Difference between the communication and transmission.

The diIIerences between the communication and transmission are:

Physical movement oI inIormation and concerning about bit priority, synchronization, clock etc
is reIerred as transmission, where as Iull exchange oI inIormation among media oI
communication is reIerred as communication.
Transmission is all about transmitting oI data to the destination, where as the dialogue between
the source and destination is all about communication.
******************************************************************************
hat is the difference between TFTP and FTP application layer protocols?
The diIIerences between FTP and TFTP:
FTP is connection oriented, where as TFTP is not.
TFTP uses error checking and Ilow control, where as TFTP does not cause error checking.
FTP uses TCP as transport protocol, where as TFTP uses UDP as transport protocol.
Authentication is mandatory in FTP, where as authentication is not needed in TFTP.
Just getting and putting application eIIectively is the design concern oI TFTP, where as FTP
provides more control and data connection aspects.
******************************************************************************
hat are NETBIOS and NETBEUI?
Network Basic Input Output System provides session layer oI OSI model related services which
allows the applications on diIIerent computers Ior communicating over a LAN. NetBIOS runs
over TCP/IP through NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NBT) protocol. This process results in every
computer in the network with NetBIOS name and an IP address that corresponds to a host name.
NetBIOS Extended User InterIace is an extended version oI NetBIOS. It is a program that allows
computers to communicate within a local area network. NetBEUI Iorms the Irame Iormat which
was not a speciIication oI NetBIOS. NetBEUI is the best choice Ior perIorming communication
within a LAN.
******************************************************************************
hat is the difference between POP3 and IMAP Mail Server?
POP3: All emails are to be downloaded again iI used by another desktop PC Ior checking the
email.
May leads to conIusion iI used Ior checking email in oIIice and at home pc.
Attachments will be down loaded into desktop while the check new email` process is in
2

progress.
Mailboxes can be created only on desktop and one mail box exists on the server.
IMAP: There is no need Ior downloading all email while using another desktop PC Ior checking
email.
Unread mail identiIication is easier.
Message downloading is possible only when opened Ior display Irom its contents.
Multiple mailboxes creation is possible on the desktop PC and also on the server.
******************************************************************************
Define the term Protocol.
Protocol is a standard way oI communicating across a network. A protocol is the "language" oI
the network. It is a method by which two dissimilar systems can communicate. TCP is a protocol
which runs over a network.
******************************************************************************
hat is LAN?
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are conIined to a
single building or group oI buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over
any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system oI LANs connected in this way is
called a wide-area network (WAN). Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers.
Each node (individual computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs,
but it also is able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users
can share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the LAN
to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.
******************************************************************************
hat's the difference Between an Intranet and the Internet?
There's one major distinction between an intranet and the Internet: The Internet is an open, public
space, while an intranet is designed to be a private space. An intranet may be accessible Irom the
Internet, but as a rule it's protected by a password and accessible only to employees or other
authorized users.
From within a company, an intranet server may respond much more quickly than a typical Web
site. This is because the public Internet is at the mercy oI traIIic spikes, server breakdowns and
other problems that may slow the network. Within a company, however, users have much more
bandwidth and network hardware may be more reliable. This makes it easier to serve high-
bandwidth content, such as audio and video, over an intranet.
******************************************************************************

3

Define File Transfer Protocol.

File TransIer Protocol (FTP), a standard Internet protocol, is the simplest way to exchange Iiles
between computers on the Internet. Like the Hypertext TransIer Protocol (HTTP), which
transIers displayable Web pages and related Iiles, and the Simple Mail TransIer Protocol
(SMTP), which transIers e-mail, FTP is an application protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/IP
protocols. FTP is commonly used to transIer Web page Iiles Irom their creator to the computer
that acts as their server Ior everyone on the Internet. It's also commonly used to download
programs and other Iiles to your computer Irom other servers.
******************************************************************************
hat is FTP (File Transfer Protocol)?
FTP is File TransIer Protocol. It used to exchange Iiles on the internet. To enable the data
transIer FTP uses TCP/IP, FTP is most commonly used to upload and download Iiles Irom the
internet. FTP can be invoked Irom the command prompt or some graphical user interIace. FTP
also allows to update (delete, rename, move, and copy) Iiles at a server. It uses a reserved port no
21.
******************************************************************************
Explain the 7 Layers of OSI.
Layer 1: Physical layer
It represents all the electrical and physical speciIications Ior devices.
Layer 2: Data link layer
It provides the Iunctional and procedural means to transIer data between network entities and to
detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer.
Layer 3: Network layer
The Network layer provides the Iunctional and procedural means oI transIerring variable length
data sequences Irom a source to a destination via one or more networks.
Layer 4: Transport layer
It provides transparent transIer oI data between end users.
Layer 5: Session layer
It controls the sessions between computers. It connects, manages and terminates the connections
between the local and remote application.
Layer 6: Presentation layer
It transIorms data to provide a standard interIace Ior the Application layer.
Layer 7: Application layer
It provides a means Ior the user to access inIormation on the network through an application.
4

