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1. TRIGONOMETRY
1.1 ANGLES
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Trigonometric function is a function of angles. A positive angle measures a rotation in an anticlockwise direction with respect to x-axis whereas a negative angle measures a rotation in a clockwise direction.

Angles can be given in unit of degrees ( ) or radians (rad). Thus it can be easily shown that radians = . Similarly, and .

Example 1
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1.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION Trigonometric function is a function of angles based on a unit circle. Let be the angle from line OA until line OB. Let the arclength AB, say t equals or (as r = 1). Here, is in degree while t is in radians.
B (cos t, sin t) t

sin t = y, tan t = sec t = (x

cos t = x ), cot t = , csc t =

Where (x,y) is coordinate point on a unit circle . Values of the trigonometric function can be obtained from tables or calculators.

Graph of sin x

Graph of cos x

Trigonometric functions sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant are defined as:

 Observe the plots of sine and cosine function. If the plot of sine function is shifted or to the right, then it will become a cosine function. Similarly, if the plot of cosine function is shifted or to the right, then it will become a sine function. That means,

That is, sine function is an odd function while cosine function is an even function. Example 2

Graph of tan x

On the other hand, it can also be observed that

Above is the plot of tangent. It can be seen that tangent function is periodic with period . Mathematically, a function is periodic function with period if for all t in the domain. Note that there are vertical asymptotes at any positive integers. are
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 Note that . The plots of contangent, secant and cosecant functions can be obtained by taking the reciprocal of tangent, cosine and sine function respectively.

Graph of cosec x It can be seen that secant and cosecant functions are periodic with period while cotangent function is periodic with period . 1.3 PLOTS OF y = a sin kx,

Graph of cot x

y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx

Graph of y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx, where k is positive real number, take similar shape as the original graphs of

Graph of sec x

y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx respectively.

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(a)

The period of the new function: (for sine and cosine (for tangent function)

Period = function) Period =

(b) Amplitude of the new function: a (for sine and cosine functions only).

Period will determine whether the graph is compressed (k>1) or expanded (0<k<1) along the xaxis about the y-axis if compared to the reference graph of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x.

(1). Above is the plot of y = sin 2x with k = 2 and a = 1. The period is , meaning one complete cycle is observed in . The graph start at (0,0) and the curve follows the pattern of y = sin x. Thus, we have a more compressed plot compared to y = sin x.

Amplitude will compressed/expand the reference graph of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x along the yaxis about the x-axis.
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(2). Above is the plot of y = sin Now, the period is

. (3). Above gives the plot of y = 3 sin 2x. The period is meaning that one complete cycle is observed in .

, meaning

that a complete cycle is observed in . Now, the graph of y = sin x is expanded to give the graph of

y = sin

The amplitude is 3 meaning that the minimum occurs at -3 while the maximum occurs at 3. That means the curve of y = sin 2x is expanded along the y-axis about the x-axis giving the graph of y = 3 sin 2x.

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In order to determine exactly the value of a, we need to know at least one point on the graph. For example, for y = 2 tan x, it is given that one of the curves passes through (4). Similarly, the effects are also observed for cosine function. Above is the overlapping graphs of y = cos x, y = cos 2x and y = 3 cos2x. (5). For y = tan
,

.
,

Thus, 2 = a tan

giving a = 2.

1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO Trigonometry functions are usually remembered based on a right-angled triangle as given.

a complete cycle

is observed in with period and repeated accordingly. (6). For y = 2 tan x, a complete cycle remains the same as for y = tan x. However, the graph is pulled up/down around the y-axis from the graph of y = tan x.
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(2). Note that

can also be given

by . Similarly, it can be shown that , and (1). Six basics trigonometry functions are defined as . Based on a right-angled triangle, if one acute angle is , then the other angle is ( ) as shown below.

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(3). Thus, we have

0 1 0

Example 4 (4). Values of the trigonometric ratios can be obtained from statistical tables or calculators. However, values for special angles can be described using the triangles below. Example 5

(5). Trigonometric functions can be evaluated for angles of any sizes including obtuse angle (greater than 90 ) and negative angles. This can be done in two steps. (i). Identify the quadrants where is situated as illustrated below. If an angle (measured from the positive x-axis) is in the first quadrant, then sin , cos and tan take positive values.

