AnSci7 Module 12

LESSON 1
DAIRY FARMING

Learning goaI:
The lesson1 aims students to familiarize the dairy farming enterprises and its underlying
principles on dairy production: its importance, status and inventory and as well as the
problems and prospects of the dairy industry in the Philippines.

Enduring understanding:
O The importance of dairy industry in the Philippines;
O Problems and prospects of the Philippine Dairy ndustry;
O Types of Dairying under Philippine and local setting.
O Dairy farm location and the factors affecting it.

EssentiaI questions:
O What is dairying?
O Why milk is important?
O What are the problems and prospects on the dairy industry?
O How do problems in dairy industry become a prospect and opportunity?
O What are the types of dairying?
O Why do we need to classify dairying according to its type?
O How to locate a dairy farm? What are factors affecting it?

MeasurabIe objectives:
1. Expound the importance of dairying and its problems and prospects under
Philippine conditions;
2. Differentiate various types of dairying; and
3. dentify the requisites in locating a dairy farm in the locality.

Overview
This instructional material will serve as learning materials that guide students
on the various concepts and principles in dairy farming enterprise. t will
demonstrate the nature of dairying and its status under local settings. t will
also give the comprehensive learning on the history of the dairy animals in its
general to local conditions.
This material will be considered as the basic guide for the learners in dairy
farming technology program.

Exercise/Activity
A diagnostic examination will be given to the students before the lesson proper to
determine the level of understanding on the subject.
The students will conduct interpersonal communication with at least 10 farmer
respondents in the locality; asking for the importance of the dairying/dairy farming in
their lives, the common problems and prospects of the dairying/dairy farming
experienced by the farmers in their respective community. The students should present
the output in matrix.

Assessment:
The students are directed to share in front of their classmates the learning experienced
that they've acquired during the exercise/activity.
The students will have reflection on the topic and activity being made to be written on
the students' refection journal.
ndividual student will be given an opportunity to rate according to the following points
during their output presentation.
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment
The students are provided with the sets of criteria in giving rates according to the points
given above. Prepared rubrics will be used.

INTRODUCTION
Dairy farming is a class of agriculture, or an animal husbandry, enterprise, for
long-term production of milk, usually from dairy cows but also from goats and sheep,
which may be either processed on-site or transported to a dairy factory for processing
and eventual retail sale.
( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_farming)

Milk is defined as the "physiological secretion from the mammary glands of
mammals. Since the dairy cow is the most commonly and extensively used source of
milk, the term milk shall be understood to mean milk of the dairy cow unless otherwise
specified.
Dairy cattle require more labor per animal and are influenced to a greater degree
by the level of management they receive more than any other class of farm animals.
Tremendous advance have been made in recent years in the production, marketing,
and processing of milk and dairy products. This program, combined with the dairy cow's
greater efficiency over other farm animals in converting feedstuffs into edible, nutritious
human food, means that mankind should respect, the cow's role in feeding the hungry
world.

1. IMPORTANCE OF DAIRYING

(1) mproves human nutrition
(2) ncreases income
(3) Conserves foreign exchange
(4) Utilizes non-conventional feedstuffs
(5) Creates job opportunities
(6) mproves productivity of the land (soil-plant-animal interrelationship)
(7) Provides meat and other by products

. PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY INDUSRY
Problems
The major problems restricting the growth of the Phil. Dairy ndustry are as follows:
(1) Limited number of dairy type animals
With low initial base stock of dairy breeds, population build-up will take longer.
(2) Low production potential of existing stock
Most of the cattle, carabao and goats in the country are non-dairy type, hence actual
and potential milk production is low.

(3) Adaptation problems for temperate dairy breeds
Although there are specialized breeds from temperate countries with high milk
production potentials, these animals do not perform well under the tropical conditions of
the country.
(4) Long lead in period for the industry's development
This due to acute shortage of dairy animals and the physiological limits imposed by
long gestation, upbringing and reproduction,
(5) High cost of investment and production inputs
nvestment cost of a dairy farm, especially for quality animals and facilities are high.
These factors coupled with long lead in period discouraged potential dairy farmers and
investors.
(6) High cost of implementing the milk collection and distribution schemes
This mainly due to the perishability of milk, which requires costly cooling facilities
and also to limited volumes of milk produced and collected.
(7) Lower price of imported milk and milk ingredients
At present, it is still cheaper to import milk rather than produce it locally.
(8) Geographic constraint
Suitable production areas with abundant feed and cheaper resources are far
from urban centers, the major milk consuming areas.
(9) nadequate financing scheme
Difficulty in meeting high interest rates and strict requirements for collaterals are
hardly met by smallhold farmers who are the most logical milk producers.
(10) Lack of effective institutional support system to the industry
There is a serious shortage of local organizations which could initiate
development, effectively link production and processing, and efficiently integrate
the different components within each sector of the country. The participation of
entrepreneurs who could be efficient in under taking specific business activities is
minimal.

Prospects
The prospects and potential for the industry's growth and development is bright. We can
cite the following indicators:
(1) Presence of significant number of cattle, carabaos and goats
Based on the 1988 livestock population of 1.60 million cattle, 2.93 million carabaos
and 2.06 millions goats, there is sufficient base herd for dairy upgrading and genetic
improvement.
(2) Demand for Meat and Milk
Through the years, our importation of beef and dairy products has been increasing
although the consumption has been decreasing. This indicates faster population growth
and more mouths to feed. Therefore, we need to increase production in order to cut
down our dependency about 40% for beef and 99% for dairy to conserve foreign
exchange.
(3) ncreased productivity through pasture improvement
Recent advances in ruminant production reveal a dramatic increase of production
through pasture improvement. Native pasture overseeded with legumes and the
introduction of improved grass pasture will increase the tonnage and carrying capacity
per unit area of pasture.
(4) Development in processing and packaging technology
The production of shelf stable high value milk and milk products can serve wider and
farther markets at lower distribution cost. The presence of a well developed canning
industry with extensive distribution network indicates a ready market for local
production.
(5) Government policy and action
The development of the dairy industry was given government attention with e
enactment of "The Dairy Development Act of 1979. The objectives are (a) to promote
production of and achieve self sufficiency in milk and milk production for the proper
nutrition of the Filipino people, (b) to generate employment and increase income levels
in the rural areas through dairy production and (c) to conserve foreign exchange.
Various government educational training, research and banking institutions are also
working together to develop the dairy industry.
. TYPES OF DAIRYING
United States
(1) Family Type normally has 60-100 cows managed by members of the family
and is the main source of livelihood.
(2) Partnership 200 or more cows. This is supported by contracts.
(3) Commercial 400 or more cows.
Philippines
(1) Backyard
(2) Semi commercial
(3) Commercial

4. LOCATING THE DAIRY FARM
The most important consideration in locating a dairy farm is the intensity or
concentration of dairying in the immediate area. Dairy farmers located in regions
having concentrated cow populations have the following advantages:
(1) More milk marketing alternatives are available
(2) More artificial insemination (A) studs are available to service the area.
(3) Services of competent and experienced veterinarians are more readily available.
(4) Providing maintenance and repair of the milking systems, feeding equipment,
and other supplies are usually more convenient and reliable.
(5) More likely to have strong Dairy Herd improvement associations (DHAs) active
in the area.
(6) Supply of labor, interested and trained, is more likely to be available.
(7) Credit and business management personnel familiar with, understanding of, and
helpful to the dairyman's problems are more accessible.
Factors to consider:

(1) Regulations and ordinances.
(2) Nearness to roads, market, water supply.
(3) Topography
(4) Wind directions
(5) Accessibility to large tracts of land transportation
(6) Neighborhood acceptance.
(7) Source of feed/pasture
(8) Soil fertility
(9) Electricity
(11) Labor availability
(12) Convenience and comfort of workers
(13) Allowance for expansion

References:

Bantugan,S.C. Dairy Production Study Guide. Graduate School Center for Extramural
Studies. Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_farming

LESSON
HERD MANAGEMENT
Learning goaI:
The lesson2 aims students to study in depth the various herd management practices for
the dairy animals; its specific management practice in each stage of development, herd
records, waste management and the herd health program for the dairying.
O Housing, feeding and caring as essential considerations in dairy herd
management.
O Manure and waste disposal on dairy farms.
O Dairy livestock waste handling and its governing management.
O Common diseases of the dairy animals in the Philippines
O Why housing is necessary?
O What are the common management practices undertaken by the dairying?
O How could we manage our manure and waste product in the dairy farms?
O How we tackle common diseases on our dairy farm?
O Do diseases affect the wellness of the dairy animal production?
1. Outline and discuss the management practices of the different classes of the
dairy animals;
2. Recognize the importance of herd records and waste management; and
3. Properly observe and formulate a sound dairy herd health program.
Overview
This lesson will discuss the various concepts in herd management. t will
showcase basic ideas related to housing, feeding and caring, manure and waste
disposal on dairy farms, waste handling systems and the dairy health
management program.