hat is a network? hat are the different kinds of network? Explain them
A network is a group oI computers or nodes connected together. They are connected with each
other by communication paths.
Types of Networks:
LAN Local Area Network connects a group oI nodes covering a small physical area. LAN`s
are most commonly seen in oIIices, building etc. LAN`s enable higher transIer rate oI data,
smaller coverage oI area and hence less wiring.
AN Wide Area Network connects a group oI nodes covering a wide area. WAN typically
connects and allow communication between regions or national boundaries. The most common
example oI WAN is internet.
VPN Virtual Private Network connects or links nodes in some larger area by open connections
or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead oI by physical wires. It is
used Ior secure communication through the public internet. VPN alone may not support explicit
security Ieatures, such as authentication or content encryption.
Intranet It is a set oI networks under the control oI a single administrative person. It can be
considered as an internal network oI an organization. II it is large, web servers are used to
provide inIormation to the users.
Extranet It is a network that restricts itselI within a single organization. It can be categorized
as WAN, MAN etc. however; it cannot have a single LAN. It must have a connection (at least
one) with external network.
******************************************************************************
hat are network topologies? Explain Ring, Bus and Star topology.
A network topology describes the layout oI a network. It describes how diIIerent nodes and
elements are connected to each other. DiIIerent types oI topology:
a. Ring:-
O All nodes connected with another in a loop.
O Each device is connected to one or more another device on either side.
b. Bus
O All nodes connected to a central and a common cable called as a back bone.
O In bus topology, the server is at one end and the clients are connected at diIIerent
positions across the network.
O Easy to manage and install.
O II the backbone Iails, the entire communication Iails.
3

c. Star
O All nodes connected to a central hub.
O The communication between the nodes is through the hub.
O Relative requires more cables as compared to BUS. However iI any node Iails, it wont
aIIect the entire LAN.
******************************************************************************
Explain IP, TCP and UDP.
TCP Transmission control Protocol is used to establish communication between nodes or
networks and exchange data packets. It guarantees delivery oI data packets in the order they were
sent. Hence it is most commonly used in all applications that require guaranteed delivery oI data.
It can handle both timeouts (iI packets were delayed) and retransmission (iI packets were lost).
The stream oI data is transmitted in segments. The segment header is 32 bit. it is a connectionless
communication protocol at the third level (network) oI the OSI model.
IP Internet protocol is used Ior transmission oI data over the internet. IP uses IP addresses to
identity each machine uniquely. Message is sent using small packets. The packet contains both
the sender and receivers address. IP does not guarantee the delivery in the same order as sent.
This is because the packets are sent via diIIerent routes. It is a connectionless communication
protocol at the third level (network) oI the OSI model.
UDP User Data Protocol is a communication protocol. It is normally used as an alternative Ior
TCP/IP. However there are a number oI diIIerences between them. UDP does not divide data
into packets. Also, UDP does not send data packets in sequence. Hence, the application program
must ensure the sequencing. UDP uses port numbers to distinguish user requests. It also has a
checksum capability to veriIy the data.
******************************************************************************
hat is multicasting?
Multicasting allows a single message to be sent to a group oI recipients. Emailing,
teleconIerencing, are examples oI multicasting. It uses the network inIrastructure and standards
to send messages.
******************************************************************************
Explain the functionality of PING.
Ping Is particularly used to check iI the system is in network or not. It also gives packet lost
inIormation. In windows ping command is written as ping ip address. The output returns the data
packets inIormation. The number oI packets sent, received and lost is returned by PING.
******************************************************************************

6

Explain the core naming mechanism, Domain Name System (DNS).

A Domain Name system is used to convert the names oI the website on the internet to IP
addresses. The domain names Ior each IP addresses are stored in a database that is distributed
across diIIerent servers. A domain name space consists oI a tree oI domain names. The tree has
zones. Zones consist oI a collection oI connected nodes. These nodes are served by a name
server. A domain name is usually in the Iorm oI mydomain.com. Here, .com is the top level
domain. Where as mydomain is the sub domain or subdivision. A host name is a domain name
that has one or more IP addresses associated with it.
******************************************************************************
hat is Application layer?
The application layer is located at the top oI the TCP/IP protocol layers. This one contains the
network applications which make it possible to communicate using the lower layers. The
soItware in this layer thereIore communicates using one oI the two protocols oI the layer below
(the transport layer), i.e. TCP or UDP. In computer networking, an application layer Iirewall is a
Iirewall operating at the application layer oI a protocol stack.|1| Generally it is a host using
various Iorms oI proxy servers to proxy traIIic instead oI routing it. As it works on the
application layer, it may inspect the contents oI the traIIic, blocking what the Iirewall
administrator views as inappropriate content, such as certain websites, viruses, and attempts to
exploit known logical Ilaws in client soItware, and so Iorth. An application layer Iirewall does
not route traIIic on the network layer. All traIIic stops at the Iirewall which may initiate its own
connections iI the traIIic satisIies the rules.
******************************************************************************
Define DNS
The DNS translates Internet domain and host names to IP addresses. DNS automatically converts
the names we type in our Web browser address bar to the IP addresses oI Web servers hosting
those sites. DNS implements a distributed database to store this name and address inIormation
Ior all public hosts on the Internet.
******************************************************************************
Define Telnet
Telnet is the main Internet protocol Ior creating a connection to a remote server.
Define SMTP
SMTP - Short Ior Simple Mail TransIer Protocol, a protocol Ior sending e-mail messages
between servers.
******************************************************************************

7

hat Is a MAC Address?