Table 1
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If the angle is in the second quadrant, then sin takes positive values while cos and tan take negative value. If the angle is in the third quadrant, then tan takes positive values while sin and cos take negative value. If the angle is in the fourth quadrant, then cos takes positive values while sin and tan take negative value.

(ii). Determine the basic angle . Basic angle, , for an angle is the acute angle measured from the x-axis to terminal line of angle . The calculation for is given in the table below. Table 2 Figure (a) (b) (c) (d) The quadrant I II III IV Basic angle,

Second quadrant Sine positive

First quadrant All positive

Third quadrant Tangent positive

Forth quadrant Cosine positive

It is illustrated below. For example, lies in the third quadrant as illustrated in (c), then the basic angle is given by which is measured from the x-axis to the terminal line of angle .
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1.5
(b) (a) Terminal line

BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

The definition of trigonometric has been given based on a unit circle (1) Further, it is decided that coordinate points B(x,y) = B(cos , sin ) is on the circle where is the angle from positive x-axis till line OB. Thus, substituting x = cos , y = sin , (1) gives (2) Divide (2) by cos , gives (3) Divide (2) by sin , gives (4)
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(c)

(d)

However, the formula given in Table 2 will have to be adjusted when angle is negative. For example, when = -150 , then the angle is in the second quadrant. Thus, is given by (180 -150 ) = 30 . Example 6

 These identities are also called the phytagorean identities and very useful in solving trigonometric function. Example 7

1.6

COMPOUND ANGLE
y

P (cos A, sin A) Q (cos B, sin B)

Let P and Q be two points on the unit circle . Further assume that the angles between the positive x-axis and lines OP and OQ are A and B respectively. Thus, the coordinates of points P and Q are given by

P(cos A, sin A) and Q(cosB, sinB).

Thus, using the phytagoras theorem, the distance PQ is given by the
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(1)

Now, PQ = RS2 as P, Q, R and S on similar unit circle and the angle POQ and ROS are equal. Thus, comparing (1) and (2), we may conclude that

S (cos (A-B), sin (A-B)) (A-B) x R (1,0)

(3) The compound angle formula are given by:

Consider now, Figure 2. Let R and S be two points on the unit circle with coordinate R (1,0) and S(cos(A-B), sin (A-B)). The distance RS is given by Example 8

(2)
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 The double-angle formula are given by:

The half-angle formula for trigonometric function are given below:

Example 9

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 From the half-angled formula, we have

The factor formula for trigonometric functions are given by:

where the sign is determined by the quadrant in which angle lies. Where P = (A+B) and Q = (A B). Example 10 Example 11

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1.7

SOLUTION OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

1.7.1 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION IN LINEAR FORM Trigonometric equations of the forms

Four different types of trigonometric equations are: (i). Simple/linear form: .

(ii). Quadratic form: . (iii). Addition form: expressing as and . (iv). Other type of trigonometric function where can be expressed in terms of t where .
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are called the simple trigonometric equations. The solution can be obtained in two steps: (1). Find the principal and secondary angles. The principal angle, , is the smallest positive or negative value in the range that satisfy the trigonometric equation. The secondary angle, , is the second angle satisfying the trigonometric equation in the range .
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(2). Determining the solution in a given interval. Based on the principal and secondary angles, the solutions in specified range can be determined. That is, the solutions are determined by the principal and secondary angles in the specified intervals. Example 12 1.7.2 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION IN QUADRATIC FORM Some trigonometric equation is in quadratic form. For initial understanding, it is helpful to make substitution such as y = sin x so that the trigonometric equation is reduced to standard quadratic equation of the form . Hence, the equation can be factorised.

Consequently, trigonometric equations of linear form are obtained and the solution can be found. Example 13 1.7.3 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS IN ADDITION FORM Trigonometric equation of the form is called in addition form. Such equation can be expressed as or where is acute and . The choice of using either one of or can be summarized in the next table.
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Example a and b (+) a (+) , b (-) a (-) , b (+)

Addition Form
t

Example 14 1.7.4 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION USING THE t FORMULA Trigonometric equation of the form can be solved by expressing in terms of t where . It can be described by the triangle below:

We can derive the t formulae for by substituting into the half-angle formulae.

