe one nor Lhe oLher ls capable of renderlng Lhe appolnLmenL a nonenLlLy
1haL Lhls ls Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe governmenL ls apparenL from Lhe whole Lenor of lLs conducL
age S of 12

A commlsslon bears daLe and Lhe salary of Lhe offlcer commences from hls appolnLmenL noL from Lhe Lransmlsslon or accepLance of hls commlsslon When a person
appolnLed Lo any offlce refuses Lo accepL LhaL offlce Lhe successor ls nomlnaLed ln Lhe place of Lhe person who 3 uS 137 162 has decllned Lo accepL and noL ln Lhe place
of Lhe person who had been prevlously ln offlce and had creaLed Lhe orlglnal vacancy
lL ls Lherefore decldedly Lhe oplnlon of Lhe courL LhaL when a commlsslon has been slgned by Lhe presldenL Lhe appolnLmenL ls made and LhaL Lhe commlsslon ls compleLe
when Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes has been afflxed Lo lL by Lhe secreLary of sLaLe
Where an offlcer ls removable aL Lhe wlll of Lhe execuLlve Lhe clrcumsLance whlch compleLes hls appolnLmenL ls of no concern because Lhe acL ls aL any Llme revocable and
Lhe commlsslon may be arresLed lf sLlll ln Lhe offlce 8uL when Lhe offlcer ls noL removable aL Lhe wlll of Lhe execuLlve Lhe appolnLmenL ls noL revocable and cannoL be
annulled lL has conferred legal rlghLs whlch cannoL be resumed
1he dlscreLlon of Lhe execuLlve ls Lo be exerclsed unLll Lhe appolnLmenL has been made 8uL havlng once made Lhe appolnLmenL hls power over Lhe offlce ls LermlnaLed ln all
cases where by law Lhe offlcer ls noL removable by hlm 1he rlghL Lo Lhe offlce ls Lhen ln Lhe person appolnLed and he has Lhe absoluLe uncondlLlonal power of accepLlng or
re[ecLlng lL
Mr Marbury Lhen slnce hls commlsslon was slgned by Lhe presldenL and sealed by Lhe secreLary of sLaLe was appolnLed and as Lhe law creaLlng Lhe offlce gave Lhe offlcer a
rlghL Lo hold for flve years lndependenL of Lhe execuLlve Lhe appolnLmenL was noL revocable buL vesLed ln Lhe offlcer legal rlghLs whlch are proLecLed by Lhe laws of hls
counLry
1o wlLhhold Lhe commlsslon Lherefore ls an acL deemed by Lhe courL noL warranLed by law buL vlolaLlve of a vesLed legal rlghL
1hls brlngs us Lo Lhe second lnqulry whlch ls
2 lf he has a rlghL and LhaL rlghL has been vlolaLed do Lhe laws of hls counLry afford hlm a remedy? 3 uS 137 163 1he very essence of clvll llberLy cerLalnly conslsLs ln Lhe
rlghL of every lndlvldual Lo clalm Lhe proLecLlon of Lhe laws whenever he recelves an ln[ury Cne of Lhe flrsL duLles of governmenL ls Lo afford LhaL proLecLlon ln CreaL 8rlLaln
Lhe klng hlmself ls sued ln Lhe respecLful form of a peLlLlon and he never falls Lo comply wlLh Lhe [udgmenL of hls courL
ln Lhe Lhlrd volume of hls CommenLarles page 23 8lacksLone sLaLes Lwo cases ln whlch a remedy ls afforded by mere operaLlon of law
ln all oLher cases he says lL ls a general and lndlspuLable rule LhaL where Lhere ls a legal rlghL Lhere ls also a legal remedy by sulL or acLlon aL law whenever LhaL rlghL ls
lnvaded
And afLerwards page 109 of Lhe same volume he says l am nexL Lo conslder such ln[urles as are cognlzable by Lhe courLs of common law And hereln l shall for Lhe presenL
only remark LhaL all posslble ln[urles whaLsoever LhaL dld noL fall wlLhln Lhe excluslve cognlzance of elLher Lhe eccleslasLlcal mlllLary or marlLlme Lrlbunals are for LhaL very
reason wlLhln Lhe cognlzance of Lhe common law courLs of [usLlce for lL ls a seLLled and lnvarlable prlnclple ln Lhe laws of Lngland LhaL every rlghL when wlLhheld musL have
a remedy and every ln[ury lLs proper redress
1he governmenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes has been emphaLlcally Lermed a governmenL of laws and noL of men lL wlll cerLalnly cease Lo deserve Lhls hlgh appellaLlon lf Lhe laws
furnlsh no remedy for Lhe vlolaLlon of a vesLed legal rlghL
lf Lhls obloquy ls Lo be casL on Lhe [urlsprudence of our counLry lL musL arlse from Lhe pecullar characLer of Lhe case
lL behoves us Lhen Lo lnqulre wheLher Lhere be ln lLs composlLlon any lngredlenL whlch shall exempL from legal lnvesLlgaLlon or exclude Lhe ln[ured parLy from legal redress ln
pursulng Lhls lnqulry Lhe flrsL quesLlon whlch presenLs lLself ls wheLher Lhls can be arranged 3 uS 137 164 wlLh LhaL class of cases whlch come under Lhe descrlpLlon of
damnum absque ln[urlaa loss wlLhouL an ln[ury
1hls descrlpLlon of cases never has been consldered and lL ls belleved never can be consldered as comprehendlng offlces of LrusL of honour or of proflL 1he offlce of [usLlce of
peace ln Lhe dlsLrlcL of Columbla ls such an offlce lL ls Lherefore worLhy of Lhe aLLenLlon and guardlanshlp of Lhe laws lL has recelved LhaL aLLenLlon and guardlanshlp lL has
been creaLed by speclal acL of congress and has been secured so far as Lhe laws can glve securlLy Lo Lhe person appolnLed Lo flll lL for flve years lL ls noL Lhen on accounL of
Lhe worLhlessness of Lhe Lhlng pursued LhaL Lhe ln[ured parLy can be alleged Lo be wlLhouL remedy
age of 12

ls lL ln Lhe naLure of Lhe LransacLlon? ls Lhe acL of dellverlng or wlLhholdlng a commlsslon Lo be consldered as a mere pollLlcal acL belonglng Lo Lhe execuLlve deparLmenL alone
for Lhe performance of whlch enLlre confldence ls placed by our consLlLuLlon ln Lhe supreme execuLlve and for any mlsconducL respecLlng whlch Lhe ln[ured lndlvldual has no
remedy
1haL Lhere may be such cases ls noL Lo be quesLloned buL LhaL every acL of duLy Lo be performed ln any of Lhe greaL deparLmenLs of governmenL consLlLuLes such a case ls noL
Lo be admlLLed
8y Lhe acL concernlng lnvallds passed ln !une 1794 Lhe secreLary aL war ls ordered Lo place on Lhe penslon llsL all persons whose names are conLalned ln a reporL prevlously
made by hlm Lo congress lf he should refuse Lo do so would Lhe wounded veLeran be wlLhouL remedy? ls lL Lo be conLended LhaL where Lhe law ln preclse Lerms dlrecLs Lhe
performance of an acL ln whlch an lndlvldual ls lnLeresLed Lhe law ls lncapable of securlng obedlence Lo lLs mandaLe? ls lL on accounL of Lhe characLer of Lhe person agalnsL
whom Lhe complalnL ls made? ls lL Lo be conLended LhaL Lhe heads of deparLmenLs are noL amenable Lo Lhe laws of Lhelr counLry?