Exercise/Activity
Face to face encounter with the farmers in their respective community. The students
should prepare a questionnaire asking farmers on the various herd management
practices on their individual farm in the community. The students should present the
output in matrix.
Assessment:
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

INTRODUCITON
A dairy herd or even acquisition of one or two milk animals needs utmost care.
They are quite sensitive to the routine activites such that change in schedule may lower
milk yield.
Where pasture land is limited, it is practical to follow zero-grazing, that is, forage
crops are cut and carried to the animals. Zero grazing prevents parasites from infesting
the animal and accelerates pasture regrowth to meet the daily forage requirement of the
herd.
4. MANAGEMENT OF CALVES
Calf care and management starts even before the calf is dropped. The calving area
is disinfected and provided with bedding materials such as rice hulls. The udder of the
cow due to calve must be cleaned. Avoid drafts in the maternity ward. The caretaker
must watch for the appropriate time of calving. However, assistance during calving
should be rendered on when necessary. When there are difficulties, seek assistance of
the veterinarian.
Basic guidelines for calf care:
(1) Allow the dam to cleanse the calf. Drain out the mucus from the nose and mouth
of the calf.
(2) When breathing is difficult, raise the calf by its hindlegs to drain out the mucus in
the nose and throat. Or, lay the calf on its side and apply compression on the rib
cage.
(3) Tie the navel cord of the calf about 3 cm. Away from the body; cut off the navel 2
cm. below the the tied portion and soak the cut navel in tincture of iodine and/or
any effective wound powder.
(4) Assist the calf to suckle the first milk (colostrum) as early as possible. Be sure
that the calf is sucking from clean teats. The calves may be allowed to go with
the dam for a miximum of 3 days or it may be separated immediately at birth
provided the calf has suckled the first milk. n the latter case take colostrum from
the dam and feed artificially to the calves.
(5) Watch for the expulsion of the afterbirth (5-6 hours after birth). Dispose properly
the afterbith and litter.
(6) As soon as possible, weigh the calf and identify it by earnotch or by ear tag, neck
chain, etc.
(7) For those having difficulties raising calves artificially, the calves may be allowed
to go with the dam during the day after milking and separated from the dam at
night.
(8) n a commercial herd, group the calves into categories until they are one year
old.
a. Group 1 this is composed of calves from 4 to 14 days old. They should be
taught to feed from the bucket or pail. Dehorn the calves and remove the
extra teats of all female calves.
b. Group 2 this is composed of 15 to 30 days old calves that are fed artificially.
c. Group 3 separate the males from the females and mix the males to the veal
calves group. Also, females with abnormalities, slow grower should also be
included in the veal calves. The veal calves should be ready for market when
they weigh 90 to 100 kgs. The age of veal calves group ranges from one to
four month old.
d. Group 4 this consist of weaned female calves reared as herd replacement.
They range from 4 to 12 months old.
e. Group 5 these are male calves and yearlings that had passed the veal
stage which are reared for maximum growth at the lowest cost (male
stockers). The stocker period refers to the period from the time the vealers
are weaned from milk replacer until they are sold.
(9) Groom the calves whenever possible.
(10) Allow the calves to have daily exercise in the open dry lot.
(11) Do not paint calf pens with lead based paints nor leave paint cans around.
Use only lead free paint.

. MANAGEMENT OF GROWING HERD
Separate the heifer from bulls at 6 months of age to avoid premature breeding among
them.
Grouping of growers should be according to size and ages. f clean pastures are
available grow them in the pasture. f on pasture, provide adequate shade and shelter to
protect the animals from extreme weather condition.
Train each animal to lead by the halter if possible.
6. MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING HEIFERS
Once the heifers are 18 to 20 months old with a maximum weight of 250 kg., they shold
be bred. Periodic pregnancy diagnosis is recommended. Animals should be weighed
every month to check normal growth. Minimum housing is recommended for breeding
heifers.
Allow springing heifers to run with the milk cows for a month or so before calving so as
to get them used to the routinary milking activity.
. MANAGEMENT OF PREGNANT HERD
During early pregnancy the animals can be managed together with the heifer herd. n
the last two months of pregnancy, the animals may be separated from the heifer herd
and mixed with the dry herd. The animals should be given more care and attention and
better nutrition. They should be allowed to graze in clean pastures, and free from
hazards.
Avoid stress factors. Do not make prenant animals walk long distances, run fast fight or
butt with other animals. Don't frighten them.
One week before calving, house pregnant animals separately. Prepare the calving area
by providing clean and dry bedding materials such as rice straw or rice hulls. Keep a
round the clock obervation for signs of calving.
The usual signs of calving are:
(1) Reduced appetite;
(2) Distended udder;
(3) Swelling and congestion of the vulva;
(4) Mucus discharge from the genitals;
(5) Frequent urination; and
(6) Restlessness as a manifestation of labor.

8. MANAGEMENT OF MILKING HERD
Management of milking animals involves such factors as training, affection and care,
regularity of feed and milking activities.
Tips for managing a milking herd.
(1) Proper feeding and nutrition is a must for maximum milk produciton. Good quality
forages should be fed as much as possible.
(2) Keep the cows clean, brush off the adhering dirts and clip long hairs from the
udder, hindlegs and rear flanks. Hoves should be trimmed when they are too
long or uneven.
(3) For temperate breeds, cool the animals by sprinkling splashing them with water
during hot hours of the day.
(4) Provide clean, well bedded and cool resting area/shed. Use rice hulls or rice
straw for bedding.
(5) Provide a clean drinking water.
(6) f the cow is pastured, the animal should not be allowed to go too far to avoid too
much exercise.
(7) Do not frighten the animals especially during the milking process. Observe
silence during milking.
(8) Milk the cows regularly once, twice or thirice daily depending on milk produciton
and availability of market. t is desirable that milking intervals be equal.

MANAGEMENT OF DRY COWS
Dry off the milking cow 60 days before the expected date of calving by milking
once a day then once every other day until finally ceasing the collection. (ntermittent
process).
Another way to dry-off a cow is to stop milking abruptly by drastically reducing or
removing the amount of concentrates. f the animals is infected with mastitis, practice
drying by the intermittent method. Apply broad spectrum antibiotics infusion in all teats.

Management of Breeding Sire
Since the sire contributes 50 percent of the genetic make-up of the offspring, it should
be managed well. Use these guidelines:
(1) Teach the bull to lead when 6-8 months old.
(2) The bull at 6 months should have a nose ring to make handling easier. The ring
should be of lightweight non-rusting material about 4cm. in diameter. When the
bull is 10-12 months old, replace the ring with a 7.5 cm. brass or common metal
ring. A trocar may be used to puncture the nasal septum before inserting the ring.
Allow at least 2 weeks for the nosetril to heal before leading with the ring.
(3) After the ring has been affixed in the nasal septum attach the staff to it when
handling the bull. Several makes of staff are in the market, some of which are
fitted with special devise designed particularly to handle vicious bulls.
(4) House the bull in separate shed but allow daily exercise. n large commercial
dairy operation, bulls are grouped into three categories: breeding bulls mainly for
semen collection, breeding bulls for servicing the breeding heifers, and yearling
bulls (12 to 20 months old) as replacement stock for the farm.