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Thus, we have

2. GEOMETRY
2.1 COORDINATE SYSTEM Coordinate system in a plane by means of two perpendicular coordinate line, called coordinate axes that intersect at the origin O, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The horizontal line is known as the x-axis and the vertical line is known as the y-axis and label then as x and y respectively. The plane is then a coordinate plane or an xy-plane. The
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Example 15

coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called the first, second, third and fourth quadrants, labelled I, II, III and IV respectively. Each point P in an xy-plane may be assigned an ordered pair (a, b) as shown in Figure 2. We call a the x-coordinate of P, and b the ycoordinate.

2.1.1 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS The distance between any two points and in a coordinate plane is

The midpoint segment from is

of to

the

line

2.1.2 SLOPE Let L be a line that is not parallel to the y-axis, and let and be distinct points on L. The slope m of L is

Figure 2

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 If L is parallel to the y-axis, then the slope of L is not defined.

Since the ratio of corresponding sides of similar triangles are equal.

2.1.3 EQUATION OF A LINE An equation for the line through the point with slope m is

Figure 3 The definition of slope is independent of the two points that are chosen on L. If other points and are used, then as Figure 3, the triangle with vertices , and is similar to the triangle with vertices , and .

The point-slope form is only one possibility for an equation of a line. There are many equivalent equations. We sometimes simplify the equation obtained using the point-slope form to either

ax + by = c

or ax + by + d = 0

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 Where a, b, and c are integers with no common factor, a > 0, and d = -c. The graph of y = mx + c is a line having slope m and y-intercept, c. Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope. Example 3 2.1.4 DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A LINE The perpendicular distance of from the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by

2.1.5 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES The angle, , between the

straight line straight line by

and the is given

Example 4

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2.2 CIRCLES

Squaring both sides we have (1)

r C(h, k) y-k

P(x, y) x-h Q

Eq. (1) is the equation of a circle with centre at point (h, k) and radius of length r. It is called the centre-radius equation of the circle. If the centre is the origin then (h, k) = (0, 0) and we have

A circle is the set of all points in a plane, which are at a fixed distance from a fixed point. The fixed point is the centre of the circle, and the fixed distance is the radius of the circle. From the definition of the circle, a point P(x,y) lies on the circle if and only if |PC| = r, that is

If we expand Eq. (1), we have (2) Eq. (2) is called the general form of a circle. An equation of a circle in centre-radius form can be written in general form and vice versa.
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 If a circle is given in the general form, the radius and the centre of the circle can be determined by completing the square on Eq. (2).

2.2.1 FAMILY OF CIRCLES Let us consider two circles and where

Which is in centre-radius form. Thus, the centre is (-g, -f) and the radius is . If three points on a circle are given, the equation of the circle can be obtained by substituting the points into the general equation of the circle. Example 6

Were going to look at cases where 1) the two circles intersects at two points and 2) the two circles intersects at one point Equation (3) Where k is an arbitrary constant, is the equation obtained when the two circles intersects.

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Intersection of two circles

Case 1

Figure 1
Case 2

Figure 2

When Eq. (3) becomes a linear equation . This is the equation of the line passing through the two intersection points. This line is the common chord. Refer to Figure 2. For Case 2: When the circles touch and , then Eq. (3) represents the family of circles as shown in Figure 3 and 4. When , then Eq. (3) becomes a linear equation and it is the tangent line to both circles as shown in Figure 5 and 6. Example 7

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

For Case 1: If two circles intersect at two points, then for , Eq. (3) represents a family of circles which pass through the two intersection points.

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2.2.2 POINTS OF INTERSECTION OF STRAIGHT LINE AND A CIRCLE Consider a line with equation and a circle . To find the points of intersection of the line and the circle, we substitute into C. We will then obtain a quadratic equation in x. Let the quadratic equation be . If the discriminant , the line cuts the circle at two points. If , then the line actually touches the circle. If , the line and the circle never meet, that is, does not touch or intersect.
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2.2.3 EQUATION TANGENT TO A CIRCLE

normal

tangent

Let be a point on a circle. A tangent to the circle at point is the line which touches the circle at this point. The equation of the tangent is obtained by finding the gradient and then forming the equation. The gradient is usually found using differentiation.

