Srivastavas

Srivastavas


St udy Pac k age



CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electrical Conduction :
Is completely analogous to the thermal conduction. As the heat energy flows from higher
temperature to the lower temperature the charge also flows from higher potential to the
lower potential. In fluids (liquids and gasses) ions participate in electrical conduction. In
solid conductors free electrons are responsible for the flow of current in the conductor.
Free electrons are the electrons, which do not remain associated with their parent nuclei
inside the conductor and can move freely inside the material boundary.

Electric Current :
The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of the conductor is defined as
electric current. It is a scalar quantity.

dt
dq
i = ,
Unit of electric current is Cs

1
(Coulomb per second) or A (ampere). It has been accepted
as one of the fundamental units.
The current density J is defined as the current flowing per unit area of cross-section of
the conductor or in other words, current i is the flux of the current density.

}
= s J.d i
Conventionally the direction of current is in the direction of flow of positive charge or
opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge (electrons).

Drift speed (v
d
) of free electrons :
The free electrons in the conductor keep moving randomly with high speeds, but due to
this motion there is no net transfer of charge through any cross-section. These free
electrons keep colliding with some other electrons or nuclei in the process of motion and
there direction of motion keep changing randomly.




m
eE
drift
E

Relaxation time :
The average time interval between two successive collisions is called relaxation time t.

Mean free path :
The average distance traveled by the free electrons between the two successive collisions.

d
v t = .
When the potential difference is applied across the conductor the electrons feel
accelerated opposite to the field. Due to this they get displaced slightly opposite to the
field in every free path motion. This way the electrons keep drifting. The random motion
speed of the electrons is ~ 10
6
m/s, where as the drift speed is ~ 10

2
m/s. This drift
motion can be assumed as superimposed on the random motion of the electrons. We can
also safely assume that in every collision the kinetic energy due to drift speed is
MARATHON-10
4
Current Electricity
completely lost by the electrons (the drift speed becomes zero after every collision). Let
there be n free electrons per unit volume of the conductor. consider the length
numerically equal to v
d
, of the conductor. If the electrons are moving with speed v
d
, all
the free electrons in the volume Av
d
will cross the section A in one second. Thus the
current in the conductor is charge crossing the section in one second,


vd
A

+

( )
d d
neAv ne Av i = =

neA
i
v
d
=

Ohm's Law :
States that the current density in a conductor is directly proportional to electric field
across the conductor.

E J
E J

o = ,
where o is known as the specific conductance or conductivity of the material of
conductor.
E J o =

l
V
A
i
o =
iR
A
l
i
A
l
i V = |
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o

i V
It is the direct consequence of Ohms law. The devices, which follow this rule are called
Ohmic devices.
Here
o

1
= is known as the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of
conductor and

A
l
A
l
R
o

= =
is the resistance of the given conductor.
[R] = [ML
2
T

3
A

2
]
Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance G.

V
I
R
G = =
1
and denoted by also called mho (ohm

1
) or siemen (S).

Verification of ohm's law :
A potential difference of V volts is applied across the conductor, then the field inside the
conductor is

V
+
l


SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
Ph : 0172-6543210

Srivastavas
Srivastavas




5

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

l
V
E =
thus the acceleration of free electrons is

ml
eV
m
eE
a = =
In the time between two successive collisions, the speed gained by the electron is
t
ml
eV
v + = 0
but vd is the average speed gained by the electrons, thus

n
t
ml
eV
n
v
v
d

= =

ml
eV
v
d
t
=
!

where t is the relaxation time.
Since
neA
i
v
d
= therefore
t
ml
eV
neA
i
=

A
l
ne
m
i V |
.
|

\
|
=
t
2


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
m
ne
l
V
A
i t
2


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
m
ne
E J
t
2

Here m and e, the mass and charge of electron are universal constants, n, the number of
free electrons per unit volume depends upon the material of the conductor, and t, the
relaxation time is also a constant which depends upon the material of the conductor as
well as the temperature of the conductor. Thus the quantity

m
ne t
2

is known as the specific conductance or the conductivity (o) of the medium. Therefore
E J o =

Effect of temperature on conductivity :

!
another approach presented by some Indian authors for the calculation of drift speed of
electrons is as follows.
In the time between two successive collisions, the displacement of electrons is

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2
2
1
0 t a s + =
hence the average speed is

2
t
t
a s
v = = ) (

ml
eV
v
d
2
t
=
but in our opinion this is wrong. The drift velocity of electrons is the 'number average' of velocity
component of free electrons due to electric field, for large number of electrons at a particular
instant. For this '' Drift speed and collision time'' by Donald E. Tilley, American Journal of
Physics, June 1976, page 597 can be referred.
MARATHON-10
6
Current Electricity
In case of metals, with increase in temperature n (the free electron density) does not
change appreciably, therefore when temperature increases due to increased thermal
agitation the possibility of collision increases hence the average time interval between
two successive collision (t) decreases, thus

t

2
ne
m
=

m
ne t
o
2
= and

t A ne
ml
R
2
= increase or o decreases.
o
u


for conductors

o
u


for semiconductors

In case of semiconductors, initially the increase in temperature increases the free
electron density as the electrons jump from valance band to conduction band, which
over comes the effect of decrease of relaxation time, hence the resistivity decreases
(conductivity decreases), later when a certain temperature is reached the n almost stops
increasing but t still keeps decreasing hence starts increasing (o starts decreasing).