. MANAGEMENT OF REPLACEMENT STOCK
A replacement stock must be available to cover up losses due to culling or death.
Maintain a 20 percent replacement for an average herd loss of 20 percent of the stock
each year or a replacement of one of five each year. Select replacement stock from top
producing cows.
10. USE OF HERD RECORDS
A good record should include only the important aspects of production. t may carry
the individual production performance of the animal, its potentials and possibly its
ancestry. Records help one make daily decisions on the amount of feed to give,
breeding schedule, and time to dry the animal, culling treatment for diseases and
abnormalities, and pinpointing inefficiency in aspects of production for remedial
measures.
11. WASTE MANAGEMENT
Manure disposal should be designed to minimize odor, prevent proliferation of flies and
pests, and prevent seepage especially in water sources. t should also conform with
existing laws and ordinances concerning pollution.

Methods of Manure handling:
(1) The shed or barn should have a good drainage canal. The flooring should be
inclined to facilitate flushing during cleaning.
(2) f the bedding is filled with manure and urine, haul and spread it in the field.
(3) Where the pasture is near, drainage canal should go to the pasture. f not, manure
may be periodically spread in the pasture.
(4) f manure must be stored, storage area should be far from the water sources to
avoid contamination through seepage. n highly sophisticated dairy operation,
manure is converted into biogas.
(5) Locate milking parlors or milk house away from cattle shed to avoid fly problem and
absorption of undesirable odor by the milk.

1. DAIRY HERD HEALTH PROGRAM
The success of a herd health program depends upon the efficient cooperation of the
veterinarian, herdsman and owner.

General considerations for herd health program:
(1) Cleanliness and sanitation are necessary in all phases of dairy operation.
Without sanitation it is impossible to control diseases of dairy cattle.
(2) All wet and marshy areas as well as any stagnant pools of water should be
eliminated. Farm ponds should be fenced and water piped from them to a
drinking trough.
(3) Rocks, wire boards and any extraneous materials from buildings and pasture
must be removed to minimize injury.
(4) Strangers should not be allowed in the mangers, to minimize introduction of
diseases. Mangers should be cleaned at all times.
(5) Neighbors' animals must not be allowed to loiter in the plant under any condition.
(6) All buildings should be so constructed for easy cleaning and disinfection.
(7) All persons who travel from farm to farm should disinfection footwears upon
entering and leaving the premises. Any litter of other materials from cattle trucks
that may go from farm to farm can be a means of spreading diseases. Sales
barns and stock yard should have truck washing and disinfecting equipment.
(8) Rodents, flies and insects must be controlled.
(9) Farm animals are to be segregated according to age groups.
(10) Any animal that appears sick must be immediately isolated and the veterinarian
consequently called.
(11) Veterinary services should be utilized to treat sick animals.
(12) Brucellosis and T.B control programs should be a routine management
practice.
(13) Available measure must be undertaken to keep external parasites to a
minimum.
(14) The veterinarian and herdsman should maintain a health and for future
reference.
(15) Vaccination program should be instituted whenever indicated.

References:


LESSON
MILK PRODUCTION
Learning goaI:
The lesson3 aims students to develop in strength the various milk and milk production
technologies and practices; the basics to dairying, milk production and the milking parlor
design.
O The milk ejection letdown process.
O Factors affecting milk ;letdown process
O Colostrums as the first milk to come from a cow that contains a high
concentration of antibodies.
O Hormones and related glands that control milk production.
O The role of epinephrine & other related hormones in the production of milk
O The hormone oxytocin as released by the pituitary gland into the bloodstream.
O The milking parlor.
O How does a cow produce its milk?
O What is meant by the term milk letdown?
O What are the hormonal functions that control lactation?
O What equipment and procedures are necessary for proper milking?
O Why does a cow have to produce a calf in order to continue producing milk?
O How does milk travel from the udder to the milker?
O How do milking parlors affect the production of milk?

1. Relate the importance of milking technique to the different factors influencing
economical milk production.
2. llustrate and explain the milk " letdown mechanism;
3. dentify appropriate milking system for small and large scale dairying; and
4. Enumerate and discuss the requirement for the production of good quality milk.
Overview
This lesson will discuss the important concepts in milk and milk production
technology, the factors affecting economical milk production, significance of
milking technique, the milk "letdown mechanism, milking system and the
production of quality milk.

Exercise/Activity
The students will be given unlabeled handouts of a cross-section of an udder to
acquaint students with the structures and give a better understanding of the duct
system.
The students will gather data on the status of the milk and milk products in the
community. The students should evaluate the design of the milking parlors and or other
milking practices in their respective area identified.
Assessment:
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

MILK PRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCITON
The pay off in the dairy farm operation is the harvesting of the milk crop. While
secretion of milk is a continuous process, harvesting usually occurs only twice daily.
Good milking practice is necessary for higher milk yield and milk quality, less
mastitis, longer life of the herd, and more profit per cow.
. FACTORD AFFECTING ECONOMICAL MILK PRODUCTION
a. Milking time
b. Speed of milking
c. Gentleness
d. Complete milking
e. Use of sanitary procedures
f. Efficient use of labor

. SIGNIFICANCE OF MILKING TECHNIQUE
Milking technique has a great influence on milk yield, udder health and milking time.
t has been proven that different feeding and milking techniques are the most
important causes of difference in milk yields among herds. The importance of milking
techniques is often underestimated. Farms with poor milking techniques often have
lower yield than farms with good milking techniques.
Poor milking may influence udder health by causing injuries to the udder. These
injuries are often followed by udder infections (mastitis). Mastitis causes great loss to
farmers due to lower milk yields, more work, costly bills for antibiotics and early
slaughter of otherwise good milk cows.
Milking constitutes the major part of the total work in the cow-shed (40-60%).
Since savings can be made without investment, even small savings in labor per day
can mean much. All that is required is to learn how to milk properly.
4. THE MILK "LETDOWN" MECHANISM
When milk secretion has continued for a considerable period after milking, the
alveoli, ducts, and gland and teat cisterns are filled with milk. n a well filled udder
shortly before milking 70% of the milk is found in the alveolus area while the remaining
30% is found in the cistern area.
The milk which is found in the cistern area can be ejected by hand milking or by the
use of a milking machine. But in order to obtain the milk in the alveolus area, we need
the active participation of the cow.
Cows have two types of letdown reflexes. First is reflection which relaxes the
muscles in the duct system of the udder and the sphincter muscle of the teat so that
the passage of milk is free. Second is a reflex which, through the hormone, oxytocin,
causes a contraction of the alveoli, so that milk is pressed out.
The stimuli brought by massaging the udder or washing with warm water (sucking
action of the calf is ideal) is carried by the nerves to the brain, which is connected
with the pituitary gland, located at its base. Mechanisms are activated in the pituitary
gland which causes the hormone oxytocin to be released from its posterior lobe.
Oxytocin is carried by the blood stream to the udder, where it acts on the small
muscle cells surrounding the alveoli causing them to contract. The pressure thus
created forces the milk out of the alveoli and smaller ducts and fast as it can be
removed from the teat.
A period of 45 seconds to 1 and minutes is required from stimulation to the first
noticeable "letdown of milk. The effective time of the hormone is limited; hence
milking should be completed within 8 minutes if all the milk is to be obtained.
The hormone epinephrine, which is released from the adrenal glands when an
animal is angered or frightened, is believed to be antagonistic to this mechanism. t
partially or completely blocks the "letdown response.

