Hardness test Introduction & Principle: Rockwell Hardness test is based on the resistance to indentation.

This test is performed by impressing an indentor of fixed geometry under a known static load, into the specimen which is resting on a rigid platform. The hardness is expressed by a number that is inversely proportional to the depth of indentation for a specified load and indentor. The hardness number is determined by the difference in the depth of penetration resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed by a larger major load.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the purpose of minor load (preliminary load in Rockwell Hardness test? To seat the specimen.

1. What are the precautions to be taken while performing Rockwell Hardness Test to ensure accuracy and safety?

The indentor and anvil should be clean and well seated o The surface to be tested should be clean, dry, flat and perpendicular to the indentor o The thickness of the specimen should be at least 10 times the depth of indentation so that no mark or bulge is produced on the reverse side of the specimen. o The spacing between indentations should be at least 3 to 5 times the diameter of indentation.

1. What types of indentors are commonly used in Rockwell Hardness Testing? The commonly used indentors are 1/16 inch hardened steel ball indentor and 120 conical diamond indentor (called Brale indentor). Hardened steel ball indentor is used for testing soft and ductile materials such as low and medium carbon steels, brass, bronze etc while Brale mater

1. What do the Rockwell hardness scales represent? Rockwell hardness scales indicate the load indentor combination used in the test.

1. What do RB and RC stand for? RB stands for Rockwell Hardness number measured on B scale, in which a 1/16 inch hardened steel ball indentor with a major load of 100Kg is used. RC stands for Rockwell Hardness number measured on C scale (, in which a 120 conical diamond indentor (or Brale indentor) with a major load of 150Kg is used. Red readings on the dial gauge is to be read for B scale and black readings are to be read for C-scale

1. Is there a unit associated with the Rockwell Hardness number? No, Rockwell Hardness number is purely arbitrary. Impact test Introduction & Principle: The impact test measures the susceptibility of a material to brittle fracture i.e., it measures the resistance that a material exerts against being fractured by a sudden blow. The testing is done by striking the specimen with a pendulum of known weight from a fixed height and hence, having a known potential energy. The difference between the initial potential energy of the pendulum and the potential energy after striking the specimen gives the energy absorbed by the specimen. So the impact strength of the specimen can be calculated by multiplying the difference between the initial height and the height to which it raises after hitting the specimen with the weight of the pendulum.

1. What mechanical property is determined in the Impact Test? In the Impact Test, the toughness or the energy absorbed by the specimen before fracture is determined.

1. Distinguish between Charpy and Izod tests.

Izod test uses a test specimen of 10mm x 10mm section and 75mm length. The V-notch angle is 45 and the depth of notch is 2mm. It is supported as a cantilever beam and the striking edge of the pendulum hits the specimen on the face having the notch. Charpy test uses a test specimen of 10mm x 10mm section and 55mm length with a Vnotch 2mm deep of 4545 included angle and a root radius 0.25mm. The specimen is kept

as a simply supported beam and the striking edge of the pendulum hits the specimen behind the notch.

1. Why notch is provided in the specimen for impact test? The root of the notch a point of stress concentration and results in a triaxial state of stress in the specimen and hence increases the tendency to fracture.

Creep test

Introduction & Principle: A creep test is simply a tension test run at constant load and constant temperature. The objective of the test is to determine the continuing change in the deformation of materials above the recrystallisation temperature when stressed below the yield point of the material. The test is carried out at constant temperature and the strain of the test piece is noted as a function of time.

1. Define creep. Creep is defined as the time dependent permanent deformation of materials when subjected to constant load or stress. It is observed in all materials; for metals, it becomes important only at temperatures greater than 0.4TM where TM is the melting point in Kelvin.

1. Explain the stages of creep

The first stage of creep, known as primary creep represents a region of decreasing creep rate. Primary creep is a period of predominant transient creep in which the creep resistance of the material increases by virtue of its own deformation. In this stage, slip and work hardening take place in the most favourably oriented grains. The creep rate is initially high and gradually reduces to a minimum. The second stage of creep, known as secondary creep is a period of nearly constant creep rate, which results from a balance between the two competing processes, strain hardening and recovery. For this reason this stage is also known as steady state creep. The slope of the creep in this stage indicates the minimum creep rate known as steady state creep rate. The third or tertiary creep occurs at high stresses. This stage occurs when there is an effective reduction in the cross-sectional area either because of necking or internal void formation.