Mobility of charge carriers :
Mobility of charge carriers is defined as the drift speed per unit strength of electric field
in the conductor

E
v
d
=

o

j
neA
i
=
as from Ohm's law E j o = , therefore

ne
o
=
ne o =

Temperature coefficient of resistivity & Resistance :
Is defined as the change in resistivity per unit resistivity per unit change in temperature.

u

o

d
d
=

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
Ph : 0172-6543210

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Srivastavas



7

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
( ) u o
u
+ = 1
0

Similarly
R
o the temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as

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u
o
d R
dR
R
=
( ) u o
u R
R R + = 1
0


Relation between

o and
R
o :
The relation between resistance of a conductor and its resistivity is

A
l
R

=
taking log and differentiating
) ln( ) ln( ) ln( ) ln( A l R + =

u u u

u d A
dA
d l
dl
d
d
d R
dR
+ =
| o o o

+ =
R

Here o is the coefficient of linear expansion of material of the conductor and | the
coefficient of superficial expansion (| = 2o)
o o o o

2 + =
R
o o o

=
R


Equivalent temperature coefficient of resistance :

Series :
Let the resistance R
1
, R
2
, ..... , R
n
are connected in series with respective thermal
coefficients o
1
, o
2
, ..... , o
n
then

= R R
eq

=
dt
dR
dt
dR
eq

=
Rdt
dR
R
dt R
dR
R
eq
eq
eq

= o o R R
eq eq

Parallel :
Let the resistances R
1
, R
2
, ...., R
n
are connected in parallel with respective thermal
coefficients o
1
, o
2
, ....., o
n
then

=
R R
eq
1 1

=
dt R
dR
dt R
dR
eq
eq
2 2

=
R R
eq
eq
o
o


Effects of Current :
There are three effects of current.
a) Thermal effect
b) Chemical effect
MARATHON-10
8
Current Electricity
c) Magnetic effect


a) Thermal effect :
The work done in moving a charge dq by a potential difference of V is
dq V dw =

dt
dq
V P
dt
dw
= =

R
V
R i Vi P
2
2
= = = and the heat generated
While comparing power dissipated in various elements connected in series the current
through elements remains same hence is used. If two or more elements are
connected separately to the same supply or the elements are connected in parallel the
potential difference across them remains same hence
R i P
2
=
R
V
P is used to calculate the
power dissipated through them.
2
=
.
}
= iVdt H

Two elements when connected individually across a supply of constant potential V they
produce powers P
1
and P
2
respectively.

2
1
1
V
P
R
= and
2
2
2
V
P
R
=

2
1
1
V
R
P
= and
2
2
2
V
R
P
=

Power produced when their series combination is connected to same power supply

2
1 2
V
P
R R
=
+


2
2 2
1 2
V
P
V V
P P
=
+


1 2
1 2
P P
P
P P
=
+


Power produced when their parallel combination is connected to same power supply

2
V
P
R
=



2
1 2
1 1
P V
R R
| |
= +
|
\ .


1 2
P P P = +


Representative example 1 :
Two heating coils can boil separately certain amount of water in the time t
1
, and t
2

respectively when they are separately connected to the domestic supply. What time will they
take to boil same amount of water when they are used simultaneously in
a) series,
b) parallel with the same domestic supply.

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
Ph : 0172-6543210

Srivastavas
Srivastavas




9

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

Solution :
Let R
1
and R
2
be the resistances of the two heating coils then if the amount of heat
required to boil the water is Q then

1
1
2
t
R
V
Q = and

2
2
2
t
R
V
Q =
Now when the two coils are connected in series across the same domestic supply then

s
t
R R
V
Q
2 1
2
+
=

s
t
t
Q
V
t
Q
V
V
Q
2
2
1
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=

2 1
t t t
s
+ =
Similarly when the two coils are connected in parallel to the same domestic supply then

p
eq
t
R
V
Q
2
=

p
t
R R
V Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 1
2
1 1


p
t
t
Q
t
Q
Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 1


2 1
2 1
t t
t t
t
p
+
=


Maximum Power Theorem :
In an electrical circuit, the maximum power can be drawn from the battery when
external resistance is same as the internal resistance of the battery.

Current through the circuit shown is


r
E

i
R


r R
E
i
+
=
hence, power drawn in the external resistor is

2
2
2
) ( r R
R E
R i P
+
= =

( ) ( )
( )
0
2
4
2
2
=
+
+ +
=
r R
r R R r R
E
dR
dP

r R =
Therefore maximum power delivered to the external resistance is
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MARATHON-10
10
Current Electricity

( ) r
E
r
r E
P
4 2
2
2
2
= =
max

In this situation the battery works at 50% efficiency.
To increase the efficiency of the battery, power developed through the internal resistance
of battery should be reduced. For this current drawn from battery must be reduced. But
at the same time this will also reduce the power in external resistance. Hence for battery
to operate with better efficiency external resistance should be quite large compared to
internal resistance.

Fuse wire :
Is a wire element made of a material with low resistivity and low melting point (mostly
made of an alloy of tin and led) with suitable radius of cross section, connected in the
series of circuit. The fuse wire blows out when current exceeding the limit to which the
wire is made protecting the electrical appliances against the current surge.
The rate at which heat is produced in the fuse wire must be same as the rate at which it
is lost in the form of radiation (considering fuse wire radiating as perfect black body). If
melting point of the fuse is T and the maximum current rating of it is i then
( )
2
2 2 4
2
r
l
i R i T rl
t

o t = =
( )
4
3 2
2 T
r
i o

t
=
clearly maximum current rating (i) of the fuse wire does not depend on the length of the
wire and

2
3
r i ,

2
T i

b) Chemical effect :
The process of electrolysis and chemical electrode potential are the chemical effects of
current.

Farade's laws of electrolysis :

i) In the process of electrolysis the mass of ions released on any electrode of the
voltammeter is directly proportional to the amount of charge passed through the
voltammeter.
q m
where Zq m =

q
m
Z =
Z is the electrochemical equivalent of the substance, which is equal to the mass of ions
released when one coulomb charge is passed through the voltammeter.

ii) In the process of electrolysis if same amount of charge is passed through several
voltammeters then the mass of ions released on any electrode of the voltammeter is
directly proportional to chemical equivalent weight of the substance.
E m
E Zq
E Z
F
Z
E
= ,

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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11

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
F is the universal constant known as the Farade's number, which is equal to one mole of
charge.
. Ne F =
The Farade number is the amount of charge needed to liberate one equivalent weight of
the substance at any electrode of a voltmeter.
Since one equivalent weight of the substance will contain
number) s (Avogadro'
(valency)
1
N
V
n =
molecules thus the amount of charge needed to liberate these ions is
. F Ne nVe q = = =

c) Magnetic effect : (This will be discussed in electromagnetism)

THERMO ELECTRICITY :
When electrical energy can be converted in to thermal energy, principal of physical
symmetry says that thermal energy can also be converted in to electrical energy.