. MiIking system
Cows can be milked either at the feeding stalls of a barn or in a milking parlor.
Regardless of the milking operation, the system should meet the following
specifications:
a) Allowance for thorough milking without udder damage;
b) Provision for production of clean milk;
c) Assurance of adequate concentrate consumption;
d) Provision for the comfort of the milkier; and
e) Adequate area to facilitate cleaning of equipment.
Conventional barns or traditional cowsheds
A) Dumping or Transfer System cows are milked using "bucket milking units with
a portable milking machine. Milk is carried to the milk room either by hand or with
the aid of a wheeled trolley.
B) Pipeline system equipped with refrigerated bulk tank. Advantages over the
bucket system:
(1) Eliminates milk transport problem and barny odor milk.
(2) Prompt cooling of milk.
Disadvantages:
(1) Costly
(2) n-place cleaning is difficult.

MiIking parIor
Definition:
A milking parlor is a building equipped with a limited number of stalls and milking units
to which cows are brought to be milked. t is optional to provide concentrate feeding
facilities.
ParIor types:
(1) Abreast type cows stand side by side in a stall having a gate at the front and a
chain at the rear. The only advantage group. There is no extra alley for cows to
enter and leave the parlor.
(2) Chute type (WaIk -through parIor) cows are connected in a head to tail
manner and enter each side of the parlor as a group. There is no extra alley for
the cows to enter and leave the parlor.
Advantage:
Less time spent turning cows in and out due to group handling.
Disadvantage:
Slow milking cows can derail the entire group
(3) Side - opening or gate - type parIor- t has an additional alley located located
beside the milking stalls through which the cows enter and leave the parlor.
Cows are handled individually.
Advantage:
Slow milking cows don't impede the entire group
Disadvantage:
Less efficient because more time is required to handle cows individually.
(4) Herringbone parIor cows are at 30 angle to the milker pit. Cows are closer
together and are handled as a group.
Advantages:
Less travel time is required to milk the cows
First calf heifer are easier to train
High labor efficiency
Disadvantages:
dentification of cows is dificult
Slow milking cows hold up the rest of the group
(5) Rotary composed of a revolving circular flatfors consisting of 8-50 stalls and is
similar to a merry go round. The stalls can be constructed so that the cows
are situated either head to tail or in a herringbone configuration.
(6) UniIactor similar to the rotary; cows are carried on 13-17 individual cars that
travel on an oblong configuration . both unilactor and rotary minimize the
distance travelled milker because the jobs are performed in a small area. Udder
is more expensive.

EvaIuation of miIking system
The best measure of the performance of a milking parlor and the milker is the
number of cows milked per man-hour. There are three components used to evaluate
labor efficiency:
a) Routine time the amount of time spent with each cow to complete the milking
process.
b) Unit time the total time a milking unit is associated with a cow. The unit time
(UT) per cow is the sum of the length of time that the machine is on plus the
average time that machine is idle between cows.

c) Number of units (N)
Potential performance (P)
P = 60 x N
UT

Available Work Time (AWT)

AWT = 60 = UT
P N

6. PRODUCTION OF QUALITY MILK

The production of quality milk begins on the farm. Every dairy farmer must produce
safe, sanitary, wholesome and palatable milk. To ensure this, constant attention to
details in all phases of herd management program is imperative, particularly on the
following:

(1) Healthy animals the herd should be free from diseases particularly tuberculosis
and brucellosis. To ensure this, test the herd for tuberculosis and contagious
abortion at least every year. All reactors must be separated from the milking
herd. New animals must be free from diseases. Properly quarantine the animals
before bringing them to the far.
(2) Clean cows groom the cows daily. Regularly clip the hairs on the flank, tail and
udder. Provide adequate clean bedding to keep cows clean and facilitate
washing and sanitizing the teats and udder before milking.
(3) Healthy and clean handlers the men handling the diary animals must also be
free from contagious diseases like TB, typhoid fever, etc. and must maintain
good personal hygiene in order not to contaminate the milk.
(4) Clean utensils properly clean and sanitized facilities like milk pails, strainers,
pipelines, bulk tanks, etc. use detergents for cleaning and chemical sanitizers like
chlorine compound, iodophors, quarternary, ammonium compounds for sanitizing
milk utensils and equipment.

(5) Housing the milking barn or parlor must be clean, properly ventilated, well
lighted and with good drainage. The floor should preferably be concrete for easy
cleaning and of rough finish to prevent cows from slipping. The milk storage room
must be protected from flies.
(6) Milk contamination minimize the transfer of milk from one container to another
and also its exposure to environment.
(7) Prompt cooling if milk is not to be processed immediately cool it at 5C.
(8) Milk taints-milk absorbs flavor/odor and, therefore, feeds that impart off flavor in
milk, like silage should be fed after milking. Surroundings should also be kept
clean.
(9) Fly control control flies by practicing proper manure disposal and other sanitary
work.

References:


Lesson V
Introduction to Meat TechnoIogy
Learning goaI:
The lesson 4 aims to equip students with the importance of meat and its technology,
specifically its sources, history, composition and nutritive value and the types of
production that affects its quality.
O Meat is rich in fats so has high caloric value
O Role of meat to human nutrition and feeding.
O Domestication has a positive effect to the over-all quality of the meat
O Meat and its method of production.
O Composition and nutritional value of meat.
O Beef and mutton meats have highest level of saturation.
O Why are meats important?
O How do you define meat and its sources?
O What are the compositional and nutritive values of meat?
O What are the stages of domestication?
O What are problems related to meat consumption?
O How are the types of meat differ in degree of saturation?
O How does degree of unsaturation be altered?

MeasurabIe Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Narrate the history of meat industry;
2. Relate the stages of animal domestication to the present and future status of
meat industry;
3. Explain the importance, compositional and nutritive values of meat;
4. Discuss the problems in the consumption and trade of meat.
5. Determine the consumption of meat and meat products in the local community.

Overview
This lesson will give focus on the definition of meat, its sources, and types of
meat, importance of meat to human nutrition and feeding and the compositional
and nutritional value of meat.

Exercise/Activity
The students will conduct an interview to the slaughterhouses owners regarding their
farm meat technology practices and compare it to the past farm practices. Based on the
gathered data, the students will predict the future advancement in meat processing
technology. Output should be presented in matrix form.

Sensory Test
< The students will bring meat samples taken from the local market (fresh carcass,
frozen and open air ventilated carcass) about 0.50 kilogram in every sample
< Distinguish the carcass quality by the following standards:
< Textural characteristics
< Carcass color-
< Odor characteristics
< Taste (cooked)-

Assessment:
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

INTRODUCTION

What is the history of meat Industry?
The meat industry, in contrast to most large industries, has its roots in prehistoric
times, and the basic procedures for processing meat had been well established by the
dawn of recorded history, meat was dried by the aborigines; smoking and salting
techniques were well-established long before Homer's time (about 1000BC); storage of
meat in natural caves where the temperature was relatively low even during warm
months. Later, as dwellings were built, cellars were constructed for food storage. Much
more recently ice gathered from frozen ponds and lakes in winter, was used to keep
cellar temperatures low. The principles of refrigeration date from about 1750.
Commercial scale operations based on mechanical refrigeration were in use 100 years
later. Preparations of spicing of some kinds of sausages were also common practices in
Europe and in the Mediterranean countries well before the time of the Caesar's.

This huge industry developed through a gradual evolution of traditional
production, processing, and distribution procedures. Chemical laboratories were
established by large meat packing companies but was limited to analytical work on raw
materials and manufactured products, including salt, sugar, spices, water, lard and
other fats and cured products. Then a marked upsurge in scientific curiosity about the
composition and dietary significance of meat and meat products occurred. This also
resulted to changes in nutritional concepts and in medical opinions regarding meat in
the diet.

The changing consumer requirements and expanding population led to the
development of the industry with efficiency and convenience as the guiding principles.
These necessitated the development of resources especially human resources.