WhaLever Lhe pracLlce on parLlcular occaslons may be Lhe Lheory of Lhls prlnclple wlll cerLalnly never be maln 3 uS 137 163 Lalned no acL of Lhe leglslaLure confers so
exLraordlnary a prlvllege nor can lL derlve counLenance from Lhe docLrlnes of Lhe common law AfLer sLaLlng LhaL personal ln[ury from Lhe klng Lo a sub[ecL ls presumed Lo be
lmposslble 8lacksLone vol lll p 233 says buL ln[urles Lo Lhe rlghLs of properLy can scarcely be commlLLed by Lhe crown wlLhouL Lhe lnLervenLlon of lLs offlcers for whom
Lhe law ln maLLers of rlghL enLerLalns no respecL or dellcacy buL furnlshes varlous meLhods of deLecLlng Lhe errors and mlsconducL of Lhose agenLs by whom Lhe klng has
been decelved and lnduced Lo do a Lemporary ln[usLlce
8y Lhe acL passed ln 1796 auLhorlzlng Lhe sale of Lhe lands above Lhe mouLh of kenLucky rlver Lhe purchaser on paylng hls purchase money becomes compleLely enLlLled Lo
Lhe properLy purchased and on produclng Lo Lhe secreLary of sLaLe Lhe recelpL of Lhe Lreasurer upon a cerLlflcaLe requlred by Lhe law Lhe presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls
auLhorlzed Lo granL hlm a paLenL lL ls furLher enacLed LhaL all paLenLs shall be counLerslgned by Lhe secreLary of sLaLe and recorded ln hls offlce lf Lhe secreLary of sLaLe
should choose Lo wlLhhold Lhls paLenL or Lhe paLenL belng losL should refuse a copy of lL can lL be lmaglned LhaL Lhe law furnlshes Lo Lhe ln[ured person no remedy?
lL ls noL belleved LhaL any person whaLever would aLLempL Lo malnLaln such a proposlLlon
lL follows Lhen LhaL Lhe quesLlon wheLher Lhe legallLy of an acL of Lhe head of a deparLmenL be examlnable ln a courL of [usLlce or noL musL always depend on Lhe naLure of
LhaL acL
lf some acLs be examlnable and oLhers noL Lhere musL be some rule of law Lo gulde Lhe courL ln Lhe exerclse of lLs [urlsdlcLlon
ln some lnsLances Lhere may be dlfflculLy ln applylng Lhe rule Lo parLlcular cases buL Lhere cannoL lL ls belleved be much dlfflculLy ln laylng down Lhe rule
8y Lhe consLlLuLlon of Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lhe presldenL ls lnvesLed wlLh cerLaln lmporLanL pollLlcal powers ln Lhe 3 uS 137 166 exerclse of whlch he ls Lo use hls own
dlscreLlon and ls accounLable only Lo hls counLry ln hls pollLlcal characLer and Lo hls own consclence 1o ald hlm ln Lhe performance of Lhese duLles he ls auLhorlzed Lo
appolnL cerLaln offlcers who acL by hls auLhorlLy and ln conformlLy wlLh hls orders
ln such cases Lhelr acLs are hls acLs and whaLever oplnlon may be enLerLalned of Lhe manner ln whlch execuLlve dlscreLlon may be used sLlll Lhere exlsLs and can exlsL no
power Lo conLrol LhaL dlscreLlon 1he sub[ecLs are pollLlcal 1hey respecL Lhe naLlon noL lndlvldual rlghLs and belng enLrusLed Lo Lhe execuLlve Lhe declslon of Lhe execuLlve ls
concluslve 1he appllcaLlon of Lhls remark wlll be percelved by adverLlng Lo Lhe acL of congress for esLabllshlng Lhe deparLmenL of forelgn affalrs 1hls offlcer as hls duLles were
prescrlbed by LhaL acL ls Lo conform preclsely Lo Lhe wlll of Lhe presldenL Pe ls Lhe mere organ by whom LhaL wlll ls communlcaLed 1he acLs of such an offlcer as an offlcer
can never be examlnable by Lhe courLs
8uL when Lhe leglslaLure proceeds Lo lmpose on LhaL offlcer oLher duLles when he ls dlrecLed perempLorlly Lo perform cerLaln acLs when Lhe rlghLs of lndlvlduals are
dependenL on Lhe performance of Lhose acLs he ls so far Lhe offlcer of Lhe law ls amenable Lo Lhe laws for hls conducL and cannoL aL hls dlscreLlon sporL away Lhe vesLed
rlghLs of oLhers
1he concluslon from Lhls reasonlng ls LhaL where Lhe heads of deparLmenLs are Lhe pollLlcal or confldenLlal agenLs of Lhe execuLlve merely Lo execuLe Lhe wlll of Lhe
presldenL or raLher Lo acL ln cases ln whlch Lhe execuLlve possesses a consLlLuLlonal or legal dlscreLlon noLhlng can be more perfecLly clear Lhan LhaL Lhelr acLs are only
pollLlcally examlnable 8uL where a speclflc duLy ls asslgned by law and lndlvldual rlghLs depend upon Lhe performance of LhaL duLy lL seems equally clear LhaL Lhe lndlvldual
