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Contents

Introduction3 -Solar....4 -Wave...6 -Wind.8 -Sulphur-Iodine Cycle.10 -Geothermal..12 Conclusion.14 Lab Report.16 Appendix...18

Solar Energy
The sun is a massively powerful, every minute enough energy hits the earth to satisfy the power needs of the world for a whole year! We just need to be able to put this energy into a format we can use. Right now solar energy comes is used in three forms 1) Photovoltaic Cells These exchange sunlight straight into electricity, made with semiconductors, which have been adapted to release electrons with light exposure. On a sunny day, photovoltaic cells can produce up to 1000W of power.

2) Solar Water Heating The sunlight heats water in glass panels on roofs, the water is driven through pipes, which are painted to absorb heat, in the glass panels. More advanced examples are made up of many glass tubes, each have a blue coated metal plate to aid the absorption of sunlight from infrared to ultraviolet. This means that even on a not so sunny day the output is still sufficient. To further prevent heat loss, the glass tubes are vacuumed. A heat pipe runs up and down the back of the metal plate, containing a quick heat transferring liquid to the top of the glass tube. Finally a water pipe sits along the top and absorbs heat from the tubes.

3) Solar Furnaces A massive formation of mirrors which collect energy from the sun into a smaller space to produce high temperatures, like the oven made in the lab but on a much bigger scale.

Advantages Saves money, after youve bought the initial equipment the suns energy is virtually free. Depending on how much energy is needed from the particular form the pay back period isnt very long Its environmentally friendly renewable, clean, no pollution Power cuts are never a problem No noise pollution Hassle free once installed there is no upkeep needed No repetitive charges once installed

Disadvantages The initial output is expensive semiconductors are very costly Solar panels need to have a large surface area to work sufficiently Obviously if there is little sun or very cloudy, this type of energy is not very effective No energy will be produced at night, so a back up battery would be required extra cost. Very expensive to repair Not very efficient on a large scale Air pollution effects the efficiency of photovoltaic cells, problematic in cities Solar water heating pipes must be emptied in colder weather to avoid freezing in the pipes

Currently, solar energy is mainly used domestically. There is huge potential for large scale electricity production, but because of the costs currently it is not the most effective source. For solar energy to be taken in to further consideration the costs must continue to fall and the rate of energy production must rise.

As for future application, points to improve on and consider are as such Cooling systems within systems to avoid overloads during the summer or sunny peaks Better energy storage Developing systems for existing buildings, so solar energy is not limited to new builds Solution to the air pollution/ cloud problem, especially for Scotlands climate

Wave Power
Basic Principles Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean waves and the capture of that energy. The waves are created by the sun heating up the Earths atmosphere that generates winds which push the waters and creates waves. Waves are also affected by the Moon and the Earths rotation. Waves can range from small waves that give out a small amount of energy to large waves in storms that have enough power or energy to break apart ships or more. Containing this kind of power is difficult as small waves do not generate enough energy, while large waves could destroy any equipment trying to contain the energy. One simple way to calculate the power of a wave is the following formula: Power of wave= (height of wave)2 (time between each wave) This formula is very simple but wouldnt be accurate as each wave will be different, more complex and probably more accurate formulas can be used but are difficult to understand at first.

Advantages The advantage of wave power is that they can contain enough power for cities if this energy can be collected and supplied. Even smaller waves can have enough energy to at least power a small town or village for weeks. Waves have longer periods of energy bursts than other main renewable energy sources: Solar power is available for about 1000 hours a year; wind power is up to about 2200 hours a year; while wave power can be up to 6000 hours a year in the UK alone.

Disadvantages The problems with Wave power is that the waves are destructive, they can have too much power that can destroy the instruments trying to measure, collect, store the energy for use. Waves also give out bursts of different energy in each wave so the power is not constant and therefore it is difficult to get a reasonable amount of energy from the waves.

Current Status Wave power is still a renewable energy that ways of collecting are experimental. There are many different experimental ways of collecting wave power. One that is in the UK is the Pelamis that was built in Edinburgh. The Pelamis has been able to survive while collecting the waves. The waves are stored in a high pressured fluid storage that can be released at a constant flow in a motor to produce energy this is then sent to an onshore station through undersea cables. Other ways are used all around the world but only a few spots are good for generating lots of wave power.