How do you define meat and its sources?
Meat is any flesh of animals consumed as food. t includes the skeletal muscles,
glands and organs, tongue, liver, heart, kidneys, brain, etc. of animals. t is coming from
animals especially from cattle, swine, and sheep but includes dogs, domesticated and
reared specifically for meat production, from birds or reptiles which are still hunted for
meat, fish and shellfishes.

What are the stages of domestication?

The stages of domestication of animals by man involved firstly loose contacts,
with free breeding. This phase was followed by the confinement of animals, with
breeding in captivity. Finally, there came selected breeding organized by man, planned
development of breeds having certain desired properties and extermination of wild
ancestors. Domestication was closely linked with the development of agriculture and
although sheep were in fact domesticated before 7000B. C., control of cattle and swine
did not come until there was settled agriculture, i.e. about 5000 B.C.

What are the effects of domestication?

Domestication alters many of the physical characteristic, such as form of the
body; animals are protected against predatory carnivores (other than man), to have
access to regular supplies of nourishing food and to suffer less from neonatal losses.
mproved breeds are early maturing; also tend to give greater carcass yield than semi-
wild breeds because of their increased level of fatness, higher percentage of fat in the
carcass than later maturing. Moreover, the subcutaneous appears to increase and more
developed which are related to the overall size.

Why are meats important?

O Meat has formed part of the human diet as a source of protein since prehistoric
and the development of hunting skills.
O Meat has high biological value of 0.75 compared to other sources of protein such
as wheat which only has 0.50
O Meat has high satiety value or high feeling of satisfaction

What are the compositionaI and nutritive vaIues of meat?

O Meat is considered, justifiably, as a high protein food (Table1). Of the total
nitrogen content of muscle, 95% is protein + 5% peptides, amino acids and other
compounds
O Meat proteins have similar digestibility with that milk and eggs and higher
compared to plant proteins (78-88%)
O Meat has lipid content so has dietary significance as it relates to energy and
obesity
O Meat contains cholesterol and saturated fatty acids
O Meat has high biological value compared to some protein sources

Meat Protein = 0.75
Wheat Protein = 0.50
Wheat Flour = 0.52

Table1. The composition of lean muscle tissue of meat animals (%)
Species Water Protein Lipid Ash
Beef 70-73 20-22 4-8 1.0
Chicken 73-75 20-23 4-7 1.0
Lamb 73 20 5-6 1.4
Pork 68.70 68-70 9-11 1.4

What is bioIogicaI vaIue and net protein utiIization?
These are parameters of protein quality:
BV = N UN- FN
N - FN

Where: N = Nitrogen intake
UN = Urinary Nitrogen Output
FN = Fecal Nitrogen Output

Net Protein Utilization is the ratio of nitrogen retained, total nitrogen intake, and is
then influenced by BV and digestibility of the protein.

What are some probIems reIated to meat consumption?

The role of meat should, however, be placed in perspective:

O Meat consumption among Americans is certainly high and largely unlimited by
financial constraints
O There is also a tendency to consumption of high fat products such as burgers
O Meat consumption is only a part of the equation since non-meat energy intake is
also high and contributes to the laying down of fat as a long term reserve
O Meat contains cholesterol and saturated fatty acids, a predisposing factors to heart
diseases

Lean meat = 65-75 mg/100g
Kidney = 400 mg/100g
liver = 430 mg/100g

O Low energy requirement for sedentary work and over-all dietary habits and life style
are underlying causes of obesity
How are the types of meat differ in degree of saturation?

Beef and mutton have the highest followed by pork and then chicken.

How does degree of unsaturation be aItered?

Degree of unsaturation can be altered by means of supercritical CO extraction.
This is technically but not commercially feasible.

References:

Palomar, L.S. Advanced Meat and Poultry Processing. Department of Food Science
and Technology: College of Engineering and Agri- industries. Visayas State University,
Visca, Baybay City 2002.

Lesson V
Conversion of MuscIe into Meat
Learning goaI:
The lesson 5 aims to develop students learning insight on pre-slaughter handling and its
effects on meat quality, post mortem changes and meat grading.
O Muscle conversion into meat marks the transition form for of animals into food.
O The essential requisites of the animals prior to slaughter
O Aging or conditioning associated with an increase in meat flavor.
O Meat in packed are usually protected against damage and other microbial
contamination.
O Meat for processing should be properly selected for quality products.
O How does muscle converted into meat?
O How do you describe the pre-slaughter handling?
O Why do we need to give utmost care to the animals prior to slaughter?
O What is cold shortening? How can this be minimized?
O What is aging or conditioning? What are some of the changes that accompany
aging?
O Why and how do you pack and store meat?
O What are the bases on the selection of meat for processing?
O How do you prepare meat for processing?

MeasurabIe Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student is able to:
1. Understand the mechanism (pre-slaughter handling, etc.) and the effects of the
process of conversion on the quality of meat

2. Discuss the quality determinants of meat.
3. Comprehend and minimize the quality defects in meat
4. Relate the types of muscle and associated tissues to the conversion approved
and the quality of meat
Overview
This lesson will give emphasize on the fundamental procedures and concepts on
the conversion of muscle into meat. t will specifically stressed out concepts on
pre-slaughter handling and its effects on meat quality, the post mortem changes
on meat after slaughter, grading and quality assurance and control.

Exercise/Activity
The students will visit at least 3 slaughterhouses in the locality determining the various
methods of pre-slaughter handling, during slaughter and post handling of the animals
after butchering.
Assessment:
The students will conduct a series of laboratory activities related to this lesson to
support the concepts mentioned and discussed in this instructional materials.
The laboratory activities will be given by the instructor during lab. hour.

Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

What is conversion of muscIe into meat?
Conversion of muscle into meat marks the transition form the live animal to a
food commodity. The central process, from both a philosophical and technical viewpoint,
involves slaughter of the animal, although this stage should not be viewed in isolation
from pre-slaughter handling or post-slaughter processing.
n less developed countries:
= slaughter, butchery and sale are carried out at the same premises over very
short time span.
n developed countries:
a continuing trend away from small slaughter house serving a local area,
or even a single shop, toward very large, centralized operations with high
throughput, capital-intesive, automated equipment and by the increase of
meat sales through supermarkets at the expenses of specialist butchers.
Packaging technology makes it possible for centralized marketing and
added value variants of basic retail cuts of meat.
How do you describe the pre-sIaughter handIing?
t is important to study the behaviroal pattern of meat to improving pre-slaughter
handling especially there is an increasing number of deaths of animals observed during
transport. t is clear that responses to transport and handling depend not only on the
stress susceptibility of he animal as a whole, but also on which muscles are being
considered. Both the metabolic capability of individual severity of transport determine
whether the PSE condition will develop or whether glycogen reserves will be depleted
sufficiently to produce dark meat. Much of the stress sustained in transport and handling
arises during loading and unloading. Tranquilizing drugs (when permitted) may be
effective in preventing fighting and struggling and may reduce the incidence of
exudative meat injury and death.
What are the accompanying Iosses during pre-sIaughter handIing?
Moisture Loss The moisture content of meat is liable to change due to fatigue
hunger during transport but vary depending upon species with pigs especially liable to.
Other factors come into play including breakdown of fatty and muscular tissues to
produce energy and heat from the fasting pig and may be due, in part to a loss of water-
holding capacity in the muscular tissues. Rest and food are prerequisite before the
animal is slaughtered to minimize weight loss.
GIycogen Loss. Recognition of fasting and exhausting exercise in relation to
glycogen reserve of muscle is important. The accompanying effect is increase in pH
expecially with the pigs muscle. However, the pre-slaughter treatment should be kept at
the optimum otherwise a negative effect could result. Stress and stress-producing
activities such as emotional excitement, cold, fatigue, anoxia, etc., reacted by discharge
of the same hormones from the adrenal gland irrespective of the nature of the stress-
adrenaline from the adrenal medulla.
Adrenalin depletes muscle glycogen and potassium, 17-hydroxy-corterone and
11-deoxy-cortisterone, respectively, restore the equilibrium level of these substances in
normal animals. The release of the latter two hormones is controlled by the secretion of
ATCH by the pituitary ; and ACTH production is controlled by a releasing factor
produced in the hypothalamus, the part of the brain when reactive to external stimuli
with different species having varied responses.
Death of the AnimaI. Death is an irreversible insensibility due to cardiac
anorexia caused by complete severance of both common carotid arteries and jugular
veins. A major requirement for desirable eating and keeping qualities in meat is the
removal of as much blood as possible from carcass, since it can cause an unpleasant
apperance and is an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms. Moreover,
weight losses, and in particular, exudation in deeper muscles on the warm sides
immediately after slaughter and exposing the "seamed muscles to air at 0C. The bulk
of the musculature, in these circumstances, prevents temperatures falling fast enough
to cause "cold shortening. The procedure includes:
Holding in a stockyard prior to slaughter provides opportunity for resting and
feeding and increase the level of energy of the animals.
Application of Anesthesia
Stunning use of carbon dioxide or electric stunning could used and attempts
have been made to improve and standardize the procedure.
Bleeding severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein, and in pigs by
severing the anterior Venn cava.
Dressing and cutting - Carcasses are dressed following bleeding wherein the
head, feet, hides (in the case of sheep and cattle), excess fat, viscera and offal
(edible and inedible) are separated from the bones and edible muscular tissues.
Considerable progress is done on the automation of the dressing and cutting
process.