who conslders hlmself ln[ured has a rlghL Lo resorL Lo Lhe laws of hls counLry for a remedy
age 7 of 12

lf Lhls be Lhe rule leL us lnqulre how lL applles Lo Lhe case under Lhe conslderaLlon of Lhe courL 3 uS 137 167 1he power of nomlnaLlng Lo Lhe senaLe and Lhe power of
appolnLlng Lhe person nomlnaLed are pollLlcal powers Lo be exerclsed by Lhe presldenL accordlng Lo hls own dlscreLlon When he has made an appolnLmenL he has exerclsed
hls whole power and hls dlscreLlon has been compleLely applled Lo Lhe case lf by law Lhe offlcer be removable aL Lhe wlll of Lhe presldenL Lhen a new appolnLmenL may be
lmmedlaLely made and Lhe rlghLs of Lhe offlcer are LermlnaLed 8uL as a facL whlch has exlsLed cannoL be made never Lo have exlsLed Lhe appolnLmenL cannoL be annlhllaLed
and consequenLly lf Lhe offlcer ls by law noL removable aL Lhe wlll of Lhe presldenL Lhe rlghLs he has acqulred are proLecLed by Lhe law and are noL resumable by Lhe
presldenL 1hey cannoL be exLlngulshed by execuLlve auLhorlLy and he has Lhe prlvllege of asserLlng Lhem ln llke manner as lf Lhey had been derlved from any oLher source
1he quesLlon wheLher a rlghL has vesLed or noL ls ln lLs naLure [udlclal and musL be Lrled by Lhe [udlclal auLhorlLy lf for example Mr Marbury had Laken Lhe oaLhs of a
maglsLraLe and proceeded Lo acL as one ln consequence of whlch a sulL had been lnsLlLuLed agalnsL hlm ln whlch hls defence had depended on hls belng a maglsLraLe Lhe
valldlLy of hls appolnLmenL musL have been deLermlned by [udlclal auLhorlLy
So lf he concelves LhaL by vlrLue of hls appolnLmenL he has a legal rlghL elLher Lo Lhe commlsslon whlch has been made ouL for hlm or Lo a copy of LhaL commlsslon lL ls
equally a quesLlon examlnable ln a courL and Lhe declslon of Lhe courL upon lL musL depend on Lhe oplnlon enLerLalned of hls appolnLmenL
1haL quesLlon has been dlscussed and Lhe oplnlon ls LhaL Lhe laLesL polnL of Llme whlch can be Laken as LhaL aL whlch Lhe appolnLmenL was compleLe and evldenced was
when afLer Lhe slgnaLure of Lhe presldenL Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes was afflxed Lo Lhe commlsslon
lL ls Lhen Lhe oplnlon of Lhe courL
1 1haL by slgnlng Lhe commlsslon of Mr Marbury Lhe presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes appolnLed hlm a [usLlce 3 uS 137 168 of peace for Lhe counLy of WashlngLon ln Lhe
dlsLrlcL of Columbla and LhaL Lhe seal of Lhe unlLed SLaLes afflxed LhereLo by Lhe secreLary of sLaLe ls concluslve LesLlmony of Lhe verlLy of Lhe slgnaLure and of Lhe
compleLlon of Lhe appolnLmenL and LhaL Lhe appolnLmenL conferred on hlm a legal rlghL Lo Lhe offlce for Lhe space of flve years
2 1haL havlng Lhls legal LlLle Lo Lhe offlce he has a consequenL rlghL Lo Lhe commlsslon a refusal Lo dellver whlch ls a plaln vlolaLlon of LhaL rlghL for whlch Lhe laws of hls
counLry afford hlm a remedy
lL remalns Lo be lnqulred wheLher
3 Pe ls enLlLled Lo Lhe remedy for whlch he applles 1hls depends on
1 1he naLure of Lhe wrlL applled for And
2 1he power of Lhls courL
1 1he naLure of Lhe wrlL
8lacksLone ln Lhe Lhlrd volume of hls CommenLarles page 110 deflnes a mandamus Lo be a command lssulng ln Lhe klngs name from Lhe courL of klngs bench and dlrecLed
Lo any person corporaLlon or lnferlor courL of [udlcaLure wlLhln Lhe klngs domlnlons requlrlng Lhem Lo do some parLlcular Lhlng Lhereln speclfled whlch apperLalns Lo Lhelr
offlce and duLy and whlch Lhe courL of klngs bench has prevlously deLermlned or aL leasL supposes Lo be consonanL Lo rlghL and [usLlce
Lord Mansfleld ln 3 8urrows 1266 ln Lhe case of 1he klng v 8aker eL al sLaLes wlLh much preclslon and expllclLness Lhe cases ln whlch Lhls wrlL may be used
Whenever says LhaL very able [udge Lhere ls a rlghL Lo execuLe an offlce perform a servlce or exerclse a franchlse (more especlally lf lL be ln a maLLer of publlc concern or
