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CORROSION OF METALS

Definition Corrosion is the destructive attack of a electrochemical reaction with its environment. metal by chemical or

Corrosion is a natural process resulting from the inherent tendency of metals to revert to their more stable compounds, usually oxides, silicates, hydroxides, carbonates, sulfides, and sulfates. Most metals are found naturally in these various chemical forms (often called ores). In the refining process, energy is added to the ore to produce the metal. As such, the isolated metals are in a much higher energy state than their corresponding ores. It is the energy added during refining that provides the driving force, causing the metal to revert to the more stable compound. Typical Examples of Corrosion Damage Corrosion intrudes itself into many aspects of our lives. For example, think about the following: * Rust holes in the body panels, mufflers, and radiator components of automobiles * Rusty steel household and garden appliances * Leaking water heaters (boilers) and plumbing systems (water and sewer lines) * Rusty steel structures and leaking bridges and overpasses * Stains on cooking utensils resulting from hot foods * Metallic taste in acid foods stored two long in opened cans Strictly speaking, the term corrosion is used to denote the destruction of metals, although degradation of other classes of engineering materials (such as ceramics and polymers) exposed to aggressive environments also occurs. Non-metallic materials are said to be degraded by their environments. They are attacked only by certain definite chemical agents under specific conditions. The electrochemical processes found in metals are absent. Practically all environments are corrosive to some degree (e.g. air, fresh water, salt water, H2S04, etc). As such, corrosion is a major contributing cause of material failure and is a large economic cost to society. - In U.S. about 3 million home water heaters replaced every year - $500m for automobile exhaust systems (Midas Muffler) - Some estimates place the cost as high as 5% of the GNP of industrialized countries Corrosion is a complex process involving the combination of: (i) an electrochemical reaction; (ii) physical effects such as electrolyte flow; (iii)

contributions from the surface metallurgy of the system; and (iv) chemical steps which do not necessarily involve electron transfer. Classification of Corrosion (1) Low-temperature and high-temperature corrosion (2) Oxidation and electrochemical corrosion (3) Wet corrosion and dry corrosion The preferred classification in the literature is definition #3. Wet corrosion occurs when a liquid is present. It usually involves aqueous solutions or electrolytes and accounts for the greatest amount of corrosion damage so far reported. A typical example is corrosion of steel by water. Dry corrosion is associated with high temperatures and occurs in the absence of a liquid phase or above the dew point of the environment. Here, the corrodents are mostly vapors and gases. Common examples are attack on an exhaust pipe by combustion gases and attack on steel by furnace gases. Conditions for Corrosion Attack The FOUR essential elements of aqueous electrochemical corrosion are: the presence of an anode the presence of a cathode electrical (physical) contact of the anode and the cathode the presence of an electrolyte

The above-named elements constitute a Corrosion Triangle as show in Figure 2 below. To prevent or control corrosion, we have to break this triangle, by removing one of the legs. Cathode

Anode

Electrolyte

Figure 2. The corrosion triangle. Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion of Metals All aqueous corrosion reactions are electrochemical in nature - i.e. they involve transfer of electrons (electronic charges) between an electrode and an electrolyte. Electrochemical reactions are interfacial processes (processes that occur over a zone of molecular dimensions close to the electrode surface). An electrode is an electronic conductor through which there is onedirectional flow of charge carriers. one-way traffic is involved. An electrolyte is an ionic conductor through which there is bi-directional flow of charge carriers. two-way traffic is involved.

Example: Corrosion of Zinc in dilute deaerated HCl.

Figure 3. Corrosion of zinc in de-aerated HCl. Observe that two hydronium (H+) ions interact with two electrons at the metal-solution interface to produce hydrogen molecule, which bubbles out of the solution as hydrogen gas. Electrical neutrality in the solution is maintained by the creation of Zn2+ ions.