How technology is being used Waves Power is still experimental at the present time, each way of collecting Wave power is improving and in the future wave power could be a very easy way to collect energy for people to use.

The front of the Pelamis machine bursting through a wave at the Agucadoura Wave Park.

Wind Power
There are many different designs of Wind Turbines although they all work on the same basic principles. Kinetic energy in the wind is converted into electrical energy via the blades and through a gearing system which then turns a generator to produce electricity. However like all energy systems it is not 100 % efficient, in fact Betz Law states that the theoretical limit of efficiency is only 59.3%. This is because the blades of the turbine cannot stop all the wind passing through unless it was a solid disc but then efficiency would be 0% as it would be unable to rotate so there would be no conversion of energy.

Wind turbine design can be split into two main areas: 1. Horizontal Axis: These consist of a system in which a generator has been mounted on a horizontal axis with the blades rotating in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis. These are the most common commercially used turbines as they can generate more energy than the vertical axis turbines.

2. Vertical Axis: These turbines consist of a system in which the generator has been mounted on a vertical axis with the blades rotating in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis. These are mostly used for small applications or private households as they a smaller energy output

Advantages: 1. Wind energy is friendly to the surrounding environment, as no fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity from wind energy. 2. Windmills have a very small base only a few square meters; this allows the land around the turbine to be used for many purposes, for example agriculture. 3. Suitable to environmental resources of Scotland.

Disadvantages: 1. Intermittent source of energy and in many areas, the winds strength is too low to support a wind turbine or wind farm. 2. Wind turbines generally produce allot less electricity than the average fossil fuelled power station, requiring multiple wind turbines to be built in order to make an impact. 3. Produce a large aesthetic impact on the surrounding landscape Wind Power is harnessed today in a number of onshore and offshore Wind Farms. Although these large commercial operations collectively produce a large output of electricity this is nothing compared to the electricity needs of the country in which they are situated. Most commercial turbines today do not exceed a rating of 6 or 7 Mega Watts of electricity. This is due to the constraints of the technology in use. Due to this wind farms have to contain a larger number of turbines to produce a sufficient electricity supply. A number of companies have embarked on technology development to produce a larger rating of turbine and hence try to produce an economy of scale. If these companies are successful wind power will become a more readily used resource. A recent estimate gave the maximum total potential energy output for electricity produced by wind power for the UK to give an average source of 2000 GW. The average UK demand is only about 40GW. The site considered however was offshore beyond 200km from UK shores and at a depth of 100 700 metres, necessitating the need for floating wind turbines.

Sulphur-Iodine Cycle
The Sulphur-iodine Cycle is one of the processes that can be used to produce hydrogen on a mass scale. It essentially converts water into hydrogen, oxygen and energy.

It is a series of thermochemical reactions and the process is summarised in the following equations:

xI 2(l ) SO2 ( g ) 2 H 2 O(l ) 2 HI x ( aq ) H 2 SO4( aq )

H 2 SO4( g ) H 2 O( g ) SO2( g ) 1 O2( g ) 2

2 HI x ( g ) H 2 ( g ) I 2 ( g )

Where x represents the polyiodides (polyatomic halide anions which are composed of iodine atoms) formed.

The first reaction known as the Bunsen reaction is exothermic and takes place at 293-373K. The products are separated by adding excess of iodine. This creates a heavy liquid (HI) and a light liquid (H2SO4).

The next stage is the Sulphuric Acid Decomposition step and this is broken into two steps as shown:

H 2 SO4 H 2 O SO3 2SO3 2SO2 O2

Both reactions are endothermic with the first taking place at 673-773K and the second at around 1073K, in the presence of a heterogeneous catalyst. Oxygen is separated off by condensation.

The Hydriodic Acid Decomposition Step is slightly endothermic, and can take place in both the liquid and gaseous states at 723K. The I2 is separated and returned to the Bunsen reaction with the HI and H2 also separated with H2 being the final product.