aLLended wlLh proflL) and a person ls kepL ouL of possesslon or dlspossessed of such rlghL and 3 uS 137 169 has no oLher speclflc legal remedy Lhls courL oughL Lo asslsL
by mandamus upon reasons of [usLlce as Lhe wrlL expresses and upon reasons of publlc pollcy Lo preserve peace order and good governmenL ln Lhe same case he says
Lhls wrlL oughL Lo be used upon all occaslons where Lhe law has esLabllshed no speclflc remedy and where ln [usLlce and good governmenL Lhere oughL Lo be one
ln addlLlon Lo Lhe auLhorlLles now parLlcularly clLed many oLhers were relled on aL Lhe bar whlch show how far Lhe pracLlce has conformed Lo Lhe general docLrlnes LhaL have
been [usL quoLed
1hls wrlL lf awarded would be dlrecLed Lo an offlcer of governmenL and lLs mandaLe Lo hlm would be Lo use Lhe words of 8lacksLone Lo do a parLlcular Lhlng Lhereln
speclfled whlch apperLalns Lo hls offlce and duLy and whlch Lhe courL has prevlously deLermlned or aL leasL supposes Lo be consonanL Lo rlghL and [usLlce Cr ln Lhe words of
Lord Mansfleld Lhe appllcanL ln Lhls case has a rlghL Lo execuLe an offlce of publlc concern and ls kepL ouL of possesslon of LhaL rlghL
age 8 of 12

1hese clrcumsLances cerLalnly concur ln Lhls case
SLlll Lo render Lhe mandamus a proper remedy Lhe offlcer Lo whom lL ls Lo be dlrecLed musL be one Lo whom on legal prlnclples such wrlL may be dlrecLed and Lhe person
applylng for lL musL be wlLhouL any oLher speclflc and legal remedy
1 WlLh respecL Lo Lhe offlcer Lo whom lL would be dlrecLed 1he lnLlmaLe pollLlcal relaLlon subslsLlng beLween Lhe presldenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes and Lhe heads of
deparLmenLs necessarlly renders any legal lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhe acLs of one of Lhose hlgh offlcers pecullarly lrksome as well as dellcaLe and exclLes some heslLaLlon wlLh
respecL Lo Lhe proprleLy of enLerlng lnLo such lnvesLlgaLlon lmpresslons are ofLen recelved wlLhouL much reflecLlon or examlnaLlon and lL ls noL wonderful LhaL ln such a case
as Lhls Lhe asserLlon by an lndlvldual of hls legal clalms ln a courL of [usLlce Lo whlch clalms lL ls Lhe duLy of LhaL courL Lo aLLend should aL flrsL vlew be consldered 3 uS
137 170 by some as an aLLempL Lo lnLrude lnLo Lhe cablneL and Lo lnLermeddle wlLh Lhe prerogaLlves of Lhe execuLlve
lL ls scarcely necessary for Lhe courL Lo dlsclalm all preLenslons Lo such a [urlsdlcLlon An exLravagance so absurd and excesslve could noL have been enLerLalned for a
momenL 1he provlnce of Lhe courL ls solely Lo declde on Lhe rlghLs of lndlvlduals noL Lo lnqulre how Lhe execuLlve or execuLlve offlcers perform duLles ln whlch Lhey have a
dlscreLlon CuesLlons ln Lhelr naLure pollLlcal or whlch are by Lhe consLlLuLlon and laws submlLLed Lo Lhe execuLlve can never be made ln Lhls courL
8uL lf Lhls be noL such a quesLlon lf so far from belng an lnLruslon lnLo Lhe secreLs of Lhe cablneL lL respecLs a paper whlch accordlng Lo law ls upon record and Lo a copy of
whlch Lhe law glves a rlghL on Lhe paymenL of Len cenLs lf lL be no lnLermeddllng wlLh a sub[ecL over whlch Lhe execuLlve can be consldered as havlng exerclsed any conLrol
whaL ls Lhere ln Lhe exalLed sLaLlon of Lhe offlcer whlch shall bar a clLlzen from asserLlng ln a courL of [usLlce hls legal rlghLs or shall forbld a courL Lo llsLen Lo Lhe clalm or Lo
lssue a mandamus dlrecLlng Lhe performance of a duLy noL dependlng on execuLlve dlscreLlon buL on parLlcular acLs of congress and Lhe general prlnclples of law?
lf one of Lhe heads of deparLmenLs commlLs any lllegal acL under colour of hls offlce by whlch an lndlvldual susLalns an ln[ury lL cannoL be preLended LhaL hls offlce alone
exempLs hlm from belng sued ln Lhe ordlnary mode of proceedlng and belng compelled Lo obey Lhe [udgmenL of Lhe law Pow Lhen can hls offlce exempL hlm from Lhls
parLlcular mode of decldlng on Lhe legallLy of hls conducL lf Lhe case be such a case as would were any oLher lndlvldual Lhe parLy complalned of auLhorlze Lhe process?