MAC (Media Access Control) addresses are globally unique addressed that are written into
hardware at the time oI manuIacture. The MAC address is a unique value associated with a
network adapter. MAC addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses.
They uniquely identiIy an adapter on a LAN. MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers
(48 bits in length).
******************************************************************************
MAC vs. IP Addressing
Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing Iunctions at the network
layer (layer 3). It's a slight oversimpliIication, but one can think oI IP addressing as supporting
the soItware implementation and MAC addresses as supporting the hardware implementation oI
the network stack. The MAC address generally remains Iixed and Iollows the network device,
but the IP address changes as the network device moves Irom one network to another.
******************************************************************************
Define Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)
Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) as deIined in the IEEE 802.1D is a link management protocol that
provides path redundancy while preventing undesirable loops in the network. For an Ethernet
network to Iunction properly, only one active path can exist between two stations. Loops occur
in networks Ior a variety oI reasons. The most common reason you Iind loops in networks is the
result oI a deliberate attempt to provide redundancy - in case one link or switch Iails, another link
or switch can take over.
******************************************************************************
hat is VPN?
A VPN is a service that oIIers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network
inIrastructure such as the Internet. VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as
a private network. They are the most cost eIIective method oI establishing a virtual point-to-
point connection between remote users and an enterprise customer's network.
Virtual Private network is a network that used the public telecommunication inIrastructure. This
means that it used public wires to connect the nodes. E.g. Internet. VPN supports remote access
to computers and allow data to be transmitted over this public network. Even though the data is
transmitted over a public network, encryption and decrypting data to ensure security.
******************************************************************************
How would you define IP address?
IP address or Internet Protocol address is the address oI a device attached to an IP network
(TCP/IP network). It is a must Ior every client, server and network device to have a unique IP
address Ior each network connection (network interIace). Every IP packet contains a source IP
8

address and a destination IP address. As a device moves Irom one network to another, its IP
address changes.
Computers using the TCP/IP Ior communication are uniquely identiIied by a 32 bit address
called as an IP address. The routers use the IP address inIormation to Iorward the packet to the
destination computer.
IP addresses are categorized as:
Private address: these IP addresses are used exclusively within a private network and not Ior
public to see.
Public Address: these are registered IP addresses used Ior public.
Each IP address has a network address and a host address. IP addresses are expressed in Iour sets
oI three numbers, separated with dots. Each set is called as an octet because when converted to
binary; it denotes eight binary.
******************************************************************************
Difference between Static and Dynamic IP.
Static IP is also called as permanent address assigned to each device in a network, whereas
Dynamic IP, a temporary address assigned to the device via DHCP soItware. IP address assigned
to your service by your cable or DSL Internet provider is typically dynamic IP. In routers and
operating systems, the deIault conIiguration Ior clients is dynamic IP
******************************************************************************
hat is the difference between public and private IP?
A public IP address allows equipment accessible to everyone on the internet. A private IP
address is Ior private use within the network and allows many more PCs to be connected. II you
are using a private IP and wants VOIP, you need to change to a public IP address.
******************************************************************************
hat is Network Address Translation?
Network Address Translation acts as an agent between the Internet and a local network. It is a
dynamic method which is used to minimize Internet connectivity needs. Network address
translation describes the rewriting oI the Internet Protocol (IP) addresses oI data packets so that
multiple transmissions require only one IP address.
******************************************************************************
Define IP multicast.
IP multicast technology reduces traIIic by sending stream oI inIormation to many recipients at
one go. Video conIerencing, stock quotas are the examples based on IP multicast.
9

hat is subneting?
Subnet adds one level to the way IP address is represented. It logically organizes the network.
For instance, it can logically group computers belongs to the Iinance department
******************************************************************************
Define Address Resolution Protocol.
Address Resolution Protocol ARP, is responsible Ior mapping an IP address to its corresponding
physical network address. It is mostly seen on Ethernet network.
******************************************************************************
Explain Maximum Transfer Unit, MTU.
MTU speciIies the largest amount oI data that can be transIerred across a network.
******************************************************************************
hat is Routing Protocol?
Routing protocol is the way to send routing inIormation between any routers in an autonomous
system.
When a source sends a packet to a destination, this packet has a speciIic path or route it Iollows.
DiIIerent routing protocols are used to Iind the shortest path to the destination. The protocols
maintain routing tables. Routing tables consist oI a set oI rules used to determine where these
packets will travel. When a packet is received, a network device examines the packet and
matches it to the routing table entry providing the best match Ior its destination. The packet
keeps hopping until it reaches its destination.
******************************************************************************
Explain the structure and use of internet addresses.
Each IP address is 32 bit long. In human language the IP addresses are written in dotted decimal
notation. These are then converted to binary by the computer. Each IP address has two parts:
Network identiIier or a network ID and host ID. The current internet protocol standard is IPV4.
The IP addresses are divided into three classes: a class A network, a class B network, and a class
C network. Class A being the largest. The Iour digit numbers in an IPV4 address, each network
oI class A will have diIIerent Iirst number, and then its network will be addressed by the rest oI
the three numbers, or three bytes. The IP addresses identiIy a machine to deliver packets and
load web pages.
******************************************************************************

Explain how names are translated (resolved) into IP address.