The overall reaction for the corrosion of zinc in de-aerated HCl shown in Figure 3 is: Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl 2 + H 2 . . . . . . . (1) Since the Cl- ions are not involved in the reaction, Equation (1) can be rewritten as: Zn + 2 H + Zn 2+ + H 2 . . . . . . . . (2) Partial Reactions The reaction of Equation (2) can be coveniently divided into two reactions, the Oxidation of zinc and the Reduction of hydronium ions: Oxidation (anodic reaction): Zn Zn 2+ + 2e . . . . . . . (3) Reduction (cathodic reaction): 2 H + + 2e H 2 . . . . . . (4) An oxidation or anodic reaction is characterized by an increase in the valence of the metal (zinc valence increases from 0 to +2) or the production of electrons. The site or location of the oxidation reaction is termed the anode. A reduction or cathodic reaction is characterized by the consumption of electrons or a decrease in valence (the oxidation state of hydrogen decreases from +1 to 0). The location of the reduction reaction is termed the cathode. Anodic and Cathodic Reactions Encountered in Corrosion Various reactions are possible at the anode and the cathode. The most common anodic reactions are: 1. Formation of metal ions in solution (oxidation of metals) For a hypothetical metal (M) corroding, the anodic reaction is of the form . . . . . . . . . M M n + + ne . (5)
Ag Ag
+

+e

A few examples are

Fe Fe 2 + + 2e Ni Ni 2+ + 2e Al Al 3+ + 3e

2. Oxide formation M + 2OH MO + H 2 O + 2e . (6)

3. Hydroxide formation (7)

M + 2OH M ( OH ) 2 + 2e

4. Formation of an insoluble salt M + 2 X MX 2 + 2e . . (8)

Cathodic Reactions: Cathodic reduction reactions significant to corrosion are few in number. 1. Metal deposition . . . . . . . . . M 2 + + 2e M . (9) 2. Hydrogen evolution 2 H + + 2e H 2 . . (10) . . . . . . . .

3. Oxygen reduction (in acid solutions) O 2 + 4 H + + 4e 2 H 2 O . . (11)

4. Oxygen reduction (in neutral or basic solutions) O2 + 2 H 2 O + 4e 4OH . . . . (12) 5. Reduction of anions and cations

M 3+ + e M 2 + M 4+ + 2e M 2+ X 2 + e X 3
(13)

Example: Corrosion of zinc in aerated dilute HCl. Will the dissolution of zinc increase?

Figure 4. Anodic and cathodic reactions taking place during corrosion of zinc in aerated HCl. Costs of Corrosion It is difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of corrosion costs because of the large number of different effects of corrosion observed in the production and operation of metal components. Some of the important sources corrosion costs are: 1. Direct Costs - Maintenance costs- resulting from parts and labor to replace corroded equipment (pipes, valves, pumps, heat exchangers, vessels, processing units) - Metal coatings - electroplating (tinplating, galvanizing, cadmium plating etc) - electroless coating (electroless nickel-phosphorus, electroless copper, etc) - paints, varnishes, and lacquers (includes costs of materials and applications) - Materials replacement costs resulting from the use of heat and corrosionresistant alloys (nickel and nickel alloys, copper and copper alloys, stainless steels, etc) - Costs (labor and materials) to maintain equipment and structures to prevent corrosion from taking place or control the rate of corrosion - operating costs for cathodically protected pipelines and structures - costs of inspection, monitoring, and testing of equipment subject to corrosion so as to avoid potential breakdowns and ensure the safety and continuity of operations