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This is a closed system which has its advantages as no greenhouse gases are released or produced. However at the temperatures stated above, the system is only 42% effective and corrosive materials are used so the apparatus must be very non reactive. Hydrogen produced from processes such as the Sulphur Iodine Cycle are clean processes with water being the only by-product. It can be produced anywhere and would stop economic dependence on the Middle East and its oil reserves.

However, we as a society, currently do not have the infrastructure in place to employ H2 as a fuel. All pipes would have to be changed to ones which can accommodate hydrogen and it is thought that it would take 4 times the energy to pump hydrogen through a pipe than Natural Gas at present. Another problem is that there is no safe way to long term store Hydrogen and all these methods such as liquefying hydrogen or chemically combining it to alkali metal hydrides, are costly.

Currently research is being carried out on the SI cycle at Sheffield University and uses of Hydrogen are being employed in modern life. There are hydrogen cars on sale at the moment with the Honda FCX Clarity being at the forefront of Hydrogen Fuel cell technology. In august of this year, a power plant in Fusina, Italy, switched to being 100% fueled by Hydrogen. It is produced from the cracking of Ethylene. The Hydrogen is the burned and the steam turns the turbine to start the generator which produces electricity. This was achieved after they had the pipelines changed and it has a capacity of 16MW.

In the future, the hydrogen economy could fuel our energy needs in our homes and cars or even as a backup fuel supply in commercial flights however first safe storage technology must be developed. Another use for the H2 produced, would be to use it in chemical processes such as the Hydrogen Cycle.

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Geothermal Power
Geophysical studies have revealed that the earth is composed of several layers, including an inner and outer core, upper and lower mantle and the crust (the outermost surface). Geothermal power focuses on the energy (in the form of heat) that the core of the earth produces, and how it can be harnessed to produce power on land. The core of the earth has an estimated temperature of around 6000-7000C, the mantle around 2000-3000C and the crust can reach temperatures of about 1000C. The crust of the earth is approximately 15km thick, therefore a great deal of energy is available within reach!

The general processes involved in a geothermal power plant involve: Pumping cold (unheated) water down a hole (which can be anywhere between hundreds of metres and several kilometres deep) Heating of the cold water by the heat of the earth Water being forced up another hole(s) (that has been drilled next to the primary hole) in the form of steam or hot water The fluid vapour (usually steam) powering a turbine, which, in turn, powers an electricity generator Electricity being produced!

Geothermal energy will be available for millions of years to come as a result of the constant source of energy being produced at the earths core (due to nuclear reactions, movement and pressure of overlying rocks etc.); however it has its disadvantages.

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First of all, only certain sites are available for use, as some parts of the earths crust are hotter than others, i.e. hotspots, and are required to produce the necessary heat. Also, certain types of rocks are required at these hotspots: (i) (ii) They must conduct heat well The drill must be able to penetrate them

In addition, certain sites can run out of steam (in other words, produce insufficient heat to run the process) for long periods of time (up to ten years) and, lastly, there is always the chance that hazardous gases/minerals could be dug up, and these can be difficult to dispose of safely. In favour of geothermal energy, no fuel is required to run the process (energy used in pumping water can be taken from the energy produced by the process) and there is enough energy available within the earth to completely replace all methods of generating electricity using fossil fuels; the task is to be able to harness all that energy.

This technology is already used worldwide today, but not yet to an extent that it will replace other methods of generating electricity in most places. However, in Iceland, for example, almost 100% of their power is generated by geothermal energy due to the high tectonic activity underground, which means lots of heat (from friction) and easier access to the heat source. The US (The Geysers in northern California holds the worlds largest geothermal power plant) generates the greatest amount of electricity, using geothermal energy, in the world and this power generation is continuing to grow. In 2007, approximately 2687MW of power was produced in the US by means of geothermal power; 2010 is estimated to increase that value to 3086MW, although this is still only 0.3% of the national electricity production.

There is no doubt that the future will see geothermal energy being used to generate power to a much greater extent, for example every house could have its own, scaleddown geothermal power station underneath it, and when it does, the binary cycle power plant is most likely to be used because of its efficiency, lack of pollution and therefore positive impact on the environment.

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