What are the generaI consequences of circuIatory faiIure?
Stoppage of the circulation of the blood at death initiates a complex series
changes in muscular tissue. At the moment of death of the animal as a whole, its
various tissues are continuing their particular types of metabolism under local control
and the speed and extent of these changes may be expected to differ in different
muscles. However, a further stopage of circulation and the different untoward conditions
render the meat susceptible to chemical and microbial spoilage. Moreover, the
temperature falls and fat solidifies.
What is aging or conditioning?
Aging or conditioning is a process of holding unprocessed meat above the
freezing point without microbial spoilage. t has long been associated with an increase
in tenderness and flavor.
What are some of the changes that accompany aging?
Protein Denaturation. Denaturation may be defined as a physical or
intramolecular rearrangement which does not involve hydrolysis of the chemical bonds
lingking the constituent amino acids of the proteins polypeptide chains. t is generally
accompanied by an increase in the reactivity of various chemical groups, a loss of
biological activity. (in those proteins which are enzymes of hormones), a change in
molecular shape of size and a decrease in solubility.
Of the proteins in muscles, collagen and elastin of connective tissue do not
denature but the proteins of the myosfibril and of the sarcoplasm denature with varying
degrees during post-mortem conditioning.
PorteoIysis. Denatured preoteins are particularly liable to attack by proteolytic
enzymes. The increase in tenderness is associated with an increase in water-soluble
nitrogen due to the production of peptides and amino acids from protein. n the absence
of massive proteolysis, there are lysozomal enzymes which can attack cross-links in the
non-helical telopeptide region of collagen. n fact, collagen fibers appear to swell, a
feature which may signify that cross-links are broken. Notwithstanding the absence of
massive proteolysis in the collagen and elastin of fresh sterile meat even after 1 year at
370C, such breakdown does occur in sterile meat which has been heated but do not
dissociation was not observe even if there was an increase in tenderness.
Changes however, are observed with sarcoplasmic proteins during post-mortem
glycolysis with gradual diminution of various components due to proteolysis to amino
acids and not to precipitation. There is less proteolysis at higher pH and lower
temperature (greater at 5 C than at 37 C).
Other Chemical Changes. By the time the ultimate pH has been reached, ATP
has been largely broken down to insomniac acid to phosphate and ammonia through
function of time, temperature and pH. Conditioning is organoleptically at an optimum.
When the hypoxanthine (or its precursor, inocinic acid level has reached 1.5 2.0
umoles/g attained after 10-13 at 0C, 4-5 days at 10C, 30-40 hrs at 20C and 10-11 hr
s at 30C.
Other changes accompanying aging include development of flavor, increase in
free amino acids with augmented concentration due to breakdown of various peptides,
dipeptides camosine and anserine are progressively hudrolyzed to B-alanine and
histidine (lawrie, 1991).
Although conditioning enhances the water-holding capacity of proteins to some
extent, the loss due to denaturation changes and to post-mortem pH fall predominates,
and meat exudes fluid postmortem.
What is coId shortening? How can this be minimized?
Cold shortening is a biphasic process. n meat a high ATP level and pH value,
cold shortening of excised muscle occurs very rapidly, the shortened condition being
maintained to the onset of rigor. This can be minimized or prevented by electrical
sitmulation of the carcass or side immediately after slaughter and deboning in rooms at
5-15C and holding the vacuum packed cuts at least 10 hrs at these temperature.
What is rigor mortiz?
Rigor Mortiz is the stiffening of the muscle after an animal dies and considered
as one of the most dramatic changes that occur during the conversion of muscles to
meat. This is due to the formation of permanent crossbridges in the muscle between the
actin and myosin filaments. This is the same chemical reaction that forms actomyosin
during muscle contraction in life but relaxation in impossible in meat because no energy
is available for breaking the actomyosi bond.
What is actinomyosin?
Actinomyosin is the protein complex that is formed when actin and myosin are
connected by the heads on the myosin filaments slides past each other. The sliding of
the filaments past one another shortens the width of the sarcomers. The degree of
shorteining in the sarcomere is directly related to the toughness of meat. Thus, meat
eaten when the muslces are contracted, such as in rigor mortiz, thaw rigor or cold
shorteing, are extremely tough.
What are the determinants of meat quaIity?
Meat quality is an important factor not only to consumer but also to the meat
industry as this affects the prices of the commodity. There are three main determinants
of meat quality at consumer level:
CoIor
Color is the most important factor with respect to initial selection. n red meats, a
bright red color associated with a high content of oxymyoglobin is positive determinant
of quality, while met myoglobin is a negative determinant. Pale, soft, exduative or PSE
and dark, firm, dry meat or DFD are the two specific defects which are due to abnormal
post mortem pH are also recognized to affect meat acceptability by consumers.
The importance of color as a quality determinant should be seen in the context of
overall appearance. Perception of quality related to color can be modified by other
visual factors such as the extent of marbling, the adipose tissue located between
muscle fiber bundles in the perimysial connective tissue. Marbling is positively
associated with good eating quality and can be an important factor influencing
consumer choice. The amount of fat surrounding major muscles also influences the
appearance or 1inish of the meat. Although a certain quantity of fat is expected on some
cuts, excessive fat has always been associated with poor quality. Color of fat is also
important and a yellow appearance, which is common with some dairy breeds such as
Jerseys, is a negative determinant of quality.
Perception of color quality can also be affected by defects, some of which
essentially cosmetic such as blood splash and staining of fat with blood from drip.
Physical defects resulting from poor butchery or inadequate plucking of poultry are also
considered to be indicative of poor color quality.
uiciness
Juiciness is related to the water holding capacity of the meat and marbling. This
quality interacts with appearance in that, while dry meat is undesirable, excessive drip
and exudation, as in PSE condition, is a specific quality defect. Juiciness together with
tenderness accounts for the overall eating quality and consumers may confuse the two
factors when making comparisons.
Tenderness
Tenderness is a consequence of type of muscle and post mortem events
involving onset and resolution (tenderization). n general terms, the degree of
tenderness is directly related to quality except for some circumtances wherein a degree
of toughness or texture is desirable. Method and extent of cooking may strongly affect
perceptions of both juiciness and tenderness and can be of greater importance than the
intrinsic properties of the meat.
Tenderness of meats is the result of a variety of factors other than the type of cut
of meat. These factors include formation of actinomyosin, presence and solubility of
connective tissue, degree off aging, age of the animal processing methods (enzymes,
acid, salts, mechanical manipulation, electrical stimulation, hot boning, temperature
conditioning and cooking.
Why and how do you pack and store meat?
Meats are packed to provide protection against damage, physical and chemical
changes, microbial contamination and to attract consumers while the meat is display.
The bases for the selection of packaging materials and the methods of packing
depend upon by the processing and merchandizing methods, nature of contaminating
microorganisms, etc. Moreover, there has been progressed in vacuum packing both for
fresh and processed meats.
What are the bases on the seIection of meat for processing?
1. Meat should have a low microbial load
2. Meat should be free of dirt and foreign matter, blemishes, blood clots and broken
bones.
3. Size of the piece
4. Fresh meat is chilled for about 24 hrs and frozen meat is completely thawed
before processing
5. Hams or shoulders which are excessively fat nor extremely thin are selected
6. Meat coming from stressed animals prior to slaughter is avoided (pale soft
exudative (PSE) meat). Processed products from PSE meat usually lack flavor
and juiciness.
7. Pieces of meat which are repeatedly frozen and thowed have high microbial load
How do you prepare meat for processing?
1. Trim of excess fat and protruding bones.
2. Shape or convert into desired from.
3. Remove skin and subctuaneous fat.
4. Weigh the meat.
5. Wash the meat.
6. Hung to drip.