- Water conditioning costs - resulting from boiler and other water conditioning treatments (e.g., de-ionization of boiler water, addition of corrosion inhibitors to water) 2. Indirect Costs - Downtime costs - while a corroded equipment is being repaired or replaced production must be stopped for a certain length of time. Such unplanned shutdowns lead to loss of production and, consequently, loss of profit. - Energy costs - rusting of inner surfaces of pipes (e.g. water pipes) with deposition of solid corrosion products reduces the cross-section, and additional energy is required to ensure the liquid flow. - Loss of products - breakdowns sometimes lead to losses in products (e.g. in the petroleum or chemical process industry); leaking containers, tanks, and pipelines result in significant losses in valuable products. - Contamination costs - corrosion of equipment in the chemical/food industries may lead to contamination of products by soluble corrosion products, and sometimes rejects; corrosion of underground storage tanks and pipelines lead to leaks and spills which may contaminate groundwater and soil. A popular example of contamination due to corrosion is given here. For many years lead pipes were used to transport water until it was determined that the lead pick-up in water caused lead poisoning in humans. Lead pipes are now history in many parts of the world. - Overdesign costs - designers (in an attempt to take corrosion into account) often increase the thickness of equipment, e.g. the walls of chemical reactors for chemical industry, and this leads to higher equipment and energy costs. - Loss of efficiency - accumulated corrosion products on heat exchanger tubing and piping systems result in scale build-up. The scales decrease the heat transfer efficiency and reduce pumping capacity, respectively. Reduction in efficiency increases operating costs as a result of higher fuel consumption, lubricant loss, and reduced work output. Benefits of Corrosion? Surprisingly, corrosion can be beneficial or desirable in some cases. Examples include: * Etching used in microstructural investigations is a form of selective corrosion * Current developed in dry-cell batteries is a result of corrosion process * Corrosion of steel and other metallic parts helps keep the environment clean (cuts down on incineration cost) * Chemical machining or chemical milling in which a metal is selectively exposed to acid is routinely used in aircraft and other applications * Ornamentation

** Read the included recent Internet Survey for some interesting details. Corrosion Rate Expressions and Calculations Corrosion rate is determined experimentally by such techniques like weightloss measurements, linear polarization, and Tafel extrapolation. The units in which corrosion rates are expressed include percent weight loss, milligrams per square centimeter per day; and grams per square inch per hour. None of these expresses corrosion resistance in terms of penetration and as such cannot be used to accurately express non-uniform corrosion rates .The rate of penetration or the thinning of a metal part gives an idea of service life of the component. Units of penetration per unit time are the most desirable from an engineering viewpoint, but weight loss per unit area per unit time(e.g. milligrams per square decimeter per day, mdd) are sometimes used in research. The corrosion rate in mils penetration per year or simply mils per year (mpy) is the most widely used unit for expressing corrosion rates in North America. 1 mil = 0.001 in. mpy is readily calculated from weight loss measurements. The formula is given as:
mpy = 534 W . DAT

(14) where W = weight loss (mg) D = density of specimen (g/cm3) A = area of specimen (sq. in) T = exposure time (h) Equation (1) can be derived readily by dimensional analysis. Other units for W, D, A, and T simply change the value of the constant (534). Metric units of penetration rates are popular outside North America. The most commonly used metric units are mm/yr and m/yr for high and low corrosion rates, respectively. Like the mpy unit, they are easily calculated from weight-loss data by equations similar to Equation (14).
mm / y = 87 .6W DAT

(15)
m / y =
87600 W DAT

(16)

where W, D and T have the same units as for Equation (14) but area (A) is measured in cm2. It is evident from these equations that the proportionality constant varies with the unit system employed. Corrosion Rate Classification The suitability of metals to resist corrosion is based on penetration rate per year as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Comparison of mpy with equivalent metric-rate expressions. Relative Resistance Outstanding Excellent Good Fair Poor Unacceptable Corrosion mpy <1 1-5 5 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 200 > 200 Approximate Metric Equivalent mm/yr < 0.02 0.02 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.5 0.5 - 1 1-5 >5 m/yr < 25 25 - 100 100 - 500 500 - 1000 1000 - 5000 > 5000

Corrosion Control We cannot prevent corrosion: the aim is to reduce the cost. The basic principles/methods of corrosion control include: 1. 2. Design Electrochemical protection: - Anodic protection - Cathodic protection Materials Selection Metals - Ferrous Metals - Non Ferrous Metals Non-Metals - Polymers - Ceramics
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3.