Thermocouple :
The arrangement of two metallic wires connected at two ends forming two junction
(nodes) is called thermocouple.


A


Thermoelectric effect (Seebeck effect) :
The phenomenon of production of an electric current in a thermo couple by keeping its
two junctions at different temperatures is called Seebeck effect (thermoelectric effect).
The magnitude and direction of thermo emf depends on the metals and the temperature
difference between the two junctions.

Thermoelectric series :
Metals placed in order as antimony, nichrome, iron, zinc copper, gold, silver, lead,
aluminium, mercury, platinum, nickel, constantan and bismuth form a thermoelectric
series. At the cold junction the current flows from the metal earlier in the series to the
metal later in the series.

Contact potential :
When two metal wires are connected at a point, due to net diffusion of free electrons
from the metal of higher free electron density to the metal with lower free electron
density the metal with higher free electron density becomes a little positive and the other
metal becomes a little negative as it receives the electrons due to thermal diffusion.
Potential difference hence developed between the metals connected at a point is called
contact potential. The difference in rate of diffusion due to difference in temperature at
the two junctions of a metal pair is the cause of Seebeck effect.

Variation of Seebeck emf with temperature :
If the temperature of cold junction is
o
C and of hot junction is T then, the variation of
thermo emf is found to obey
c
T
( ) ( )
2
2
1
T T E A + A = | o

Where
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Srivastavas
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MARATHON-10
12
Current Electricity

c
T T T = A

Tn
Ti
Thot
Tc


Thermoelectric Power :
The rate of change of thermo emf with respect to temperature is defined as thermo
electric power also known as Seebeck coefficient.
( ) T
dT
dE
S A + = = | o
Here o and | are the constants for a given pair of metals forming a thermocouple.

i) When the two junctions are at the same temperature the thermo emf is zero.

ii) The thermo emf increases with increase in temperature of hot junction and becomes
maximum at a particular temperature called neutral temperature T
n
.
The temperature of hot junction at which the thermo emf in a thermocouple is maximum is
called neutral temperature of the thermocouple. At neutral temperature the thermoelectric
power is zero. The neutral temperature is
(a) independent of the temperature of the cold junction.
(b) constant for pair of metals forming thermocouple. For Cu-Fe it is 275
o
C.

iii) After achieving the maximum value thermo emf starts decreasing with increase in
temperature of hot junction and becomes zero at a temperature T
i
called temperature
of inversion.
The temperature of hot junction at which the thermo emf becomes zero again and changes
direction just beyond is called temperature of inversion. The temperature of inversion
depends upon
(a) the temperature of the cold junction.
(b) the nature of the metals forming thermocouple.

Relation between T
n
and T
i
:
Thermo emf varies with temperature according to
( ) ( )
2
2
1
T T E A + A = | o
From the definition of neutral temperature
0 = =
dT
dE
S at
n
T T = , hence
( ) 0 = +
c n
T T | o

|
o
=
c n
T T (1)
Thermo emf becomes zero at the temperature of inversion, hence
( ) ( ) 0
2
1
2
= +
c i c i
T T T T | o
or 0 =
c i
T T
|
o 2
=
c i
T T

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
Ph : 0172-6543210

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13

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
at the temperature therefore
c i
T T =

|
o 2
=
c i
T T (2)
from (1) and (2)
( )
c n c i
T T T T = 2

2
c i
n
T T
T
+
= (3)

Peltier effect :
It is the converse of Seebeck effect. It states that if a current is passed through a
junction of two different metals heat is either evolved of absorbed at that junction
depending on the direction of current.
If the direction of current in a thermocouple is reversed the junction at which the heat
was being evolved starts absorbing heat and at the other junction where heat was being
absorbed starts evolving heat, hence the Pertier effect is reversible.

cold hot
i
Seebeck effect
heat
absorbed
i
Peltier effect
heat
evolved

A
A


Peltier coefficient (t) :
The quantity of heat absorbed or evolved at the junction of two different metals when
unit amount of charge is passed through the junction is called Peltier coefficient.

dq
dH
= t J C

1

Peltier coefficient depends upon
i) nature of metals forming the junction
ii) temperature of the junction. Therefore Peltier coefficient is different at the two
junctions of a thermocouple at different temperatures.

Thomson effect :
When different parts of a single conductor are maintained at different temperatures due
to temperature gradient heat is evolved or absorbed along the length of the conductor.
This heat is over and above joules heating.
When heat is absorbed for current flowing in the direction of positive gradient of
temperature (increasing temperature) and evolved for current flowing in the direction of
negative gradient of temperature (decreasing temperature) the Thomsons effect is said to
be positive otherwise negative.

Thomson coefficient (o) :
It is the amount of heat energy evolved or absorbed when one coulomb of charge is
passed through a conductor whose ends are maintained at a temperature difference
of 1 K.
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MARATHON-10
14
Current Electricity

dq
dH
T
1
= o
It is also defined as the emf developed between the ends of a uniform conductor when
ends of the conductor are maintained at a temperature difference of 1 K.

dT
dV
= o
Free electron theory could not explain zero Thomson effect for Pb and negative Thomson
effect for Fe, Bi, Co, Pt etc.


Relation between thermo electric coefficients (S, t and o) :
Following relations between thermoelectric coefficients can be easily established.
TS = t (4)

dT
dS
T = o (5)

Thermoelectric laws :
There are two laws which are experimentally established.

a) Law of successive metals :
If a number of different metals form a chain, then the effective emf between extreme
metals when placed in direct contact at a given temperature is the sum of the
individual emf between adjoining metals provided all the junctions are at the same
temperature.

Z
Y
D
C
C
B
B
A
Z
A
E E E E E + + + + = ...

b) Law of successive temperatures :
The effective emf of a given thermocouple for the temperatures of junctions as T
1
and
T
n
is equal to the sum of the emf of same thermocouple for temperature of the
junctions as (T
1
, T
2
), (T
2
, T
3
), (T
3
, T
4
) (T
(n1)
, T
n
).

n
n
n
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
E E E E E
1
4
3
3
2
2
1 1
...