lL ls noL by Lhe offlce of Lhe person Lo whom Lhe wrlL ls dlrecLed buL Lhe naLure of Lhe Lhlng Lo be done LhaL Lhe proprleLy or lmproprleLy of lssulng a mandamus ls Lo be
deLermlned Where Lhe head of a deparLmenL acLs ln a case ln whlch execuLlve dlscreLlon ls Lo be exerclsed ln whlch he ls Lhe mere organ of execuLlve wlll lL ls 3 uS 137
171 agaln repeaLed LhaL any appllcaLlon Lo a courL Lo conLrol ln any respecL hls conducL would be re[ecLed wlLhouL heslLaLlon
8uL where he ls dlrecLed by law Lo do a cerLaln acL affecLlng Lhe absoluLe rlghLs of lndlvlduals ln Lhe performance of whlch he ls noL placed under Lhe parLlcular dlrecLlon of
Lhe presldenL and Lhe performance of whlch Lhe presldenL cannoL lawfully forbld and Lherefore ls never presumed Lo have forbldden as for example Lo record a
commlsslon or a paLenL for land whlch has recelved all Lhe legal solemnlLles or Lo glve a copy of such record ln such cases lL ls noL percelved on whaL ground Lhe courLs of
Lhe counLry are furLher excused from Lhe duLy of glvlng [udgmenL LhaL rlghL Lo be done Lo an ln[ured lndlvldual Lhan lf Lhe same servlces were Lo be performed by a person
noL Lhe head of a deparLmenL
1hls oplnlon seems noL now for Lhe flrsL Llme Lo be Laken up ln Lhls counLry
lL musL be well recollecLed LhaL ln 1792 an acL passed dlrecLlng Lhe secreLary aL war Lo place on Lhe penslon llsL such dlsabled offlcers and soldlers as should be reporLed Lo
hlm by Lhe clrculL courLs whlch acL so far as Lhe duLy was lmposed on Lhe courLs was deemed unconsLlLuLlonal buL some of Lhe [udges Lhlnklng LhaL Lhe law mlghL be
execuLed by Lhem ln Lhe characLer of commlssloners proceeded Lo acL and Lo reporL ln LhaL characLer
1hls law belng deemed unconsLlLuLlonal aL Lhe clrculLs was repealed and a dlfferenL sysLem was esLabllshed buL Lhe quesLlon wheLher Lhose persons who had been reporLed
by Lhe [udges as commlssloners were enLlLled ln consequence of LhaL reporL Lo be placed on Lhe penslon llsL was a legal quesLlon properly deLermlnable ln Lhe courLs
alLhough Lhe acL of placlng such persons on Lhe llsL was Lo be performed by Lhe head of a deparLmenL
1haL Lhls quesLlon mlghL be properly seLLled congress passed an acL ln lebruary 1793 maklng lL Lhe duLy of Lhe secreLary of war ln con[uncLlon wlLh Lhe aLLorney general Lo
Lake such measures as mlghL be necessary Lo obLaln an ad[udlcaLlon of Lhe supreme courL of Lhe unlLed 3 uS 137 172 SLaLes on Lhe valldlLy of any such rlghLs clalmed
under Lhe acL aforesald
AfLer Lhe passage of Lhls acL a mandamus was moved for Lo be dlrecLed Lo Lhe secreLary aL war commandlng hlm Lo place on Lhe penslon llsL a person sLaLlng hlmself Lo be
on Lhe reporL of Lhe [udges
age of 12

1here ls Lherefore much reason Lo belleve LhaL Lhls mode of Lrylng Lhe legal rlghL of Lhe complalnanL was deemed by Lhe head of a deparLmenL and by Lhe hlghesL law
offlcer of Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lhe mosL proper whlch could be selecLed for Lhe purpose
When Lhe sub[ecL was broughL before Lhe courL Lhe declslon was noL LhaL a mandamus would noL lle Lo Lhe head of a deparLmenL dlrecLlng hlm Lo perform an acL en[olned
by law ln Lhe performance of whlch an lndlvldual had a vesLed lnLeresL buL LhaL a mandamus oughL noL Lo lssue ln LhaL caseLhe declslon necessarlly Lo be made lf Lhe reporL
of Lhe commlssloners dld noL confer on Lhe appllcanL a legal rlghL
1he [udgmenL ln LhaL case ls undersLood Lo have declded Lhe merlLs of all clalms of LhaL descrlpLlon and Lhe persons on Lhe reporL of Lhe commlssloners found lL necessary
Lo pursue Lhe mode prescrlbed by Lhe law subsequenL Lo LhaL whlch had been deemed unconsLlLuLlonal ln order Lo place Lhemselves on Lhe penslon llsL
1he docLrlne Lherefore now advanced ls by no means a novel one
lL ls Lrue LhaL Lhe mandamus now moved for ls noL for Lhe performance of an acL expressly en[olned by sLaLuLe
lL ls Lo dellver a commlsslon on whlch sub[ecLs Lhe acLs of congress are sllenL 1hls dlfference ls noL consldered as affecLlng Lhe case lL has already been sLaLed LhaL Lhe
appllcanL has Lo LhaL commlsslon a vesLed legal rlghL of whlch Lhe execuLlve cannoL deprlve hlm Pe has been appolnLed Lo an offlce from whlch he ls noL removable aL Lhe
wlll of Lhe execuLlve and belng so 3 uS 137 173 appolnLed he has a rlghL Lo Lhe commlsslon whlch Lhe secreLary has recelved from Lhe presldenL for hls use 1he acL of
congress does noL lndeed order Lhe secreLary of sLaLe Lo send lL Lo hlm buL lL ls placed ln hls hands for Lhe person enLlLled Lo lL and cannoL be more lawfully wlLhheld by hlm
Lhan by anoLher person
lL was aL flrsL doubLed wheLher Lhe acLlon of deLlnue was noL a speclflc legal remedy for Lhe commlsslon whlch has been wlLhheld from Mr Marbury ln whlch case a
mandamus would be lmproper 8uL Lhls doubL has ylelded Lo Lhe conslderaLlon LhaL Lhe [udgmenL ln deLlnue ls for Lhe Lhlng lLself or lLs value 1he value of a publlc offlce noL
Lo be sold ls lncapable of belng ascerLalned and Lhe appllcanL has a rlghL Lo Lhe offlce lLself or Lo noLhlng Pe wlll obLaln Lhe offlce by obLalnlng Lhe commlsslon or a copy of
lL from Lhe record
1hls Lhen ls a plaln case of a mandamus elLher Lo dellver Lhe commlsslon or a copy of lL from Lhe record and lL only remalns Lo be lnqulred
WheLher lL can lssue from Lhls courL
1he acL Lo esLabllsh Lhe [udlclal courLs of Lhe unlLed SLaLes auLhorlzes Lhe supreme courL Lo lssue wrlLs of mandamus ln cases warranLed by Lhe prlnclples and usages of law
Lo any courLs appolnLed or persons holdlng offlce under Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
1he secreLary of sLaLe belng a person holdlng an offlce under Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls preclsely wlLhln Lhe leLLer of Lhe descrlpLlon and lf Lhls courL ls noL
auLhorlzed Lo lssue a wrlL of mandamus Lo such an offlcer lL musL be because Lhe law ls unconsLlLuLlonal and Lherefore absoluLely lncapable of conferrlng Lhe auLhorlLy and