Composites - Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) 4. Coatings: - Organic coatings - Inorganic coatings Inhibitors: - Anodic - Cathodic - Mixed

5.

Practice Problems Practice Problem 1 The corrosion rate of a metal may be expressed as the corrosion penetration rate ( ). The formula for this calculation is given as:
=
KW At

where W is the weight loss (milligrams) after exposure time t (h); is the density (g/cm2), and A is the exposed sample area. Determine the value of K if A is expressed in (a) square inches (b) square centimeters, and (c) square meters. A year contains 365 x 24 hours. Practice Problem 2 Corrosion rates of metals determined by linear polarization and other electrochemical methods are frequently expressed in terms of current

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density (i). These expressions can be converted into penetration rates by means of expressions based on Faraday's law. The formula is given as:
rp = K ia nD

where a is the atomic weight of the metal; i is measured in A/cm 2; n is the number of electrons lost (valence change); D is the density in g/cm2; and K is a constant depending the penetration rate desired. Determine the value of K for (a) mm/yr, (b) m/yr, and (c) mpy. Practice Problem 3 A test piece of stainless steel weighing 45.125 g and having an area of 5 sq. in. was tested for a period of 20 days in hot 3.5% NaCl solution. The weight after cleaning, rinsing, and drying was 44.125 g. Calculate the corrosion rate in mpy and mm/yr. Density of stainless steel ~ 8.03 g/cm3. How suitable was this material to resist corrosion under the conditions tested? Practice Problem 4 Consider the corrosion of zinc and copper in de-aerated HCl discussed in the previous sections. What would happen if the zinc and copper electrodes were connected by a conductor while placed in HCl solutions in two separate containers? Would any current flow when an ammeter is inserted into the conductor connecting the zinc and copper electrodes? What reading would the ammeter show? Explain your answers. Practice Problem 5 For iron corroding in aerated seawater, write the probable anodic and cathodic reactions. Remark: remember that Na+ and Cl- ions do not take part in the reactions. Practice Problem 6 Automobile tires sold in Saskatoon are commonly constructed of rubber reinforced with braided steel wire, each strand coated with copper. The copper coating is included to enhance adhesion of the rubber tire casing to the wire. How might corrosion contribute to tire failure? Which forms of corrosion might be involved?

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An Internet Survey: When is corrosion desirable? A Collection of Brief Technical and Not-So Technical Comments & Observations The following "discussion-stimulating" question was posed by Dr. Kane on several newsgroups a few years ago: "Corrosion is normally referred to as having a negative effect on materials of construction in various systems. I am looking for examples where the phenomenon of corrosion either directly or indirectly produces a positive end result. For example, these might be situations where corrosion improves performance or results in a means of achievement of a desired result in some seemingly non-corrosion application. Responses Ken Collins writes: One benefit of corrosion is that its existence allows us to witness what's described by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics (WDB2T) and that its existence provides a "route"... the "raw material" for WDB2T (2 benefits). Another benefit is that, in returning stuff to ionic "states", corrosion enters into the sustenance of life on Earth. Mark Staiger Yes more advantages of corrosion. One that comes to mind is in the area of refractories. Mild steel casings are used to support furnace refractory bricks, the subsequent oxidation of these casings leads to the formation of "gap sealers" between the bricks reducing slag penetration. Kevin Green And what about that lovely green patina that you get on copper roofing? Josh Halpern This brings to mind the fact that fluorine can be contained in copper vessels and tubes, because of the protective oxidized layer of copper fluoride that forms. Since it's formed by oxidation, I guess it's corrosion. Kurt zmann@earthlink.net (zmann) One more example comes to mind. In boilers a protective corrosive layer is formed in their steam generating tubes, a "magnetite layer", which when developed helps to prevent further thinning and weakening of the metal. "A wise man can learn from everyone, a fool can learn from no-one."