+ + + + =

Resistance combination :
In a circuit four kinds of connections are possible. A series connection, parallel
connection, star connection and a delta connection.

Series :
When two or more elements are so connected that no branch is coming out of the
junction between the two elements is called a series connection. The ascension condition
for the series connection is that the elements should bear the same current.


E
i
Vn V2 V1
Rn R2 R1



n
V V V E .....
2 1
+ + =

n eq
iR iR iR iR + + + = .....
2 1

= R R
eq

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
Ph : 0172-6543210

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15

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
In the process of calculation of resistance of a conductor if the integral elements are
chosen is in such a way that same current passes through all the elements one after the
other, then the resistance of elements are in series and the equivalent resistance of the
conductor is given by

}
= dR R
eq
In series combination, potential is to be divided. The potential difference across a resistor
R is
iR V =
as i remains same in all the resistances connected in series, thus
R V
therefore potential difference across R
1
is
V
R
R
V

=
1
1


Parallel :
When two terminals of an element are directly connected to the two terminals of the
other element, the two elements are called to be connected in parallel. The essential
condition for the parallel connection is that the elements should bear the same potential
difference.


in
i2
i1
I
E
R2
R1
Rn


n
i i i I + + + = .....
2 1

n eq
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
+ + + = .....
2 1

=
R R
eq
1 1

In the process of calculation of resistance of a conductor if the integral elements are
chosen is in such a way that each element bears same potential difference and current
flows simultaneously in all the elements, then the resistance of elements are in parallel
and the equivalent resistance of the conductor is given by

}
=
dR R
eq
1 1

In parallel combination, current is to be divided. The current through a resistor is

R
V
i =
as V remains same across all the resistances connected in parallel, thus

R
i
1

therefore current through R
1
is
i
R
R
i

=
1
1
1
1


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MARATHON-10
16
Current Electricity
Star :
When more than two elements branch out from the same node the network is said to be
star network. Here the node is a point in the circuit where more than two branches of
the circuit meet.

Delta :
When the three resistors form a triangular shape the network is said to be a delta
network. The delta network can be the part of a complete circuit.


C
RA
RB
B
Delta network Star network
A
RCA RBC
R
AB

Rc
B A
C

Conversion of delta network in to star network :
Converting the delta network in to star network changes the complicated network in to
simple series and parallel connections which can easily be solved.
If the two networks are equivalent then between any pair of terminals they must show
the same resistance. Thus

( )
CA BC AB
CA BC AB
B A
R R R
R R R
R R
+ +
+
= + ..... (1)

( )
CA BC AB
AB CA BC
C B
R R R
R R R
R R
+ +
+
= + ..... (2)

( )
CA BC AB
BC AB CA
A C
R R R
R R R
R R
+ +
+
= + ..... (3)


A
C
RA
RB
B
Rc
RCA RBC
RAB
B A
C



Adding (1), (2) and (3)
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
= + +
CA BC AB
AB CA CA BC BC AB
C B A
R R R
R R R R R R
R R R 2 2

CA BC AB
AB CA CA BC BC AB
C B A
R R R
R R R R R R
R R R
+ +
+ +
= + + .. (4)
Subtracting (1), (2) and (3) from (4) one by one we get

CA BC AB
CA AB
A
R R R
R R
R
+ +
= ,

CA BC AB
BC AB
B
R R R
R R
R
+ +
= and

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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17

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

CA BC AB
CA BC
C
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
Remembering these formulae is very easy. The delta you want to convert in to star, fix a
star inside the delta. Now value of resistance of a branch of the star is product of the two
neighbor of this in delta divided by the sum of delta.
The reverse of the above is also possible and that is called star to delta conversion. But
at this stage we may not need to use them.

Wheatstone bridge :
A network containing five elements connected as shown in the adjoining diagram is
called wheatstone bridge. Bridge is said to be balanced if

S
R
Q
P
=

b
Q P
a
W
S R


In this condition the points a and b are at same potential. In a balanced bridge the
resistance W has no role to play. The net resistance of the bridge remains independent of
W in a balanced bridge.


Representative example 2 :
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the following network between A and B.

A B

P = 2O
r O
Q = 6O
R = 5O S = 15O


Solution :
Converting the delta in to star in the given circuit

A B


q
p
B A r O
15 O 5 O
6 O 2 O
|
.
|

\
|
+ r
r
7
2

|
.
|

\
|
+ r 7
10

|
.
|

\
|
+ r
r
7
5

q
p
6 O
15 O
|
.
|

\
|
+ r
r
7
2

|
.
|

\
|
+ r
r
7
5
|
.
|

\
|
+ r 7
10


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MARATHON-10
18
Current Electricity
Thus
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+ |
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
+
=
15
7
5
6
7
2
15
7
5
6
7
2
7
10
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
R
eq


( )(
( )(
)
) r r
r r
r
R
eq
+ +
+ +
+
+
=
7 147 28
105 20 42 8
7
10


( ) r
r
R
eq
+
+
=
7 7
280 40
O =
7
40
.
It is important to note that the equivalent resistance of this circuit is independent of the
resistance r. In fact this is a special configuration of the resistance network called
balanced Wheat-Stone bridge. The Wheat-Stone bridge is formed by connecting five
elements in the configuration shown in the problem and the bridge is said to be balanced
if the ratio

S
R
Q
P
= .
In this condition the nodes p and q are at the same potential. Since the result is
independent of the resistance r directly connected between the equipotential points p
and q thus it can be noted that the equipotential points in a circuit can either be short
circuited or open circuited, or they can be directly connected to any known or unknown
element, the net resistance of the network remains unaltered.



Q = 6 O P = 2 O
q
p
B A
R = 5 O S = 15 O
P = 2 O
rO
Q = 6 O
R = 5 O
S = 15 O
A B
q
p
P = 2 O Q = 6 O
R = 5 O S = 15 O
A B
q
p





SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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Cube solution :
Twelve resistance wires of equal resistance r are connected to form the structure of a
cube. The equivalent resistance is to be calculated between the pair of terminals for face
diagonal points (A, B), body diagonal points (A, C) and the points across one of the edge
of the cube (A, D).