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 But in this topic, we will not use differentiation but the general method to find the gradient. A normal to a circle at point is the line that is perpendicular to the tangent line at that point. If the gradient of the tangent is and the gradient of the normal is , then the product of and is -1; . b) If the equation of the circle is , then the tangent to the circle at point is

2.2.4 THE LENGTH OF A TANGENT FROM A POINT TO A CIRCLE

C(-g, -f)

Q(a, b)

The length d of a tangent from point to the circle is

c) If the equation of the circle is , then the tangent to the circle at point is . Example 9
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Example 10

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2.3 PARABOLAS 2.3.1 EQUATION OF A PARABOLA WITH VERTEX AT (0, 0) AND FOCUS (0, p) The focus with coordinates (0, p) of this parabola is on the y-axis. If p is positive, then the parabola opens upwards From the figure below, the distance from F to V is p. The distance from V to the directrix is also p, thus, the equation of the directrix is y = -p. Let be any point on the parabola, then

If the coordinates of the focus is (0, -p) and the graph of the parabola opens downwards. The directrix is the line y = p. using the same method as for p > 0, it can be shown that the equation of this parabola is

F(0,p) }p p{ V D

Example 11

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2.3.2 EQUATION OF A PARABOLA WITH VERTEX AT (0, 0) AND FOCUS (p, 0)

The equation of the directrix is x = -p. If be any point on the parabola, then

D p p F(p,0)

The focus of this parabola is on the x-axis. If p positive, then the parabola opens to the right as shown above. The distance from F to V is p, therefore the coordinates of the focus is (p, 0), p > 0.

If the coordinate focus is (-p, 0) and the graph of the parabola opens to the left. The equation of the directrix is x = p. It can be shown that the equation of this parabola is

Example 12

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2.3.3 EQUATION OF A PARABOLA WITH VERTEX (h, k) AND FOCUS (h, k+p) Equation, focus, directrix Or Where Focus: Directrix: Or Where Focus:
V(h, k) F F

2.3.4 DETERMINING THE VERTEX AND FOCUS BY COMPLETING THE SQUARE If the equation of the parabola is given as or , instead of the standard forms or , then we use completing the square method to determine the vertex and the focus of the parabola. Example 14

Graph for Graph p>0 for p<0

V(h, k)

V(h, k)

V(h, k)

Directrix: Example 13
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2.3.5 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF PARABOLA If is a point on a parabola a) and are the parametric equations of parabola . b) and are the parametric equations of parabola .

2.4 ELLIPSES An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points (the foci) in the plane is a positive constant.

P(x, y)

Ellipse has its foci on the x-axis, that is the major axis along the xaxis. Its centre at the origin. If we let the coordinates of be (c, 0),

c > 0, then the coordinates of is (-c, 0) and | | = 2c .

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 From the definition of ellipse, Let the constant sum be 2a

Divide both sides with or

Since c > 0 and

follows that

, it and hence a

> b.
Squaring both sides, We summarised the properties of the ellipse with horizontal major axis as follows Equation: Simplify, Square both sides again, with a >

b>0
Vertices: Major axis: horizontal, length 2a Minor axis: vertical, length 2b Foci: where

Simplify,

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Latus rectum: vertical, length

For this ellipse, we let the constant sum be 2b. Then,

Conversely, if (x, y) is a solution of this equation, then by reversing the preceding steps we see that the point (x, y) is on the ellipse.

Squaring both sides,

Simplify, Square both sides again,

Simplify, This ellipse has its foci on the yaxis. The major axis is along the yaxis. Its centre is at the origin. Let the foci be (0, c) and (0, -c), then | | = 2c .
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Divide both sides with

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 We summarised the properties of the ellipse with horizontal major axis as follows Equation: with b >

2.4.1 THE EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE WITH CENTRE (h, k) AND FOCI (h c, k)

a>0
Vertices: Major axis: horizontal, length 2b Minor axis: vertical, length 2a Foci: where If an ellipse with centre at the origin and its major axis horizontal, is shifted h units horizontally and k units vertically, we will get an ellipse with its centre at (h, k). If the foci were originally at ( c, 0), the new foci will be at (h c, k). The equation of this ellipse is
C

Latus rectum: vertical, length

Example 16

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 Its properties below Equation: with a > b > 0

are

summarise

2.4.2 THE EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE WITH CENTRE (h, k) AND FOCI (h, k c)

Vertices: Major axis: horizontal, length 2a Minor axis: vertical, length 2b Foci: where Latus rectum: vertical, length