Domain Name server or DNS is used to resolve names into IP addresses. When a web address is
entered into the browser, the DNS client sends a request to the DNS server to Iind the
corresponding IP address Ior the name. The DNS server receives this request and searches Ior the
corresponding IP address in the database. II at this point the resolution Iails, this server sends this
request to the parent server. The request keeps going up the hierarchy to the parent servers or the
closest authoritative oI the DNS server to resolve the address. II the request times out an error is
retuned to the client. II the server is able to resolve the name requested, it passes the inIormation
back to the client. The next request sent by the client is to request Ior a web page Ior the IP
address.
******************************************************************************
Describe the basics of internet routing.
When a source sends a packet to a destination, this packet has a speciIic path or route it Iollows.
DiIIerent routing protocols are used to Iind the shortest path to the destination. The protocols
maintain routing tables. Routing tables consist oI a set oI rules used to determine where these
packets will travel. When a packet is received, a network device examines the packet and
matches it to the routing table entry providing the best match Ior its destination. The packet
keeps hopping until it reaches its destination.
******************************************************************************
Define broadcast domain.
It is a logical area in a computer network where any computer connected to the network can
directly transmit to any other computer in the domain without having to go through a routing
device.
******************************************************************************
Bridge vs switch
A bridge connects two diIIerent LAN networks. A switch is something like you can connect
many computers to a switch and then one computer can connect to another through the switch.
Switch is a unicast one to one connection.
******************************************************************************
hat is a Router?
A router is a device or sometimes a soItware in a computer which decides the next network point
to which a packet should be Iorwarded to reach its destination on Internet. It is usually included
as part oI the network switch and is located at a gateway, including each point-oI-presence on the
Internet. The router is connected to at least two networks and determines which way to send each
inIormation packet based on its understanding oI the state oI the networks it is connected to.
******************************************************************************

Define gateway
A gateway is a network point that provides entrance into another network. On the Internet, a
node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the
computers oI Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes. The
computers that control traIIic within your company's network or at your local Internet service
provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.
******************************************************************************
hat is firewall?
A Iirewall is a hardware or soItware installed to provide security to the private networks
connected to the internet. They can be implemented in both hardware and soItware, or a
combination oI both. All data entering or leaving the Intranet passes through the Iirewall which
allows only the data meeting the administrators` rules to pass through it.
******************************************************************************
hat are the types of firewalls?
Packet Filtering Firewall:
This type oI Firewall detects packets and block unnecessary packets and makes network traIIic
release.
Screening Router Firewalls:
It's a soItware base Iirewall available in Router provides only light Iiltering.
Computer-based Firewall:
It's a Iirewall stored in server with an existing Operating System like Windows and UNIX.
Hardware base Firewall:
Its device like box allows strong security Irom public network. Mostly used by big networks.
Proxy Server:
Proxy server allows all clients to access Internet with diIIerent access limits. Proxy server has its
own Iirewall which Iilters the all packet Irom web server.
******************************************************************************
hat is Data encryption?
Data encryption ensures data saIety and very important Ior conIidential or critical data. It protect
data Irom being read, altered or Iorged while transmission.
******************************************************************************

2

hat is the Public Key Encryption?

Public key encryption use public and private key Ior encryption and decryption. In this
mechanism, public key is used to encrypt messages and only the corresponding private key can
be used to decrypt them. To encrypt a message, a sender has to know recipient`s public key.
******************************************************************************
Define Digital Signatures.
Digital signature is an attachment to an electronic message used Ior security purpose. It is used to
veriIy the authenticity oI the sender.
******************************************************************************
hat is Ethernet technology?
Ethernet technology is a high speed broadcast bus technology. In this type, all the station shares a
single ether channel and receives every single transmitted signal.
******************************************************************************
Explain the use of network interface card, NIC.
NIC is used to connect computer to an Ethernet network.
******************************************************************************
Explain token ring technology.
In this technology, all the devices are arranged in a circle. A token moves around the circular
network. A device waits Ior the token beIore it sends its Irame. Once it receives token, it initiates
transmission oI its Irame.
******************************************************************************
hat is CSMA and CD concept?
In CSDA (carrier sense multiple access), presence oI any digital signal in a network is checked
beIore transmission. Data transmission occurs only when no signal is sensed.
CD, Collision detection is responsible Ior monitoring carrier in order to avoid signal jam.
******************************************************************************
hat is NetBIOS protocol?
NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) Protocol allows applications on separate
computers to communicate over a LAN. It runs over TCP/IP giving each computer in the
network a NetBIOS name and IP address. E.g. It can be used Ior computers running Windows
2000 (or beIore) to join a computer network running Windows 2000 (or later).
3

hat is IGMP protocol?