B
C
A
D
1
2
3
4
Fig. 1

O =
7
40
eq
R O = =
+

=
7
40
28
160
20 8
20 8
eq
R O =

=
7
40
21
15 6
7
5 2
eq
R

19

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

The structure as shown in the diagram can be simply converted in two dimensional
figure as shown bellow.

Terminal A is a common terminal while irrespective of the other terminal (B, C or D) we
can see the clear symmetry about the line AB. Therefore points 1 and 2 are
equipotential and this is also true for points 3 and 4 separately.

B C D A
B C D A
3
4
2
1

1, 2
3, 4


Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Now depending on the pair of terminals (AB, AC or AD) the circuit can be reduced to
any one of the following



2
r

2
3r

2
r

C A

2
r

2
3r
2
r
2
r

2
r

B A
2
3r

2
3r

D A
2
r

2
r
r
r
2
r

2
r
2
r

Fig. 4(c) Fig. 4(b) Fig. 4(a)


AB :
Solving the balanced wheat-Stone bridge
( )r R
eq
4
3
= .
AC :
Solving the unbalanced bridge using Star-Delta method we get the equivalent resistance
( )r R
eq
6
5
= .
AD :
For this pair of terminals the circuit reduces to such a figure which can simply be
evaluated using series and parallel rules
( )r R
eq
12
7
=

Ladder networks :
When a small resistive network is repeatedly added in length to form a long chain like
network, it is called a ladder network. The equivalent resistance of, infinite ladder
network or the finite ladder network whose equivalent resistance is independent of the
number of units in the network can easily be calculated. For this except first link the
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MARATHON-10
20
Current Electricity
network is replaced by the equivalent resistance which is to be calculated and the
identity is solved.


Representative example 3 :
Figure shows an infinite circuit formed by the repetition of the small link, consisting of
resistance R
1
and R
2
. Find the resistance of the circuit between the points A and B.


B
A
R2
R1
R2
R1 R1
R2
R1
R2
R1
R2


Solution :
The network can be reduced to the equivalent circuit as in the adjacent diagram.


B
A
R2
R1
Req Req



2
2
1
R R
R R
R R
eq
eq
eq
+
+ =

2 2 1 1 2
2
R R R R R R R R R
eq eq eq eq
+ + = +
0
2 1 1
2
= R R R R R
eq eq

2
4
1 1
1
1
2
R
R
R
R
eq
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =

Resistance of resistive networks with line of symmetry :

i) If a resistive network is symmetrical about the line joining the terminals then all the
points in one half of the network are equipotential with corresponding points in the other
half of the network. Hence to reduce network one half can be folded on to the other half
for the equipotential points to get short-circuited.

ii) If a resistive network is symmetrical about a line perpendicular to the line joining the
terminals then all the points lying on the line of symmetry are equipotential. They can
either be short-circuited or open-circuited depending on the requirement with out
affecting the equivalent resistance of the network.


Representative example 4 :
Find the equivalent resistance of the resistive network of twelve identical resistances of
resistance r each, between terminals A and B.


SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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21

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
A B


Solution :
The resistive network is symmetrical about the line joining terminals A and B therefore
the lower half can be folded over the upper half, hence

A B A B
r r

2
r

2
r

2
r


2
r

A B
r r

2
r

2
r

4
r

2
r


4
r

P
Q

Fig. 1(c) Fig. 1(b) Fig. 1(a)



The resistive network is still symmetric about the line PQ, the line perpendicular to the
line joining the terminals AB. Therefore point P and Q are equipotential, hence joining P
and Q we get
A B
r r

2
r

2
r

4
r

4
r

P
A B
r r

2
r

2
r


4
r
4
r

2
r

2
r
or
Fig. 1(d) Fig. 1(e)


Solving both the figures 1(d) and 1(e) with the help of simple series and parallel rules we
get
( )R R
eq
5
4
=
Or we can convert the middle delta in to star in figure 1(b) giving a balanced wheat stone
bridge.

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A B
r r

2
r

2
r

6
r


6
r


Fig. 1(f)
( )r
3
2
B A
r
r
Fig. 1(g)
( )r
3
2

6
r




MARATHON-10
22
Current Electricity

Solving the balanced wheat stone bridge we get
( )R R
eq
5
4
=



Resistance of a conductor having regular shapes :
Resistance of a solid conductor of regular shape can be calculated using integration. If
the resistance of integral elements come in series then

}
= dR R
eq
If the resistance of integral elements come in parallel then

}
=
dR R
eq
1 1


Representative example 5 :
Find the resistance of a thick uniform pipe of length l, with inner radius R
1
, outer radius
R
2
and resistivity of material .




Solution :
Let us consider an integral element in the form of an annular disc of thickness dx at a
distance x from one end of the pipe as shown

x dx
i


Resistance of the element for the shown current is

( )
2
1
2
2
R R
dx
dR

=
t


Since all the elements are in series, hence

( )
}

=
2
1
2
2
R R
dx
R
t



( )
}

=
l
dx
R R
R
0
2
1
2
2
t



( )
2
1
2
2
R R
l
R

=
t


Instead if we consider an integral element in the form of a thin co-axial cylinder of
thickness dr of radius r as shown


SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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23

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
i


Resistance of the element for the shown current is

rdr
l
dR
t

2
=
Since all the elements are in parallel, hence

}
=
l
rdr
R
t 2 1


}
=
2
1
2 1
R
R
rdr
l R
t


( )
2
2 1
2
1
2
2
R R
l R

=

t


( )
2
1
2
2
R R
l
R

=
t



Cell :
Is a device which provides electrical energy to the system by pumping the charge from
negative end to the positive end. It does not store any charge in itself.


deal cell Real cell
r
E


Emf of the cell :
Is equal to the potential difference between the terminals of the cell when no current is
drawn from the cell. In fact it is the energy provided by cell in circulating unit positive
charge throughout the circuit including cell itself.