References:


Lesson V
Cold preservation of Meat Products
Learning goal:
The lesson 6 aims to strengthen the students learning imminent on the cold
preservation of the meat and meat products and its underlying principles.
O Requirements in the freezing and assurance quality of meat.
O Changes occurring during meat freezing.
O Conditioned necessary for successful freezing of meat.
O Hygiene and disinfection activities in cold storage.

Essential questions:
O What is cold preservation of meat products? Why there's a need to preserve
meat?
O How do the different types of cold preservation process affect the quality of
meat?
O How do you plan a cold storage?
O How do hygiene and disinfection activities in cold storage done?
O How are frozen meat and meat products packaged?
O What are requirements in freezing and quality assurance of meat items?

Measurable Objectives
1. Relate cold storage to quality, cost and availability of meat products.

2. Apply cold storage principles, processes, equipment and facilities to actual
students' practice.

Overview
This lesson will commence students learning need on the principles of cold
preservation of meat and meat products, the processes occurring in meat
freezing and the conditions necessary for the proper disinfection activities on the
cold storage which would greatly influence on the longevity and shelf-life of the
meat and meat by products.

Exercise/Activity
The students will visit various stall owners in the community selling meat and meat by
products. Each student should conduct an interview regarding the extent of cold
preservation practices and freezing activities they've practiced.
The students will conduct a series of cold preservation techniques in the school as part
of their laboratory activities. The results will be the comparison of the cold preservation
of meat in chiller, frozen meat, and the untreated meat and meat by products exposed
to outside environment. Student should properly observe the results and make
comparison.
Assessment:
The students will conduct series of laboratory activities and exercises mentioned above
to gain more retention of the principles being discussed by this instructional materials.
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

What is cold preservation of meat products?
Meat itself is not a living organism but it is subject to endogenic enzymatic
activity, or proteolysis due to its rich components, which causes muscle tissue to
mature, become tender and develop a typical taste. Cooling can retard this process.
Since microbial growth is a temperature-dependent process, it is essential to
reduce the temperature of the meat especially on the surface, immediately after
dressing. Cooling or primary chilling is carried out in the slaughterhouse.
What are the types of cold preservation process?
1. Chilling (2 4 C or 36-40 F) is done quickly after carcass dousing at the end of
slaugther process in order to reduce the deterioration process, particularly
microorganism development. t is fundamental operation in applying cold to meat to
reduce its temperature quickly. t is usually done in cold chambers at air speed of
0.25 to 3.0 m/s. However, relative humidity has to be kept fairly high to prevent meat
weight loss.

2. Freezing (2 4 C or 36-40 C) is usally limited to meat to be used as buffer stock,
frequently intended for export or for storage with a view to later processing . a high
freezing rate is desirable in term of both quality and economics and very slow
freezing must be avoided to prevend cold shortening.

Plate freezer are used for deboned meat
Blast freezing is most common for primal joints and carcasses and usual
to use plastic film wraps to prevent dehydration and protect from
contamination during sabsequent handling. Vacuum packaging may be
employed with primal joints to minimize oxidative deterioration.
3. Thawing is another critical phase in the freezing process as it involves a change
from ice crystals to melted water, which is reabsorbed, and microbial reactivation. t
is considered finished when the temperature of the meat is about 0 to -1C. t is not
a process to enhance quality, or to change fundamentally the physical nature or
eating quality of food freezing is mainly used as a means of preservation and as
such the technology amounts to a damage limitations exercise, the intention being to
induce as few changes as possible. There are conditions (Table 1) to be met in
order for freezing operation to be effective.

What are meat cold stores?
Meat cold store consists of a building (usually including a group of cold
chambers) designed to keep meat in well-defined conditions of temperature and
relatives humidity as it is a very perishable foodstuff. This form part of several distinct
activities, which together transform a living animal into a nutritious wholesome foodstuff.
Depending on their role in the cold chain, cold store can be classified as production,
short term, tong term or distribution stores with variable lenght of storage (table 2).
Table 2. conditions necessary for the successful freezing of meats.
1. Meat must be of initial good quality with respect both to microbiological and
status.
2. Pre-freezing processing must be in accordance with good manufacturing practice
3. Meat must be frozen as soon as possible
4. Where delays are unavoidable. The meats must be protected from contamination
and refigerated to minimize microbial growth.
5. Freezing should be in accordance with pre-determined parameters
6. Frozen meat must be stored at correct temperature throughout its storage life
t is considered a specialized store sice it is designed and equipped to store a single
product which can be in different forms (carcasses, cuts, deboned), and.or be a
different levels of cold (chilled, frozen). These specialized stores are complementary
to a slaughterhouse and perhaps a freezing facility, and are part of anyu stage in the
distribution process the consititutes the "cold chain.
Table 3. storage conditions for chilled animal products

Commodity

Temperature

Relative

Practical Storage
Beef

Beef (10% CO)

Lamb

Pork

Veal

Chicken

Rabbit
-1.5 to 0

-1.5 to -1

-1 to 0

-1.5 to 0

-1 to 0

-1 to 0

-1 to 0
90

90-95

90-95

90-95

90

90

90-95
3.5 weeks

Max 9 weeks

10-15 days

1-2 weeks

1-3 weeks

7-10 days

Max 5 days

Their location is a problem without any definite solution, as they may be placed in
livestock areas ("dead circuit of meat) or in consumption areas ("live circuit of
livestock); the decision which will obviously influence the design of the cold store on
which the distribution of meat relies. Sitting them in consumption areas, close to the
urban center, has some advantages: fairly regular functioning throughout the year,
some by-product section may grow to a reasonable size to become profitable
(rendering, guts and skins and skilled labor in usually abundant, which often on foot.
Plans to locate a slaughterhouse in a production area should e very carefully
considered, as great fluctuations in throughput may occur (increase in running cots,
idle personnel, etc.). also, the transport of meat is not always easy, the industrial
infrastructure is often inadequate and the costs of construction are high. t is worth
taking this into account when developing countriesare being considered.
How do you plan a cold storage?
1. Define operational and technical specifications
General arrangements - the main reason of designing a cold store is to avoid
unused space, so the location of labor permises, office, etc., must be considered
when filling up gaps.
Management the operation of cold rooms must take into account storage
requirements of the produce, rules for loading, maintenance and hygiene, and
therunning and maintenance of the refrigeration equipment.
Air circulation and changes conditions for air ciculation in completely filled
chamber or tunnels for chilling, freezing and sotrage. Air circulation must be
correct and to maintain it, the stack allignment in the room must be perpendicular
to the direction of air movement and the stack placed closed to the cooler. Funs
must also be operating when the refirgeration system is running and it is
advisable to only stop it during defrosting. The palletization layout must take
account of distances between store elements. Air circulation inside the store
through an empty cross-section of the store and also by the chamber coefficient
of air circulaiton, which is the number of times the air equivalent to the total
internal volume of the empty chamber passes through the cooler in one hour
Unleading cold rooms when products leave the cold room there is a risk of
condensation of atmoshpeheric humidity on the cold surfaces, making them wet
and liable to microbial development. This can damage the packaging materials or
spoil their appearance, which can sometimes be irreversible if cartoon or
cardboard packaging is used.