Internet Group Management Protocol, allows internet hosts to multicast. i.e. to send messages to
a group oI computers. There may be a group oI internet hosts interested to multicast. IGMP
allows router to determine which host groups have members on a given network segment. It
helps to establish group memberships. It is commonly used Ior streamlining videos and gaming.
The protocol can be implemented both as a host side and router side. The host side is responsible
to notiIy its membership in a group. The notiIication is made to a local router. This local router
(router side) in turn sends out queries.
******************************************************************************
hat is TCP / IP protocol?
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol: - It is a Iamily oI protocols used Ior
communication and connection between hosts on the internet. It is the most widely used standard
Ior transmitting data over the internet. The Iour layers in the protocol are (Irom bottom to top):-
Physical layer, Data link layer, Network layer, transport layer and application layer, also called
as the OSI model. In TCP/IP , IP is responsible Ior Iorwarding packets while TCP ensures the
correct delivery oI data Irom client to server. TCP detects loss oI data as well.
******************************************************************************
hat is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)?
HTTP or Hyper Text TransIer Protocol is provides a set oI rules to transIer Iiles, videos, images
over the world wide web. When the web browser is opened, a HTTP request call is made. A web
server contains a HTTP daemon. This daemon is used to wait Ior HTTP requests and handle
them when they arrive. The web browser Irom where HTTP requests are made is called as a
client. These requests are sent to the server. It uses a reserved port no 80.
******************************************************************************
hat is NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol)?
NNTP or Network News TransIer Protocol is used to manage the notes posted on Unset
newsgroup (a collection oI posted notes on a subject posted by diIIerent users). NNTP servers
are responsible Ior managing Usenet newsgroup collected globally. A NTTP client is a part oI
the web browser also called as a news reader. It uses a reserver port no 119.
******************************************************************************
hat is POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)?
POP3 or Post OIIice Box 3 is used Iro receiving emails. It is a client server protocol which holds
the email. Once the email is downloaded Irom the server, POP3 deletes it Irom the server.
Ordinal numbers are used to identiIy speciIic messages.
******************************************************************************
4

hat is SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)?

SNMP or Simple Network Management Protocol is typically used Ior managing the network.
Managing the network includes managing the nodes present in the network. These nodes may be
server, routers, bridges and hubs. SNMP agents are used to achieve this. Managing the network
is essential because it helps to monitor network perIormance, detect network Iaults or Iailures,
audit network usage etc. the SNMP messages like TRAP, GET or SET may be invoked by
network elements or network management system.
******************************************************************************
hat is Routing table?
A routing table stores the routes oI the various nodes in a network. Nodes can be any electronic
device connected to the network. The table is usually stored in a router or the network computer
as a database or Iile. This inIormation helps to Iond the best possible path. The routing table has
at least 3 Iields: the destination network id, cost oI the path, next hop or address to send the
packet.
******************************************************************************
hat is Routing Protocols?
Routing protocols are used to assist in achieving the basic purpose oI routing. They speciIy the
routers the method to communicate with each other. They help the routers select the best possible
path between nodes. There are diIIerent types oI protocols such as link-state routing protocols,
path vector protocols and distance vector routing protocols. These protocols prevent routing
loops to Iorm or break iI Iormed already. They help to decide preIerred routes Irom a sequence
oI hop costs..
******************************************************************************
Explain Transmission Control Protocol, TCP
TCP ensures reliable and end to end delivery oI segments oI inIormation. Segments are
acknowledged to the source when received by the destination. Data is broken up into segments
and sequenced properly beIore transmission. This arrangement oI segments allows destination to
trace lost data in transmission.
******************************************************************************
hat is TCP protocol?
Transmission control Protocol is used to establish communication between nodes or networks
and exchange data packets. It guarantees delivery oI data packets in the order they were sent.
Hence it is most commonly used in all applications that require guaranteed delivery oI data. It
can handle both timeouts (iI packets were delayed) and retransmission (iI packets were lost). The
stream oI data is transmitted in segments. The segment header is 32 bit. it is a connectionless
communication protocol at the third level (network) oI the OSI model.
3

TCP vs. UDP.

TCP guarantees the delivery oI data. UDP on the other hand, does not guarantee delivery oI data.
TCP delivers messages in the order they were sent. UDP has no ordering mechanisms. In TCP
data is sent as a stream while UDP sends data as individual packets. UDP is Iaster than TCP.
TCP is a connection oriented protocol while UDP is connectionless.
******************************************************************************
Explain User Datagram Protocol, UDP.
The UDP is a connectionless, unreliable service. UDP messages can be lost and duplicated.
******************************************************************************
hat is UDP protocol?
User Data Protocol is a communication protocol. It is normally used as an alternative Ior TCP/IP.
However there are a number oI diIIerences between them. UDP does not divide data into
packets. Also, UDP does not send data packets in sequence. Hence, the application program must
ensure the sequencing. UDP uses port numbers to distinguish user requests. It also has a
checksum capability to veriIy the data.
******************************************************************************
hat is Trusted and Untrusted Networks?
Trusted networks: Such Networks allow data to be transIerred transparently. The machines
using a trusted network are usually administered by an Administrator to ensure that private and
secured data is not leaked. Access to this network is limited. Computers using trusted networks
are more secured and conIidential because oI strong Iirewalls.
Untrusted networks: Such networks are usually administered by the owners. They can allow
improper access to sensitive or personal data. These machines are usually separate. Such
machines could me more prone to attacks.
******************************************************************************
hat are the different types of VPN?
O Remote Access VPN:- Also called as Virtual Private dial-up network (VPDN) is mainly
used in scenarios where remote access to a network becomes essential. Remote access
VPN allows data to be accessed between a company`s private network and remote users
through a third party service provider; Enterprise service provider. E.g Sales team is
usually present over the globe. Using Remote access VPN, the sales updates can be
made.
O Site to Site VPN Intranet based: This type oI VPN can be used when multiple Remote
locations are present and can be made to join to a single network. Machines present on
these remote locations work as iI they are working on a single network.
6