C(h,k)

Example 17

If an ellipse with centre at the origin and its major axis vertical, is shifted h units horizontally and k units vertically, we will get an ellipse with centre at (h, k) and foci at (h, k c). The equation of this ellipse is

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 Its properties below Equation:

are

summarised

Let P(x, y) be a point on an ellipse. x = a cos t, y = b sin t are the parametric equations of ellipse . Example 17

with b > a > 0 Vertices: Major axis: horizontal, length 2b Minor axis: vertical, length 2a Foci: where Latus rectum: vertical, length

If the equation of the ellipse is not given in the form of , we use completing the square method to determine the centre and foci.
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2.5 HYPERBOLAS A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points is a constant. 2.5.1 THE EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA WITH CENTRE (0, 0) AND FOCI ( c, 0)

Let and be the foci, and P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola but not on the x-axis. From the definition of hyperbola = a constant Let the constant be 2a. Then,

Employing the procedures that we have done for ellipse, we can finally simplify the equation as

Writing , we have

or

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Letting y = 0, gives the xintercept. Thus, we find that vertices are at and . This hyperbola has no y-intercept. The endpoints of the conjugate axis are and . Plotting the points and , and and drawing vertical and horizontal lines connecting these points helps us to sketch the asymptotes. The gradient of the asymptotes are . Thus, the equation of

Substituting x = c in equation , we have

Since

, we have

Thus the end points of the latus rectum is , and

we have the length of the latus rectum as .

the asymptotes are . The two branches of the hyperbola are sketched using the asymptotes as guides.

We summarised the properties of the hyperbola with centre (0, 0) and foci ( c, 0) as follows. Equation: ; a > 0, b > 0
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Vertices: ( a, 0) Transverse length 2a axis: horizontal,

2.5.2 THE EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA WITH CENTRE (0, 0) AND FOCI (0, c)

Conjugate axis: vertical, length 2b Asymptotes: Foci: ( c,0) where

Centre: (0, 0) Latus rectum: vertical, length

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 From the definition of hyperbola = a constant Let the constant be 2b. Then,

This hyperbola has no xintercept. The endpoints of the conjugate axis are and . The gradient of the asymptotes are . Thus, the equation of .

Employing the procedures that we have done for ellipse, we can finally simplify the equation as

the asymptotes are

The two branches of the hyperbola are sketched using the asymptotes as guides. Substituting y = c in equation , we have

Writing .

or , we have

Letting x = 0, gives the yintercept. Thus, we find that vertices are at and .
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Since

, we have

Equation:

; a > 0, b > 0

Thus the end points of the latus rectum is , and

Vertices: (0, b), Centre: (0, 0) Transverse axis: horizontal, length 2b Conjugate axis: vertical, length 2a Asymptotes:

we have the length of the latus rectum as .

We summarised the properties of the hyperbola with centre (0, 0) and foci ( c, 0) as follows.

Foci: (0, c) where Latus rectum: horizontal, length

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2.5.3 THE EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA WITH CENTRE (h, k) AND FOCI (h c, k)

Equation:

a > 0, b > 0
Vertices: (h a, k) Transverse axis: horizontal, length 2a

(h, k)

Conjugate axis: vertical, length 2b Asymptotes: Foci: (h c,k) where

Its properties are summarised below:

Latus rectum: vertical, length

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2.5.4 THE EQUATION OF AN HYPERBOLA WITH CENTRE (h, k) AND FOCI (h, k c)

Equation: ;

a > 0, b > 0
Vertices: (h, k b) Transverse axis: vertical, length 2b Conjugate axis: horizontal, length 2a Asymptotes: Foci: (h,k c) where

(h, k)

Its properties are summarised below:

Latus rectum: horizontal, length

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 If the equation of the hyperbola is not given in the form or , we use completing square method to determine the centre and foci. Equations x = a sec t and y = b tan t satisfy , since

Let P(x, y) be a point on a hyperbola a) x = a sec t, y = tan t are parametrics equations of hyperbola b) x = a tan t, y = b sec t are parametric equations of hyperbola .

Example 19
Thus x = a sec t and y = b tan t are parametric equations of .

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