asslgnlng Lhe duLles whlch lLs words purporL Lo confer and asslgn
1he consLlLuLlon vesLs Lhe whole [udlclal power of Lhe unlLed SLaLes ln one supreme courL and such lnferlor courLs as congress shall from Llme Lo Llme ordaln and esLabllsh
1hls power ls expressly exLended Lo all cases arlslng under Lhe laws of Lhe unlLed SLaLes and consequenLly ln some form may be exerclsed over Lhe presenL 3 uS 137
174 case because Lhe rlghL clalmed ls glven by a law of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
ln Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhls power lL ls declared LhaL Lhe supreme courL shall have orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon ln all cases affecLlng ambassadors oLher publlc mlnlsLers and consuls and
Lhose ln whlch a sLaLe shall be a parLy ln all oLher cases Lhe supreme courL shall have appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon
lL has been lnslsLed aL Lhe bar LhaL as Lhe orlglnal granL of [urlsdlcLlon Lo Lhe supreme and lnferlor courLs ls general and Lhe clause asslgnlng orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon Lo Lhe
supreme courL conLalns no negaLlve or resLrlcLlve words Lhe power remalns Lo Lhe leglslaLure Lo asslgn orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon Lo LhaL courL ln oLher cases Lhan Lhose speclfled ln
Lhe arLlcle whlch has been reclLed provlded Lhose cases belong Lo Lhe [udlclal power of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
lf lL had been lnLended Lo leave lL ln Lhe dlscreLlon of Lhe leglslaLure Lo apporLlon Lhe [udlclal power beLween Lhe supreme and lnferlor courLs accordlng Lo Lhe wlll of LhaL
body lL would cerLalnly have been useless Lo have proceeded furLher Lhan Lo have deflned Lhe [udlclal power and Lhe Lrlbunals ln whlch lL should be vesLed 1he subsequenL
parL of Lhe secLlon ls mere surplusage ls enLlrely wlLhouL meanlng lf such ls Lo be Lhe consLrucLlon lf congress remalns aL llberLy Lo glve Lhls courL appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon
age 10 of 12

where Lhe consLlLuLlon has declared Lhelr [urlsdlcLlon shall be orlglnal and orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon where Lhe consLlLuLlon has declared lL shall be appellaLe Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of
[urlsdlcLlon made ln Lhe consLlLuLlon ls form wlLhouL subsLance
AfflrmaLlve words are ofLen ln Lhelr operaLlon negaLlve of oLher ob[ecLs Lhan Lhose afflrmed and ln Lhls case a negaLlve or excluslve sense musL be glven Lo Lhem or Lhey
have no operaLlon aL all
lL cannoL be presumed LhaL any clause ln Lhe consLlLuLlon ls lnLended Lo be wlLhouL effecL and Lherefore such consLrucLlon ls lnadmlsslble unless Lhe words requlre lL 3 uS
137 173 lf Lhe sollclLude of Lhe convenLlon respecLlng our peace wlLh forelgn powers lnduced a provlslon LhaL Lhe supreme courL should Lake orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon ln cases
whlch mlghL be supposed Lo affecL Lhem yeL Lhe clause would have proceeded no furLher Lhan Lo provlde for such cases lf no furLher resLrlcLlon on Lhe powers of congress
had been lnLended 1haL Lhey should have appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon ln all oLher cases wlLh such excepLlons as congress mlghL make ls no resLrlcLlon unless Lhe words be deemed
excluslve of orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon
When an lnsLrumenL organlzlng fundamenLally a [udlclal sysLem dlvldes lL lnLo one supreme and so many lnferlor courLs as Lhe leglslaLure may ordaln and esLabllsh Lhen
enumeraLes lLs powers and proceeds so far Lo dlsLrlbuLe Lhem as Lo deflne Lhe [urlsdlcLlon of Lhe supreme courL by declarlng Lhe cases ln whlch lL shall Lake orlglnal
[urlsdlcLlon and LhaL ln oLhers lL shall Lake appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon Lhe plaln lmporL of Lhe words seems Lo be LhaL ln one class of cases lLs [urlsdlcLlon ls orlglnal and noL
appellaLe ln Lhe oLher lL ls appellaLe and noL orlglnal lf any oLher consLrucLlon would render Lhe clause lnoperaLlve LhaL ls an addlLlonal reason for re[ecLlng such oLher
consLrucLlon and for adherlng Lo Lhe obvlous meanlng
1o enable Lhls courL Lhen Lo lssue a mandamus lL musL be shown Lo be an exerclse of appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon or Lo be necessary Lo enable Lhem Lo exerclse appellaLe
[urlsdlcLlon
lL has been sLaLed aL Lhe bar LhaL Lhe appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon may be exerclsed ln a varleLy of forms and LhaL lf lL be Lhe wlll of Lhe leglslaLure LhaL a mandamus should be used
for LhaL purpose LhaL wlll musL be obeyed 1hls ls Lrue yeL Lhe [urlsdlcLlon musL be appellaLe noL orlglnal
lL ls Lhe essenLlal crlLerlon of appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon LhaL lL revlses and correcLs Lhe proceedlngs ln a cause already lnsLlLuLed and does noL creaLe LhaL case AlLhough
Lherefore a mandamus may be dlrecLed Lo courLs yeL Lo lssue such a wrlL Lo an offlcer for Lhe dellvery of a paper ls ln effecL Lhe same as Lo susLaln an orlglnal acLlon for LhaL
paper and Lherefore seems noL Lo belong Lo 3 uS 137 176 appellaLe buL Lo orlglnal [urlsdlcLlon nelLher ls lL necessary ln such a case as Lhls Lo enable Lhe courL Lo
exerclse lLs appellaLe [urlsdlcLlon
1he auLhorlLy Lherefore glven Lo Lhe supreme courL by Lhe acL esLabllshlng Lhe [udlclal courLs of Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo lssue wrlLs of mandamus Lo publlc offlcers appears noL
Lo be warranLed by Lhe consLlLuLlon and lL becomes necessary Lo lnqulre wheLher a [urlsdlcLlon so conferred can be exerclsed
1he quesLlon wheLher an acL repugnanL Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon can become Lhe law of Lhe land ls a quesLlon deeply lnLeresLlng Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes buL happlly noL of an