O Site to Site VPN Extranet based: This type oI VPN can be used when several diIIerent
companies need to work in a shared environment. E.g. Distributors and service
companies. This network is more manageable and reliable.
******************************************************************************
hy do we need a subnet mask?
A subnet mask allows identiIication oI host part and network part oI an IP address. Subnet mask
can be used to Iind iI an IP address is present on a subnet or not.
******************************************************************************
hat are Sockets? How do Sockets ork?
A socket is used to connect an application to a network protocol. A socket enables
communication between a client and a server. The communication is started when the client is
assigned a local port number, and binds a socket to it. The client writes on the socket and gets
inIormation Irom server by reading it. The Socket class is used to communicate. It provides rich
set oI methods Ior both asynchronous and synchronous data transIer. ConnectAsynch is used to
start an asynchronous connection. SendAsynch and ReceiveAsynch are used to send and receive
data. Shutdown and close methods are used to shutdown and close the sockets.
******************************************************************************
hat is SSL?
SSL is Secured Socket Layer. SSL is used to establish a secured and an encrypted connection
between a server and the browser. SSL is most commonly seen in payment and banking web
sites. To create a SSL connection, a SSL certiIicate needs to be created. II the website has a SSL
certiIicate installed, a small icon is displayed in the tool bar to make customers conIident that the
site is secured.
******************************************************************************
hat are the two important TCP Socket classes? Explain them
The two most important socket Classes are:
O Socket Class: The Socket class provides enriched methods and properties Ior network
communications. It allows both synchronous and asynchronous data transIer. Shutdown
method should be used to end the Socket once the data transIer is complete. Using
SetSocketOption the socket can be conIigured.
Declaration:

Public Class Socket
Implements IDisposable
O Server Socket Class: The server Socket class is used to implement server sockets. Server
sockets are used to respond to requests received over the network.
7

hat are Malware? Explain different types of Malware

Malware is a soItware program which is developed to destroy a computer system. These
programs runs in victim`s computer without any inIormation to the victim, i.e. victim do not
know that someone hacked his system.

DiIIerent types oI malware are: worm, Trojans Horse, Rootkits.

Worm: Worm is a computer program which makes its copy again and again in the victim`s
computer. They damage the network by using a lot bandwidth.

Trojan Horses: Trojan horse consists oI two parts, server and client. Server is an executable Iile
which runs on victim`s computer and attacker may take the Iull control oI the victim`s computer.

Rootkits: Rootkits are used to hide the malicious processes Irom active process
******************************************************************************
Explain the services provided by IP (Internet Protocol) - Addressing, Fragmentation,
Packet timeouts and options
1. Addressing: For the purpose oI delivering datagram packets, IP needs to know about the
address oI the destination. By including the host addressing, this task is carried out by IP. As IP
operates in an internet, its systems are designed to accept the addressing oI devices which are
unique.
2. Fragmenting: The datagram packets are sent to the data link layer Ior the purpose oI
transmission on the network. The physical network Irame size that uses IP may be diIIerent. To
resolve this, IP Iragments the datagram into certain pieces. So that, each piece can be carried on
the network. The receiving systems use these pieces and reassemble the whole IP datagram
again.
3. Packet timeouts: A timeout packet is the time Ior waiting next instruction Irom the command
station. II the command is not sent by the station, it shuts down.
******************************************************************************
Define Broadcast, Unicast and Multicast.
Unicast: A term used in communication to describe a piece oI inIormation to send Irom one
point to another. There are only sender and receiver. All LANs support unicast transIer mode and
most applications that employ TCP transport protocol uses unicast messaging.
8

Broadcast: A term used Ior describing communication that is sent a piece oI inIormation Irom
one point to all other points. There is one sender and multiple receivers. All LANs support
broadcast transmission.
Multicast: A term described in communicating a piece oI inIormation sent Irom one or more
points to a set oI other points. The senders and receivers are one or more.
******************************************************************************
hat is Network Mask?
A network mask is used Ior determination oI what subnet an IP address belongs to. An IP
address has network address and the host address. The Iirst two numbers represents the network
address and the second two numbers represents the host oI the network.
******************************************************************************
Define Subnetting.
A subnet describes a set oI networked computers which have common IP address routing preIix.
Breaking the networking into smaller and more eIIicient subnets is known as subnets. Subnetting
prevents Ethernet packet collision which has excessive rates in a large network. Routers are used
to manage the traIIic and constitute borders among subnets.
******************************************************************************
hat is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)?
User datagram protocol allows computer applications to send messages as datagram packets
Irom source to destination on an Internet Protocol, with out using prior communications Ior
setting up special transmission paths. An unreliable service is provided by UDP which makes the
datagram packets may arrive irrespective oI order. UDP is a better solution Ior time-sensitive
applications due to the reason dropping packets is preIerable to use delayed packets`. Its
stateless nature makes the server to answer smaller queries to huge number oI clients.
******************************************************************************
hat is the Domain Name System (DNS)? hat are the advantages of it?
A hierarchical naming system Ior computer systems, services or Ior that matter any resource
participating in the internet. Various inIormation with domain names is assigned to each oI the
participants. DNS translates the names oI domain into meaningIul to humans into binary
identiIiers that are associated with the equipment oI network to locate and address these devices.