Combination of identical cells :
Here we are considering the combination of identical cells, each of emf E and internal
resistance r.

Series :
If n identical cells are connected in series, the equivalent resistance of the circuit
R nr R + =
eq
and net emf in the circuit
, nE E =
eq


R
r
E
r
E
r
E
n

R
nr
nE


therefore current in external resistance
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MARATHON-10
24
Current Electricity

( )
n
R
r
E
R nr
nE
R
E
i
q
q
+
=
+
= =
e
e
if R << r
r
E
i ~
which is independent of number of cells. Thus when external resistance is too small,
series combination of cells cant increase current through it.

Parallel :
If m identical cells are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance of the circuit
( ) R
m
r
R
eq
+ = ,
net emf in the circuit
, E E
q
=
e

I
R
r
E
r
E
r
E
m

R

n
r

E


therefore current in external resistance

( ) R
m
r
E
R
E
i
q
q
+
= =
e
e
if R >> r
R
E
i ~
which is independent of number of cells. Thus when external resistance is too large,
parallel combination of cells cant increase current through it.

Mixed (battery) :
If total N identical cells arranged as m rows each containing n cells in series, are in turn
connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance of the circuit
( ) R r
m
n
R
eq
+ =
and net emf
, nE E
eq
=


R
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
n
m

R
nr
nE
nr
nE
nr
nE
m




R

m
nr
nE


therefore current in the external resistance

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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25

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

( ) R r
m
n
nE
i
+
=

mR nr
mnE
i
+
=

mR nr
NE
i
+
=
For the maximum current through the external resistor we should have net internal
resistance of the battery equal to the external resistance. Thus for maximum current
through R
( ) R r
m
n
=
mR nr =
then the maximum current through external resistance

r
mE
i
2
=
max


Combination of non-identical cells :
The emf of the equivalent cell is open circuit potential difference between A and B. Let
loop current be i then
A B

r1
E1
r2
E2
i


A B

r1
E1
r2
E2


2 1
2 1
r r
E E
i
+

=

2 2
ir E V V
B A
=

2
2 1
2 1
2
r
r r
E E
E V V
B A
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

2 1
1 2 2 1 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1
eq
E E
E r E r r r
E
r r
r r
+
+
= =
+
+
and

2 1
2 1
r r
r r
r
eq
+
=
If the cells are connected with opposite polarity then E
2
is replaced by E
2
.
Let us generalize the above relation

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MARATHON-10
26
Current Electricity

I
R
r1
E1
r
2

E2
rn
En
m


n
n
n
eq
r r r
r
E
r
E
r
E
E
1
...
1 1
...
2 1
2
2
1
1
+ +
+ + +
= and

=
r
r
E
E
eq
1


SOLUTION OF CIRCUITS :
There are three popular methods of solving a simple circuit as bellow.

Kirchoff's law - I (Loop rule) :
is also known as Kirchoffs voltage law based on law of conversation of energy. The
algebraic sum of the changes in potential around any closed path is zero.
potential drop


current i

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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P.drop
+E E +
q
C
iR
dt
di
L +
dt
di
L

To apply this rule to solve a circuit, we will follow following steps.
Identify all elementary loops in the circuit.
Mark loop currents for all the loops clock wise (i
1
, i
2
, ... etc.).
Traverse the loop, one at a time, in the direction of loop current taking potential
drop positive.
Solve simultaneous equations (thus formed in terms of unknown currents).
If potential difference between two points A and B in the circuit (V
A
V
B
) is to be
calculated then starting from A follow any path of circuit to reach B calculating
potential drop positive.


Representative example 5(a) :
Calculate the current in 10 O resistance in the circuit shown in the adjoining diagram.


8 V
4 V
2 V
30 O
20 O
10 O

C
+
E E R
i
L
i +
current decreasing
L

ncreasing
+ i

27

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

Solution :
As we see, we have two elementary loops. Let us assume the loop currents to be i
1
and i
2

as shown in the diagram. Writing equations for the potential drop for loops (I) and (II) we
get


4 V
i
2
i
1

20 O
2 V
10 O
8 V
30 O


( ) 0 2 10 4 20
1 2 1
= + + i i i
..... (1) 2 20 30
2 1
= i i
( )
1 2 2
20 4 30 8 i i i + +
..... (2) 12 50 20
2 1
= + i i
Solving (1) and (2) for i
1
and i
2
we get,
i
1
7
55
= amp.


Kirchoff's law-II (Junction rule) :
is also known as Kirchoffs current law. It is based on law of conservation of charge. At
a junction (node) in a circuit, the incoming current equals the outgoing current. In other
words, the algebraic sum of the currents entering any junction point in a circuit is zero.
In an electrical circuit, in a single branch the order of components (resistance,
cell, capacitor, inductor etc.) does not affect the performance of the circuit, or
current in that branch. Therefore the same type of components can be collected at
one place in a branch in an electrical circuit.

To apply this rule to solve a circuit, we will follow following steps.
Identify all nodes (points where more than two branches meet) in the circuit. Collect
components branch wise.
Absolute potential of a point in a circuit can never be calculated, only the potential
difference between two points of circuit can be found. Mark one node as reference
node (consider its absolute potential to be zero) so that the potential of other nodes
can be written with respect to this reference node. For this purpose generally that
node is selected with which maximum number of branches are connected. Mark
other nodes at unknown potentials (V
1
, V
2
, ... etc.).
Take one node at a time (except reference node). Consider the currents coming to
that node in all the branches connected to that node.
Mark potentials at both the ends of the resistance of each branch connected to that
node.
Calculate currents in the resistance of all the branches connected to that node going
towards to the node and put there sum zero.
Solve the simultaneous equations (thus formed in terms of unknown potentials).


Representative example 5(b) :
Calculate the current in 10 O resistance in the circuit shown in the adjoining diagram.