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Steve Cartnal It is my understanding that gun blueing, the finish on most dark colored firearms, is actually a controlled corrosion of the metal. M Sandberg Organization: unorganized, very A couple of examples comes to my mind: (1): When building the Crystal palace they used joints of rust. They had a hole in one member and stuck the next in the hole, filled with iron filings and added water: the rust swells and cemented the parts together. (2): When I was young I was told that fresh reinforcement bars very bad for reinforced concrete, they did not stick that well. It was no big problem because usually they had a week or two of rust on them. If they were fresh from the steel works (which sometimes happened since we had one in town) and the surface still was slick from the rolling mill the strength of the reinforced concrete was lower, also any bars used for attachment of things easier got ripped out. Disclaimer: I have all this second hand, I have not done the experiments myself. Duane Ford Controlling corrosion employs a lot of people and keeps food on the table for their families. When corrosion reduces a component to a non-functional condition, it can be recycled and used in new products. This employs a lot more people. I see a lot of benefits of corrosion. It is a natural process that taxes man's ingenuity in making products that will last sufficiently long enough to pay for the cost of recycling it into a newer and improved product. "Dr. Brian Ives" Russ (and all the rest of you!) I have been looking over this growing list with interest. I am surprised that no one has indicated the importance of oxidation in soaking steel ingots to remove surface defects. I guess that with the increasing use of continuous casting, soaking pits are becoming a thing of the past. I still believe that to ensure improved surface quality, significant oxidation of steel -- even in the form of slabs -- is necessary for good subsequent strip. This is one of the "good" aspects of corrosion I usually discuss in my classes. It also reminds us that high temperature oxidation is a form of corrosion! Gordon Hanes (gh@compmore.net ) responds: "How about car batteries, alkaline batteries etc. These all produce potential difference due to corrosion between an anode and a cathode." Russell D. Kane (rdk@clihouston.com) remarks: The best alt.corrosion example of the beneficial effects of corrosion I can think of is making wine. The chemical process of wine making is basically a slow oxidation process. Too fast and you have vinegar. A slow and steady

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oxidation over several years yields a really great wine. Similarly, passivity is a slow oxidation process. I'll toast to that! Harry Andreas (handreas@msmail4.hac.com ) responds: "Two examples come to mind: the fabrication process for making circuit boards consists of etching copper or other metals selectively to produce circuit traces, and etching away the photoresist that created the circuit pattern in the first place. In the pyrotechnics field, fuses have been made using the timed corrosion of materials. " J. Anthony von Fraunhofer (AVF001@DENTAL3.AB.UMD.EDU ) responds: "There are several examples of benefits arising from corrosion that immediately come to mind: 1. the decorative patina formed on copper-based alloys used in architecture and for statues, etc. 2. the quasi-protective oxide formed on copper-containing structural steels for architectural use. 3. sacrificial anodes for cathodic protection of buried and immersed structures. 4. release of bactericidal silver ions from silver-plated rods used for external fixateurs in orthopedics. 5. sealing of the marginal gap between dental amalgam restorations (fillings) and the tooth by corrosion products from the amalgam. 6. anodization of Al, Mg and Ti - particularly color-anodizing effects." hobbes(tayloe@www.umr.edu/~spelunk ) responds: "the best example of a "positive" corrosion effect would be the etching of metals/alloys/etc and the staining of minerals, both -very- useful for the study & analysis of the sample at hand. Without this selective corrosion, it is much harder to learn more about the samples. :) " "With tongue in cheek, or finger in keyboard, I may also add as a caveat that I am most grateful for the geological occurrence of karst - the corrosion of limestone, dolomite, etc by slightly acidic waters & gases to make the beautiful caverns & formations... ;)." Christian M. Restifo (restifo@bluemarble.net ) responds: "I do know that for nuclear applications, one can run water through the primary system before inserting fuel and initiating operation, that way, you passivate the piping and can remove any corrosion products formed before they are subjected to a neutron field and turned into radioactive corrosion products. " Jerry Gontarz (71762.2225@CompuServe.COM ) responds:

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"One excellent benefit of corrosion is in its use in antifouling coatings for marine vessels. Here typically cuprous oxide corrodes in seawater to release copper ions (poisonous) to control growth on coated hulls. " Edward S. Meadows (esm@june.che.utexas.edu ) responds: "One clear example of the "positive" side of corrosion: Many Naval mines are designed to self-destruct after a certain period of time through the planned corrosion of metal seals. Seawater corrodes a plug and floods the mine, thereby deactivating it. "

Jon Colin Leonard (cleonard@q-net.net ) responds: "Along these lines, a type of steel for construction called Corten (US Steel) is erected bare in the environment. This steel then develops the expected rust except that, the coating actually penetrates only so far and then, acts as a protective coating. I'm not kidding. " Alan Shinn (alshinn@sirius.com ) responds: "I suppose that a battery uses a form of corrosion. How about electropolishing and electrosharpening? How many weapons have corroded into uselessness (a positive result in the eyes of many)? " Norm Woodward (woodward@wrdis01.robins.af.mil) responds: "I have seen one or two mentions of anodizing, but not to its importance in aerospace engineering. Without these controlled corrosion processes, adhesive bonding on aluminum, titanium, and other metals, would be very weak, and several advances in the light-weight/high-strength construction and repair of structural components of today's aircraft would not be possible. " Dieter Britz (britz@kemi.aau.dk) responds: "I spent some time doing tinplate corrosion research, and remember being surprised by this at the start. Normally the exposed Fe in the can acts as a cathode. We had a problem case where a spray residue in cans of pears reversed the Sn/Fe couple's polarity, and the tins (sorry, cans you call them) developed pinholes where the Fe dissolved. This is not normal. If we relied on the Sn to be a "paint", we'd be in trouble. Some time take a look at an unlacquered can of pineapple juice (if you buy that sort of stuff), and note the massive dissolution of Sn in there. Rust from the inside develops when you throw out a can, and expose it to air. I don't know why but in that case, you are right, and it is indeed the Fe that oxidizes. The couple's polarity seems to be easily reversed under the "wrong" conditions. By the way, what did the damage in the case of our cans of pears was CS2, formed by acid decomposition of the residue zinc dithiocarbamate (Ziram). "