9

Advantages:
More Reliable: Delivers messages to the users with zero downtime.
Faster: DNS are connected well at intersections oI internet. Any cast technology enables
requests are answered to the next closest node in the case oI maintenance or downtime.
Smarter: Automatic corrections oI typos.
******************************************************************************
hat are Ping and Tracert?
Ping and tracert are the commands used to send inIormation to some remote computers to
receive some inIormation. InIormation is sent and received by packets. Ping I particularly used to
check iI the system is in network or not. It also gives packet lost inIormation. In windows ping
command is written as ping ipaddress Tracert is called as trace route. It is used to track or trace
the path the packet takes Irom the computer where the command is given until the destination. In
windows ping command is written as tracert ipaddress
******************************************************************************
hat are the differences between a domain and a workgroup?
In a domain, one or more computer can be a server to manage the network. On the other hand in
a workgroup all computers are peers having no control on each other. In a domain, user doesn`t
need an account to logon on a speciIic computer iI an account is available on the domain. In a
work group user needs to have an account Ior every computer.
In a domain, Computers can be on diIIerent local networks. In a work group all computers needs
to be a part oI the same local network.
******************************************************************************
hat is PPP protocol? Explain PPP packet format.
Point to Point protocol helps communication between 2 computers over a serial cable, phone line
or other Iiber optic lines. E.g. Connection between an Internet Service Provider and a host. PPP
also provides authentication. PPP operates by sending Request packets and waiting Ior
Acknowledge packets that accept, reject or try to change the request. The protocol is also used to
negotiate on network address or compression options between the nodes.
Packet Iormat:-
Flag Iield: 1 byte: - Indicates Irames beginning or end
Address Iield: 1 byte: - Used Ior broadcast address (destination address)
Control Iield: 1 byte: - Used as a control byte
Protocol Iield: - 1 or 2 bytes: - Setting oI protocol in inIormation Iield (oI datagram)
InIormation: - 0 or more bytes: - Datagram (whether it contains data or control inIormation)
2

Padding: - 0 or more bytes: - optional padding

FCS: - 2 or more bytes: - error check sum
******************************************************************************
hat is IP Spoofing and how can it be prevented?
IP spooIing is a mechanism used by attackers to gain unauthorized access to a system. Here, the
intruder sends messages to a computer with an IP address indicating that the message is coming
Irom a trusted host. This is done by Iorging the header so it contains a diIIerent address and
make it appear that the packet was sent by a diIIerent machine.
Prevention:-
Packet Iiltering: - to allow packets with recognized Iormats to enter the network
Using special routers and Iirewalls.
Encrypting the session
******************************************************************************
Explain IP datagram, Fragmentation and MTU.
IP datagram can be used to describe a portion oI IP data. Each IP datagram has set oI Iields
arranged in an order. The order is speciIic which helps to decode and read the stream easily. IP
datagram has Iields like Version, header length, Type oI service, Total length, checksum, Ilag,
protocol, Time to live, IdentiIication, source and destination ip address, padding, options and
payload.
MTU:- Maximum Transmission Unit is the size oI the largest packet that a communication
protocol can pass. The size can be Iixed by some standard or decided at the time oI connection
Fragmentation is a process oI breaking the IP packets into smaller pieces. Fragmentation is
needed when the datagram is larger than the MTU. Each Iragment becomes a datagram in itselI
and transmitted independently Irom source. When received by destination they are reassembled.
******************************************************************************
hat are switches? Explain the concepts of Layer-3 switches.
It is a device that connects multiple network segments.
A switch analyzes the MAC address and then determines where to send the data.
So a Iile addressed to a computer reaches only that computer through the use oI a switch.
The term switch` commonly reIers to a Network bridge that processes and routes data at the
Data link layer (layer 2) oI the OSI model.
Switches that additionally process data at the Network Layer are oIten reIerred to as Layer 3
switches or Multilayer switches.
******************************************************************************
2

hat is Router? Explain components of Routers.