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MARATHON-10
28
Current Electricity

8 V
4 V
2 V
30 O
20 O
10 O


Solution :
As we see, we have two nodes. Let us assume the bottom node as the reference node.
Writing equations for the currents reaching at the upper node at potential V

2 V
10 O
V
8 V
30 O
20 O
4 V
(V + 8)
(V 2)
4 V
0 V
0 V



( ) ( )
0
30
8 0
20
4
10
2 0
=
+
+

+
V V V


11
8
= V volts
Thus current in 10 O resistance is

( )
10
2
11
8
0
= i

55
7
= i amp.
Note that in this method we need only one equation to solve the circuit. If more number
of node potentials can directly be calculated due to absence of resistance in the branch,
this method is simpler to use.

Superposition rule :
Is very general rule. The statement of the law is sum of the effects is equal to the effect
of the sum. In an electrical circuit the sum of the effects of individual cells is same as
the effect when all of them present simultaneously.
To apply this rule to solve a circuit, we will follow following steps.
One cell is considered present at a time all the other cells are short-circuited. In this
process if sum internal resistance is there in the cells it will remain connected as
it is.
The desired effect is calculated due presence of single cell in the circuit.
The processes is repeated for all the cells.
All the effects are added algebraically to get the result.


Representative example 5(c) :
Calculate the current in 10 O resistance in the circuit shown in the adjoining diagram.


SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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29

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

8 V
4 V
2 V
30 O
20 O
10 O


As we see, we have three cells in the circuit. Therefore we need three circuits. In each
circuit we will calculate the current in 10 O resistance using simple series and parallel
rules.



10 O
30 O 20 O 10 O
4 V
30 O
20 O
10 O
8 V
30 O
20 O

2
i +
3
i |

1
i |
2 V

| =
+

+
=
55
5
30 20
30 20
10
2
1
i
55
8
30 10
30 10
20
4
2
=
+

+
= I
55
12
20 10
20 10
30
8
3
=
+

+
= I
+ = |
.
|

\
|
+
=
55
6
30 10
30
2 2
I i | = |
.
|

\
|
+
=
55
8
20 10
20
3 3
I i

Net current in 10 O resistance
| = + =
55
7
55
8
55
6
55
5
i

Finding potential difference between two points on a circuit :
Solve the entire circuit (find currents in all branches) using any of the three methods
discussed above (preferably Kirchoffs voltage law).
Move from point A to B following any path of your choice on the circuit taking
potential drop positive. The final result gives
B A
V V .

Branch of the circuit containing capacitor :
We talk about two kinds of behavior of a capacitor in a dc circuit.
First, if the capacitor is connected in the circuit for sufficiently long time and the
currents through various parts of the circuit (and voltages across various elements of the
circuit) are not changing with time. The capacitor is fully charged (refer to page 6 of
capacitance) and current through the branch containing capacitor is zero (that why some
times it is also said that when a capacitor is fully charged it starts behaving as open
circuit element), then the circuit is said to be in stable state and the behavior of the
capacitor as steady state behavior of the capacitor.

If the capacitor is given in a circuit in steady state either potential difference across it or
charge on it or energy stored in it is to be calculated. To calculate any of these potential
difference across the capacitor is to be found. In steady state current through capacitor
is zero hence there is no current flowing through the branch of the circuit containing
capacitor. To find potential difference across a capacitor in steady state of the circuit
Ignore the entire branch in which capacitor is present (consider it removed from the
circuit).
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MARATHON-10
30
Current Electricity
Solve rest of the circuit (find currents in all branches) using any of the three methods
discussed above (preferably Kirchoffs voltage law).
Consider the branch containing capacitor again their in the circuit at its place.
Since no current flows through the branch containing capacitor hence if it contains
any resistance there no potential drop across this resistance therefore this resistance
has no role to play in steady state of the circuit.
Move from one terminal of the capacitor (A) to the other terminal (B) following any
path of your choice on the circuit taking potential drop positive. The final result gives
, the potential difference across the capacitor.
B A
V V

Second, if the current through the branch containing capacitor is nonzero. In this
situation capacitor is either charging (acquiring charge and gaining potential difference
across it) or discharging (loosing charge as well as potential difference across it). In this
situation currents through various elements of the circuit are changing with time and
the circuit is said to be in transient state and the behavior of the capacitor as transient
behavior of capacitor.

Leakage current through capacitor :

R


+



There exists a small, constant current through a capacitor (here we will consider parallel
plate capacitor for example) in steady state due to conductivity of dielectric between the
plates. The equivalent of a charged capacitor filled by a dielectric of dielectric constant k
and resistivity is as shown in the adjoining diagram.
The resistance offered by the dielectric between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor
with plate area A and separation d is

A
d
R
C

=
hence the leakage current is

d
A V
R
V
i
C
C
C

= =
This is the constant current keeps flowing through parallel plate capacitor if the
capacitor is maintained in stable state.

Growth and decay of current in RC circuit (transient behavior) :

Charging of capacitor :


A
E
K
R C
i


If at a certain time t, C acquires a charge q, then from Kirchoff's voltage law
0 = + E iR
C
q
differentiating

SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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31

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
0 0
1
= + +
dt
di
R
dt
dq
C
as
i
dt
dq
= ,
RC
dt
i
di
= integrating
( ) K
RC
t
i + = ln
At t = 0 the capacitor was uncharged, thus q = 0, therefore

R
E
i i = =
0

( )
0
ln i K =
Putting this value of K we get
( ) ( )
0
ln ln i
RC
t
i + =

RC
t
e i i

=
0


RC
t
e
R
E
i

=

Time constant of RC circuit :
Dimensions of quantity RC are the dimensions of time as the power of e should be a
dimension less quantity. RC = t is called the time constant of circuit. The obvious
definition of time constant of circuit is the time constant of RC circuit is that time in
which the current reduces by a factor of e. It is also defined as the time in which current
becomes zero, if it keeps decaying with the initial rate.


i0
i
t
t



RC
t
e
R
E
i

=

RC
t
e
C R
E
dt
di

=
2


C R
E
dt
di
t
2
0
=
=
.
Equation of line passing through (0, i
0
) with slope

C R
E
2
is
( ) ( 0
2 0
= t )
C R
E
i i , putting i = 0, we get

R
E
t
C R
E
i = =
2 0

t = = RC t

Potential difference across the capacitor :