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Ton Rizzo (rizzo@hogpa.ho.att.com) responds: "Corrosion was used, at one time, to take weight off automobile bodies, for the purpose of achieving a faster vehicle in drag racing. The car's body was dipped in an acid bath. In some applications, corrosion is used as a timing mechanism. For example, one might want a land mine to become disabled after a few months of deployment, saving the lives of civilians. Some medical devices dissolve inside the body after their purpose is achieved. This is a form of corrosion , so far as I can see" Kathy Meehan (meehan@srvr.third-wave.com) responds: "Oxidation is used very commonly in semiconductor processing (which I suppose you could call a controlled corrosion process) Si---Si)2, ALGaAs-a mixture of ALOx, Gay, Asoz" Dom (dominicf@jhunix.hcf.jhu.edu) responds: "Well, I can think of a couple off the cuff. The controlled formation of oxide layers in fabricating microchips, for example. Or, etching in various applications. of course, those are very tightly controlled in practice, so that the depth and pattern of the oxide layer, or the etching is well known." P. Tratnyek (tratnyek@ese.ogi.edu) responds: Coincidentally, I just submitted an article for Chemistry and Industry Magazine with the title: "Putting Corrosion to Use: Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater with Zero-Valent Metals". Abstract: A new approach to remediation of contaminated groundwater has emerged that is based on coupling the reduction of contaminants to the corrosion of iron and other zero-valent metals. You can learn more about this topic from: http://www.ese.ogi.edu/ese_docs/tratnyek/iron.html Mahlon Kelley (mgk@faraday.clas.Virginia.EDU) writes: There is a very obvious and common situation where corrosion is used commercially: bluing and blacking of guns, gun parts, and other industrial items. This process has been used since at least the middle ages. The socalled "black knight" had black armor because it had been subjected to this process. A "red knight" had his armor slightly rusted, but not boiled, so it was reddish brown. Further, another use for corrosion is with aluminum. Aluminum and its common alloys do not "rust", that is, oxidize greatly, because aluminum forms a natural crust of oxide on its surface. Aluminum is a very reactive metal, and without this "crust" it would disintegrate in air very quickly." Alan "Uncle Al" Schwartz (UncleAl0@ix.netcom.com) responds: "Corrosion forms self-healing barriers on aluminum, beryllium, boron, stainless steels, chrome plate, etc. Passivation can be viewed as such corrosion. Addition of hydrazine to boiler water to form adherent and protective magnetite on exposed ferrous surfaces, likewise. Any of a number of batteries might be viewed as controlled galvanic corrosion. Consider
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sacrificial anodes. Anyone who has suffered MRE rations appreciates hypercorrosive alloys as heat sources. There is the prosaic application of sand, iron filings, salt, and some interts to form a handwarmer, and a slight modification as an oxygen getter for sealed containers. Animal radio-locating collars are fastened with links which corrode and putatively release the collar after its batteries have died. Bronze and copper patina is decorative." Ray Girvan (rgirvan@cix.compulink.co.uk) responds: I remember this stuff very poorly, but check out the topic of "cathodic protection". If you want to protect, say a pipeline, you connect to a "sacrificial anode" a slab of deliberately corrodible metal buried in the ground nearby, and this maintains a potential between them so that the anode corrodes rather than the steel pipeline. Another example: tin plating of steel cans containing fruit juice. Although the position in the electrochemical series would seem to suggest that the iron should corrode first if the tin gets a scratch, tin actually forms complex anions with fruit acids, depressing its potential so that the acid in the juice attacks the tin rather than the exposed steel. Benefits being (a) the acid doesn't eat a hole through the can wall, and (b) tin salts aren't particularly toxic." Brian Whatcott (inet@intellisys.net ) responds: Corrosion. 1) Natures way of recycling metallic trash 2) Natures way of improving the ultimate stress in pre-stressed concrete (rebar) 3) Natures way of saving cathodically-protected pipelines, hulls and mechanisms. 4) Natures way of providing a bronze statue, a copper roof etc. with patina 5) A reminder that there is a time and place for all things, but especially electrochemical couples like stainless/aluminum 6) A reminder that even gold can be reduced to dross. 7) A useful antidote to 1000 year old articles made of plastic. 8) A reminder to say 'thank-you' to the person who developed tinplateshielded dry cells. D. T. Robertson (drobertson@nm-us.campus.mci.net) writes: I used to live in Austin, TX. The bridge that connects the south side of Lake Austin to the north side (Capitol of Texas Highway) is made, I believe of carbon steel with some copper alloying. The steel components were allowed to rust, giving the bridge a beautiful red-orange color. The surface "corrosion" protected the steel underneath from deterioration." George M. Hutcheson, writes: Our (Deere & Company) corporate headquarters in Moline, Illinois is a large example of corrosion being used for a beneficial end. The original building was designed with exposed steel beams that were allowed to oxidize forming
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a protective barrier. Hence the unofficial nickname of "the Rusty Palace". Actually looks quite nice, though. Steve Masticol (masticol@scr.siemens.com) writes: Reinforcing rods grip concrete better if their surface is slightly rusted before the concrete is poured. Also, back in WWII, the cloak-and-dagger boys once made a silent timer using a piece of wire that got slowly dissolved in acid. (This was at a stage of technology when an electronic timer would have been bigger than the thing it was detonating.)

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