The way switches connect multiple computers, a router connects multiple networks. Routers
comprise oI data consisting oI large tables oI networks and addresses. Routers use algorithms to
determine the shortest route to an address in a network.
******************************************************************************
hat are the basic components of routers?
Components of Router
Internal components:
O ROM:- Used to store the routers bootstrap details, operating system soItware.
O Flash memory: - holds the operating systems images. The content is retained when the
router is restarted.
O RAM: - Used to store the Routing tables, conIiguration Iiles, caching and buIIering
details. Content is lost when lost router is switched oII or restarted.
O NVRAM:- Stores the routers startup conIig Iiles. Data is non volatile.
O Network interIaces to connect router to network.
External components:
O Virtual terminals: For accessing routers
O Network management stations.
******************************************************************************
Explain different layers in the OSI model.
Application Layer:
O Closest to the end user
O Interact directly with the soItware application.
Presentation Layer:
O Translates application to network Iormat, and vice versa
O Works to transIorm data into the Iorm that the application layer can accept
O Formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network
Session Layer
O Controls the connections between computers
O Establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote
application.
O Provides Iull-duplex, halI-duplex, or simplex operation
22

O Establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures

Transport Layer:
O Provides transparent transIer oI data between end users
O Providing reliable data transIer services to the upper layers
O Controls the reliability oI a given link through Ilow control, segmentation /
desegmentation, and error control.
Network Layer
O Provides the Iunctional and procedural means oI transIerring variable length data
sequences Irom a source to a destination via one or more networks
O PerIorms networkrouting Iunctions
O PerIorms Iragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors.
Data Link Layer
O Provides the Iunctional and procedural means to transIer data between network entities
O Detects and corrects errors that occur in the Physical Layer.
Physical Layer:
O DeIines the electrical and physical speciIications Ior devices.
******************************************************************************
Explain the concept and capabilities of Unicast IP Addresses
It is an IP address that uniquely identiIies a host in a network.
The datagram with a unicast IP address is received and processed by only a single host.
******************************************************************************
hat is IP Multicasting?
It is an IP address that identiIies a particular group oI hosts in network.
This group oI hosts is called a multicast group.
******************************************************************************
Explain the classes of IP addresses. hy do we need them?
Class A:
Range: Irom 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.
LeItmost bit: 0.
First 8 bits: netid.
Remaining 24 bits: hostid.
23

Class B:
Range: Irom 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
LeItmost 2 bits: 10
First 16 bits: netid
Last 16 bits: the hostid
Class C:
Range: Irom 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
Class C networks use the Iirst 24 bits to determine the netid.
LeItmost 3 bits: 110
The next 21 bits deIine network.
8 bits deIine the hostid.
Class D:
First 4 bits: 1110
The remaining 28 bits deIine multicast addresses.
No netid or hostid in a class D address.
Addresses is used Ior multicasting.
Class E:
First 4 bits: 1111
Addresses reserved Ior special use on the Internet.
There is no netid or hostid in a class E address.
******************************************************************************
hat is Subneting? Explain the advantages of using Subneting.
Subneting is dividing a network into several subnets.
This is usually done Ior the Iollowing purposes:
O 8educlngneLworkLrafflcdecreaslngLhenumerofroadcasLs
O ceedlngLhelmlLaLlonslnaocaareaneLwork
O nalngeoeLoconnecLLoLheneLworkremoLewlLhouLoenlngLheenLlreneLwork
******************************************************************************
Explain the advantages of using Subneting.
Advantages oI using Subneting:-
O aslerneLworkmanagemenLandLroueshooLlng
O 8ouLlngLae'sslzelsreducedwhlchmeansfasLerneLworkLransfers
O oesneLworkcongesLlonroemslnceLhecomeLeneLworklsdlldedlnLosmaer
neLworks
O -eLworkaddressescanedecenLralzedegLheadmlnlsLraLorofLheneLworkcanmonlLorLhe
suneL

24

Describe the concept of Subneting.

Subneting is a process oI breaking the network into smaller units. These units care called as
subnets. Here a subnet could be several machines in a single LAN. Networks using IP can create
sub networks oI logical addresses. With every IP address there some oI the bits in the machine
can be used to identiIy a speciIic subnet. The IP address then contains three parts: the network
number, the subnet number, and the machine number.
******************************************************************************
hat is custom Subneting?
Subnets that can be customized; i.e. modiIying the dividing point between subnet ID and host ID
to suit the needs oI our network. The subnet mask that we use when creating a customized subnet
is, called a custom subnet mask. This custom subnet mask is used to Iind the customization..
******************************************************************************
hat is Data Fragmentaion? Explain how Data Fragmentaion works
Fragmentation occurs when storage space is used ineIIiciently due to which storage capacity and
perIormance is reduced.
Data Iragmentation occurs when a large object is inserted into storage that has already suIIered
external Iragmentation due to which the data object is broken up into many pieces that are not
close together.
When Iree storage becomes divided into many small pieces over time, its called External
Iragmentation.
******************************************************************************
hat is LAN?
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are conIined to a
single building or group oI buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over
any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system oI LANs connected in this way is
called a wide-area network (WAN). Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers.
Each node (individual computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs,
but it also is able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users
can share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the LAN
to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.
******************************************************************************


23

hat's the difference Between an Intranet and the Internet?

There's one major distinction between an intranet and the Internet: The Internet is an open, public
space, while an intranet is designed to be a private space. An intranet may be accessible Irom the
Internet, but as a rule it's protected by a password and accessible only to employees or other
authorized users.
From within a company, an intranet server may respond much more quickly than a typical Web
site. This is because the public Internet is at the mercy oI traIIic spikes, server breakdowns and
other problems that may slow the network. Within a company, however, users have much more
bandwidth and network hardware may be more reliable. This makes it easier to serve high-
bandwidth content, such as audio and video, over an intranet.

******************************************************************************