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MARATHON-10
32
Current Electricity

qmax, E
q, Vc
t



C
q
V
c
=
iR E V
c
=
R e
R
E
E V
RC
t
c
=



|
|
.
|

\
|
=

RC
t
c
e E V 1

Charge acquired by the capacitor :

c
CV q =

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

RC
t
e CE q 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

RC
t
e q q 1
max


Energy stored in the capacitor :

2
2
1
c
CV U =

2
2
1
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

RC
t
e CE U

The rate at which energy stored in the capacitor changes :

)
`

|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

RC
t
RC
t
e
RC
e CE
dt
dU
P
1
0 1
2


|
|
.
|

\
|
=

RC
t
RC
t
e e
R
E
P 1
2


|
|
.
|

\
|
=

RC
t
RC
t
e e
R
E
P
2 2


Discharging of capacitor :

Similarly we can calculate these quantities at the time of discharging a charged capacitor
charged to an initial potential difference of E volts. Let the charge on capacitor at a time t
is q (at t = 0, q = CE) then from Kirchoffs loop law
0 =
C
q
iR (1)
0
1
=
dt
dq
C dt
di
R


SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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33

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.

A
K
R C
+

i


as the capacitor is discharging rate of decrement of charge on the capacitor is same as
the current, hence


i0
t
q, Vc
qmax, E


dt
dq
i = therefore
0 = +
C
i
dt
di
R

} }
= dt
RC i
di 1

K
RC
t
i + = ln (2)
initially
therefore from equation (1), at t = 0 the current is CE q =
0
i

R
E
i =
0

from equation (2)
K i + = 0 ln
0
putting value of K in equation (2)

0
ln ln i
RC
t
i + =

RC
t
e
R
E
i

=

Similarly potential difference across the capacitor :
iR
C
q
V
c
= =

RC
t
c
e E V

=

charge on the capacitor :

c
CV q =

RC
t
e CE q

=
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RC
t
e q q

=
max




MARATHON-10
34
Current Electricity
Energy stored on the capacitor

2
2
1
C
CV U =

RC
t
e CE U
2
2
2
1

=

Galvanometer :
Is basically a current meter for very small currents (of the order of mA or some times
even less). The current which gives full scale deflections in galvanometer is, say i
g
and
the resistance offered by the galvanometer is G. Since it gives full-scale deflection for very
small currents thus it can be used, as ammeter of desired range with small modifications
only.

Conversion of Galvanometer in to ammeter and voltmeter :

Ammeter :
It is an instrument used to measure currents. It is put in series in that branch of a
circuit in which current is to be found out. An ideal Ammeter has zero resistance,
otherwise . To convert a galvanometer in to ammeter, a precalculated shunt
(parallel) resistance is connected with the galvanometer. If the desired range of the
ammeter is I then shunt current is
0
A
R
( )
g
i I
( ) G i S i I
g g
=

( )
g
g
i I
G i
S

=

Voltmeter :
It is an instrument to find the potential difference across two points in circuit. It is
essential that the resistance R
V
of a voltmeter be very large compared to the resistance of
any circuit element, which the voltmeter is connected. Otherwise, the meter itself
becomes an important circuit element and alters the potential difference that is
measured. For a good voltmeter R
V
>> R or
V
R . For an ideal voltmeter R
V
= . If
a series resistance R
V
is needed to convert the galvanometer in to a voltmeter which gives
full scale deflection at potential V then
{ }
V g
R G i V + =
G
i
V
R
g
V
=

1. Potentiometer : It is an arrangement used to measure open circuit potential
difference between two points in a running circuit. In this arrangement a constant
current is established in a straight uniform wire of given length. The current generates a
uniform potential gradient between the two ends of the wire. When a potential difference
is to be measured first the potentiometer is calibrated.

E0
A



SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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35

MARATHON-10


Current Electricity
SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
To calibrate the potentiometer a cell of Known emf is balanced on the potentiometer
wire. For this positive terminals of the two cells are connected to common point and the
other terminal of is brought in contact through a galvanometer on the potentiometer
wire with the help of a sliding contact. The galvanometer has zero in the middle and
gives deflection on both the sides depending on the direction of current flowing through
it. The length on wire from common point at which potentiometer gives no deflection is
called calibration length . With this potential gradient in the wire is found in known
terms.
C
E
C
E
C
l
E0
A
r
EC
G
L
lC


potential gradient in the wire =
C
C
E
l

Finding emf of unknown cell : After calibrating the potentiometer the above process is
repeated with cell of unknown emf, the balancing length this time is l. The potential
gradient must be equated to know the emf of unknown cell

C
C
E
E
l l
=


C
C
l
E E
l
| |
=
|
\ .


Finding emf of unknown cell : To compare the emf of two cells calibration of
potentiometer is not required. Two cells are balanced on the same wire turn by turn
following above process. If their balancing lengths are l
1
and l
2
respectively then

E0
A
r2
E2
G
l1
r1
E1
l2
1
2



1
1 C
C
l
E E
l
|
=

\ .
|
|
and
2
2 C
C
l
E E
l
|
=

\ .
|
|
hence
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MARATHON-10
36


Current Electricity

1 1
2 2
E l
E l
=

Finding internal resistance of unknown cell : To find internal resistance of an
unknown cell again calibration of potentiometer in not required. First the cell is balanced
following the above process against the wire length l
1
(say). Then the cell is short
circuited with the help of a known resistance R which changes balancing length to a
smaller value l
2
. Then

E0

A
r
E
G
l2
l1
2
1
R


1
C
C
l
E E
l
|
=

\ .
|
|
and

2
C
C
l
V E
l
| |
=
|
\ .


1
2
l
E
V l
=
Now potential difference V across the cell when it is short circuited with the help of a
resistance R is
V E ir iR = =

V
V E r
R
=
1
r
V E
R
| |
+ =
|
\ .

1
E
r R
V
| |
=
|
\ .


1
2
1
l
r R
l
| |
=
|
\ .


SCO 18, 2
nd
Fl oor , Sec . 20 D, CHANDI GARH.
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