1. What is the importance of steady state creep rate? Minimum creep rate gives the stress at which the material undergoes a creep at the rate of 1%/10000Hr at a temperature. This is used as a design parameter in the machineries which have to serve for longer times at higher temperatures.

1. What is work hardening and what is recovery?

Strain or work hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed. The dislocation density in a metal increases with deformation due to dislocation multiplication or the formation of new dislocations. Consequently, the motion of dislocations is hindered and thus the stress required for further of the material increases or in other words, the hardness and strength of the material increases. Recovery softens the material by reducing the dislocation density. During this, the excess point imperfections that are created during plastic deformation are absorbed at the surface or the grain boundaries or at dislocations by the climbing up process. Also, random dislocations of opposite sign come together and annihilate each other.

1.Discuss the effect of temperature in the creep phenomena

With the increase in temperature the minimum creep rate increases or in other words, the creep resistance of the material decreases.

Cupping test Introduction & Principle: Deep drawing is a metal working process used for shaping of flat sheets in to cup shaped articles. In this, a blank of appropriate size is placed over a shaped die and rigidly clamped between the die and the punch. The metal is made to flow plastically into the die by pressing the punch. Under the action of the punch, the metal at the centre of the blank under the head of the punch is wrapped around the profile of the punch and in so doing; it gets thinned down and takes the shape of the punch.

1. Define formability. Formability is the ability of the material to be formed into different shapes under the action of load. It is based on the flowability and ductility of the material

1. Define ductility and flowability

Ductility is a measure of the materials ability to undergo plastic deformation before fracture. Flowability is defined as the ability if a material to flow plastically under the action of an applied load.

1. Discuss the state of stress in the material/blank during cupping test. The metal at the centre of the blank is subjected to biaxial tensile stress due to the action of the punch. The metal in the outer portion of the blank immediately next to the punch is drawn inward toward the throat of the die. So, the metal is subjected to a compressive strain in the circumferential region and a tensile strain in the radial direction.

Study of Microstructure

Introduction & Principle: A polycrystalline material is made up of no.of grains and each grain is surrounded by grain boundaries. These grain boundaries are regions of few atomic diameter, containing randomly oriented atoms where as inside the grains, atoms are arranged in a particular order. So, the atoms at the grain boundary are at a high energy state and hence they are more chemically active than those inside the grain. So, when a finely polished surface of a polycrystalline material is brought in contact with an etchant, atoms along grain boundary regions react/dissolve at a greater rate than those within the grains. Consequently, small grooves form along grain boundaries as a consequence of etching. These grooves appear dark when viewed under a microscope because they reflect light at an angle different from that of the grains themselves.

1. What is microstructure? The structural features of a metal or an alloy such as grains, grain boundaries and phases that are subject to observation under a microscope is called microstructure.

1. What is etching? The purpose of etching is to make the structural characteristics of a metal or an alloy visible. The process must be such that the various parts of the microstructure may be clearly differentiated. This is accomplished by the use of an appropriate reagent which subjects the polished surface to chemical action. 1. Name the etchants used for the study of microstructure of (a) Steel (b) Brass (c) Aluminium (a) Steel : Nital, which is a mixture of 5ml nitric acid in 100ml water (b) Brass: Solution of 10g ammonium persulfate in 90ml water (c) Aluminium: 0.5ml hydrofluoric acid in 99.5ml water (d) 1. What is steel? Name the micro-constituents present in steel at room temperature. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It contains ferrite() and cementite(Fe3C) phases at room temperature

1. What is brass? Name the micro-constituents present in brass at room temperature. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It contains and phases at room temperature.

1. On what basis do you select the etchant? When the microstructure of a pure metal, the only criteria to be considered is that it should react with the metal. The difference in the rate of reactivity between the grain and grain boundary will result in the difference in the angle of reflection of the incident light and hence the microstructure can be revealed. However, while the microstructure of a two-phase alloy such as steel is to be examined, an etchant is chosen in such a way that it reacts at different rates with each phase and hence the produces a different surface texture for each phase so that they may be distinguished from each other.