lnLrlcacy proporLloned Lo lLs lnLeresL lL seems only necessary Lo recognlse cerLaln prlnclples supposed Lo have been long and well esLabllshed Lo declde lL
1haL Lhe people have an orlglnal rlghL Lo esLabllsh for Lhelr fuLure governmenL such prlnclples as ln Lhelr oplnlon shall mosL conduce Lo Lhelr own happlness ls Lhe basls on
whlch Lhe whole Amerlcan fabrlc has been erecLed 1he exerclse of Lhls orlglnal rlghL ls a very greaL exerLlon nor can lL nor oughL lL Lo be frequenLly repeaLed 1he prlnclples
Lherefore so esLabllshed are deemed fundamenLal And as Lhe auLhorlLy from whlch Lhey proceed ls supreme and can seldom acL Lhey are deslgned Lo be permanenL
1hls orlglnal and supreme wlll organlzes Lhe governmenL and asslgns Lo dlfferenL deparLmenLs Lhelr respecLlve powers lL may elLher sLop here or esLabllsh cerLaln llmlLs noL
Lo be Lranscended by Lhose deparLmenLs
1he governmenL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls of Lhe laLLer descrlpLlon 1he powers of Lhe leglslaLure are deflned and llmlLed and LhaL Lhose llmlLs may noL be mlsLaken or forgoLLen
Lhe consLlLuLlon ls wrlLLen 1o whaL purpose are powers llmlLed and Lo whaL purpose ls LhaL llmlLaLlon commlLLed Lo wrlLlng lf Lhese llmlLs may aL any Llme be passed by
Lhose lnLended Lo be resLralned? 1he dlsLlncLlon beLween a governmenL wlLh llmlLed and unllmlLed powers ls abollshed lf Lhose llmlLs do noL conflne Lhe persons on whom
Lhey are lmposed and lf acLs pro 3 uS 137 177 hlblLed and acLs allowed are of equal obllgaLlon lL ls a proposlLlon Loo plaln Lo be conLesLed LhaL Lhe consLlLuLlon conLrols
any leglslaLlve acL repugnanL Lo lL or LhaL Lhe leglslaLure may alLer Lhe consLlLuLlon by an ordlnary acL
8eLween Lhese alLernaLlves Lhere ls no mlddle ground 1he consLlLuLlon ls elLher a superlor paramounL law unchangeable by ordlnary means or lL ls on a level wlLh ordlnary
leglslaLlve acLs and llke oLher acLs ls alLerable when Lhe leglslaLure shall please Lo alLer lL
age 11 of 12

lf Lhe former parL of Lhe alLernaLlve be Lrue Lhen a leglslaLlve acL conLrary Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon ls noL law lf Lhe laLLer parL be Lrue Lhen wrlLLen consLlLuLlons are absurd
aLLempLs on Lhe parL of Lhe people Lo llmlL a power ln lLs own naLure llllmlLable
CerLalnly all Lhose who have framed wrlLLen consLlLuLlons conLemplaLe Lhem as formlng Lhe fundamenLal and paramounL law of Lhe naLlon and consequenLly Lhe Lheory of
every such governmenL musL be LhaL an acL of Lhe leglslaLure repugnanL Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon ls vold
1hls Lheory ls essenLlally aLLached Lo a wrlLLen consLlLuLlon and ls consequenLly Lo be consldered by Lhls courL as one of Lhe fundamenLal prlnclples of our socleLy lL ls noL
Lherefore Lo be losL slghL of ln Lhe furLher conslderaLlon of Lhls sub[ecL
lf an acL of Lhe leglslaLure repugnanL Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon ls vold does lL noLwlLhsLandlng lLs lnvalldlLy blnd Lhe courLs and obllge Lhem Lo glve lL effecL? Cr ln oLher words
Lhough lL be noL law does lL consLlLuLe a rule as operaLlve as lf lL was a law? 1hls would be Lo overLhrow ln facL whaL was esLabllshed ln Lheory and would seem aL flrsL vlew
an absurdlLy Loo gross Lo be lnslsLed on lL shall however recelve a more aLLenLlve conslderaLlon
lL ls emphaLlcally Lhe provlnce and duLy of Lhe [udlclal deparLmenL Lo say whaL Lhe law ls 1hose who apply Lhe rule Lo parLlcular cases musL of necesslLy expound and
lnLerpreL LhaL rule lf Lwo laws confllcL wlLh each oLher Lhe courLs musL declde on Lhe operaLlon of each 3 uS 137 178 So lf a law be ln opposlLlon Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon lf
boLh Lhe law and Lhe consLlLuLlon apply Lo a parLlcular case so LhaL Lhe courL musL elLher declde LhaL case conformably Lo Lhe law dlsregardlng Lhe consLlLuLlon or
conformably Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon dlsregardlng Lhe law Lhe courL musL deLermlne whlch of Lhese confllcLlng rules governs Lhe case 1hls ls of Lhe very essence of [udlclal duLy
lf Lhen Lhe courLs are Lo regard Lhe consLlLuLlon and he consLlLuLlon ls superlor Lo any ordlnary acL of Lhe leglslaLure Lhe consLlLuLlon and noL such ordlnary acL musL govern
Lhe case Lo whlch Lhey boLh apply
1hose Lhen who conLroverL Lhe prlnclple LhaL Lhe consLlLuLlon ls Lo be consldered ln courL as a paramounL law are reduced Lo Lhe necesslLy of malnLalnlng LhaL courLs musL
close Lhelr eyes on Lhe consLlLuLlon and see only Lhe law
1hls docLrlne would subverL Lhe very foundaLlon of all wrlLLen consLlLuLlons lL would declare LhaL an acL whlch accordlng Lo Lhe prlnclples and Lheory of our governmenL ls
enLlrely vold ls yeL ln pracLlce compleLely obllgaLory lL would declare LhaL lf Lhe leglslaLure shall do whaL ls expressly forbldden such acL noLwlLhsLandlng Lhe express
prohlblLlon ls ln reallLy effecLual lL would be glvlng Lo Lhe leglslaLure a pracLlcal and real omnlpoLence wlLh Lhe same breaLh whlch professes Lo resLrlcL Lhelr powers wlLhln
narrow llmlLs lL ls prescrlblng llmlLs and declarlng LhaL Lhose llmlLs may be passed aL pleasure
1haL lL Lhus reduces Lo noLhlng whaL we have deemed Lhe greaLesL lmprovemenL on pollLlcal lnsLlLuLlonsa wrlLLen consLlLuLlon would of lLself be sufflclenL ln Amerlca where
wrlLLen consLlLuLlons have been vlewed wlLh so much reverence for re[ecLlng Lhe consLrucLlon 8uL Lhe pecullar expresslons of Lhe consLlLuLlon of Lhe unlLed SLaLes furnlsh
addlLlonal argumenLs ln favour of lLs re[ecLlon
1he [udlclal power of Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls exLended Lo all cases arlslng under Lhe consLlLuLlon 3 uS 137 179 Could lL be Lhe lnLenLlon of Lhose who gave Lhls power Lo say
LhaL ln uslng lL Lhe consLlLuLlon should noL be looked lnLo? 1haL a case arlslng under Lhe consLlLuLlon should be declded wlLhouL examlnlng Lhe lnsLrumenL under whlch lL
arlses?
1hls ls Loo exLravaganL Lo be malnLalned
ln some cases Lhen Lhe consLlLuLlon musL be looked lnLo by Lhe [udges And lf Lhey can open lL aL all whaL parL of lL are Lhey forbldden Lo read or Lo obey?
1here are many oLher parLs of Lhe consLlLuLlon whlch serve Lo lllusLraLe Lhls sub[ecL
lL ls declared LhaL no Lax or duLy shall be lald on arLlcles exporLed from any sLaLe Suppose a duLy on Lhe exporL of coLLon of Lobacco or of flour and a sulL lnsLlLuLed Lo
recover lL CughL [udgmenL Lo be rendered ln such a case? oughL Lhe [udges Lo close Lhelr eyes on Lhe consLlLuLlon and only see Lhe law
1he consLlLuLlon declares LhaL no blll of aLLalnder or ex posL facLo law shall be passed
lf however such a blll should be passed and a person should be prosecuLed under lL musL Lhe courL condemn Lo deaLh Lhose vlcLlms whom Lhe consLlLuLlon endeavours Lo
preserve?
no person says Lhe consLlLuLlon shall be convlcLed of Lreason unless on Lhe LesLlmony of Lwo wlLnesses Lo Lhe same overL acL or on confesslon ln open courL
age 12 of 12

Pere Lhe language of Lhe consLlLuLlon ls addressed especlally Lo Lhe courLs lL prescrlbes dlrecLly for Lhem a rule of evldence noL Lo be deparLed from lf Lhe leglslaLure should
change LhaL rule and declare one wlLness or a confesslon ouL of courL sufflclenL for convlcLlon musL Lhe consLlLuLlonal prlnclple yleld Lo Lhe leglslaLlve acL?
lrom Lhese and many oLher selecLlons whlch mlghL be made lL ls apparenL LhaL Lhe framers of Lhe consLl 3 uS 137 180 LuLlon conLemplaLed LhaL lnsLrumenL as a rule for
Lhe governmenL of courLs as well as of Lhe leglslaLure
Why oLherwlse does lL dlrecL Lhe [udges Lo Lake an oaLh Lo supporL lL? 1hls oaLh cerLalnly applles ln an especlal manner Lo Lhelr conducL ln Lhelr offlclal characLer Pow
lmmoral Lo lmpose lL on Lhem lf Lhey were Lo be used as Lhe lnsLrumenLs and Lhe knowlng lnsLrumenLs for vlolaLlng whaL Lhey swear Lo supporL!
1he oaLh of offlce Loo lmposed by Lhe leglslaLure ls compleLely demonsLraLlve of Lhe leglslaLlve oplnlon on Lhls sub[ecL lL ls ln Lhese words l do solemnly swear LhaL l wlll
admlnlsLer [usLlce wlLhouL respecL Lo persons and do equal rlghL Lo Lhe poor and Lo Lhe rlch and LhaL l wlll falLhfully and lmparLlally dlscharge all Lhe duLles lncumbenL on me
as accordlng Lo Lhe besL of my ablllLles and undersLandlng agreeably Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon and laws of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
Why does a [udge swear Lo dlscharge hls duLles agreeably Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon of Lhe unlLed SLaLes lf LhaL consLlLuLlon forms no rule for hls governmenL? lf lL ls closed upon hlm
and cannoL be lnspecLed by hlm
lf such be Lhe real sLaLe of Lhlngs Lhls ls worse Lhan solemn mockery 1o prescrlbe or Lo Lake Lhls oaLh becomes equally a crlme
lL ls also noL enLlrely unworLhy of observaLlon LhaL ln declarlng whaL shall be Lhe supreme law of Lhe land Lhe consLlLuLlon lLself ls flrsL menLloned and noL Lhe laws of Lhe
unlLed SLaLes generally buL Lhose only whlch shall be made ln pursuance of Lhe consLlLuLlon have LhaL rank
1hus Lhe parLlcular phraseology of Lhe consLlLuLlon of Lhe unlLed SLaLes conflrms and sLrengLhens Lhe prlnclple supposed Lo be essenLlal Lo all wrlLLen consLlLuLlons LhaL a
law repugnanL Lo Lhe consLlLuLlon ls vold and LhaL courLs as well as oLher deparLmenLs are bound by LhaL lnsLrumenL
1he rule musL be dlscharged