How do hygiene and disinfection activities in cold storage done?
Cold chambers intended for meat chilling and chilled storage must be kept in a
strictly hygienic condition as microbial invasion is a grave risk. Hygiene must be
maintained after storage, during transport distribution. The following operations are
potential:
mmediately eliminate all waste in a cold room
Each time a room is emptied, oar after rewarming rooms at low temperature,
wash floors and walls with detergen and hot water, rinse them with clean water,
adn spray with a solution containing active chlorine (0.3 percent)
Clean pallets and storage containers every four months
Disinfect chilled sotrage rooms for 48 hours at least twice a year and frozen
product rooms when they are emptied
Beforestoring animal products in rooms that have contained strongly odorous
fruits and vegetables, deodorize by washing, prolonged ventilation and finally
spraying with a solution containing ammonium salts.
What are the methods and equipment used in handling meat?
Carcasses or large cuts the meat is hung on overhead rails of appropriate
height, which can be pushed by hand or can be mechanically transported.
Or by the use of forklift trucks and is employed for frozen packaged cuts in
geometrical containers and even chilled carcasses of small animals or quarters
of large animals. These are hung from specifically desinged crates which can be
stacked in the same way as pallets.
What are some of frozen uncured meat products?
A wide range of frozen uncured meat products is available and of two types
sausage pies and burgers which are the direct equivalent of fresh products except that
minor recipe modificaitons may be necessary or those which are consist of products
such as restructured meat, where freezing is a prerequisite of mechanically stability.
How are frozen meat and meat products packaged?
Quality problems of frozen meat and meat products are related to poor
packaging. t is particularly important to protect frozen meat from dehydration,
potentially leading to freezer burn and this requires a film of low water permieability,
adequate physical strength and are shrink wrapped on to the meat eliminating any
airspace between the product and the film. Formation of myoglobin and maintenance of
oxymyoglobin for extended periods in the dark are attained if proper packaging are
employed. An ultravoilet impermeable layer can also be incorporated into the packaging
film to minimize light mediated oxidation.
What are the changes and processes observed during freezing?
a. ce formation during freezing
b. Changes during frozen storage
c. Changes during thawing

What quality assurance and control are employed for frozen meat and meat products?
The quality assurance procedures relate to production of items to be frozen since
there are also applicable to chilled products. n the case of restructured meats, which
are almost invariably frozen, overall quality assurance and control procedures are
largely the same for uncooked comminutes.
What are requirements in freezing and quality assurance of meat items:
1. To freeze the meat items as soon as possible after slaughter
2. To freeze under controlled conditions
3. To minimize temperature fluctuations during storage and trasport
4. For big companies, quality assurance usally focus on monitoring the performance
of equipment and other facilities.

References:


Lesson V
Curing and cured products
Learning goal:
The lesson 7 aims to equip students learning insight on curing and cured products. This
unit elaborated the underlying theories and principles on meat curing which are dynamic
in the study of meat technology and its program.
O Basic curing ingredients and its underlying principles.
O Fundamental steps in meat curing
O Factors which influence the amounts and combination of curing ingredients.
O Cured products and its samples

O How does meat curing influence the palatability of the meat and meat by
products?
O What are cured meat products? How do the different types of curing ingredients
affect the quality of meat and meat by products?
O What is the chemistry of meat curing? How does it affects meat processing?
O What are some of the cured products?

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Narrate the history of meat curing
2. temize the types and functions of curing ingredients
3. Familiarize the nature of curing process and its products
4. Discuss the chemistry of meat curing
5. Understand the risk posed by some ingredients and process
6. Discuss its quality assurance and control

Overview
This lesson will give students an opportunity to understand the principles of meat
curing; specifically the history of meat curing, its chemistry of meat curing for
processing and the ingredients involve in the preservation of meat.

Exercise/Activity
The class will be divided into groups. Each group should perform meat curing using
identified curing ingredients (to be determined by the instructor). All groups should
compare their respective results. Findings and results will be presented by group.
Assessment:
to gain more retention of the principles being discussed by this instructional material.
Each group will be given an evaluation form to rate the output of the other group
including the group presentation according to the following points:
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

What is meat curing?
Curing refers to the modifications of meat that affect preservation, flavor, color,
and tenderness due to added curing ingredients.
What is the history of curing as a method of meat preservation?
The curing of meat, like any other methods of preserving meat at ambient
temperatures, developed from drying. Subsequently, salt (NaC) was used to assist the
drying process and it is assumed that nitrate the original curing ingredient, was derived
adventiously from crude salt. t is not where the deliberate used of salt containing nitrate
first began, or at what time. Various suggestions have been made, including China
andthe areas between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, many years befor the birth of
Christ. Alternatively, in Europe, the use of nitrate may have commenced in the 16
th

century, or later, when the compound has become readily available and was widely
used for medicinal purposes.
Curing orginally involved packing the meat in a dry mixture of NaC and curing
agents, a process which is still in used today. The traditional dry cure is not well suited
to large scale production and especially in the UK, tank cures were developed using
concentrated brines. This development permitted the curing of pork on a very large
scale. The south western country of Wiltshire was a major bacon-curing area and the
tank cure is often refered to generically as the 'Wiltshire' bacon are made today in a
number of countries, although there are a number of technological changes. Newer
methods of curing have also been developed, including the relatively mild 'sweet cure'.
n developed countries, the general availability of refrigeration means that the
importance of curing as a means of preservation is reduced and this is reflected in a
lowering of the levels of NaC and curing agents in accordance with modern taste and
health concerns.
n Europe and US, pork is the most widely cures meat, although smaller
quantities of beef are also cured. Beef curing is greater importance in exproting areas,
such as South America and Australia. Mutoon is also cured in exporting countires and in
part of Africa, where the consumption of pig meat is prescribed.
What are cured meat products?
Cured meat products are defined as those intact muscle structure which have
been subjected to a discrete process, intended to ensure the distribution of NaC and
curing agents throughout the product, with the intention of producing an end-product of
typical color and organoleptic character.
What are the types and functions of curing ingredients?
1. Sodium Chloride 0 is a major ingredient by weight, although levels in the final
products vary widely from less than 2% in some mild cured bacon to over 6% in
some traditional types of ham.

Function as a preservative and imparts the charactiristic salty character. t also
increases the water holding capacity of proteins and thus enhances water
uptake.
Potassium chloride and potassium glutamate have been used as replacers but
are markedly less inhibitory to microorganisms than NaC and this may have
implications for both the safety and stability of cured meats.
The inhibitory effects are due to lowering of water activity A and the effect of
Na+ion.

2. Nitrate and Nitrite nitrite as either potassium or sodium salt, is the active curing
agent, responsible for inhibitory effect on microorganisms and providing a source of
nitric oxide for formation of the characteristic cured meat pigment. t has also
beneficial effect on flavor.

s valuable and critical in cured meats particularly in canned produtcs becuase of
its inhibitory effects on Clostridium botulinum, the bacteria that causes botulism
in man.

Nitrate, in contrast, which may also be added as potassium and sodium salts, is
generally accepted to serve only as a reservoir of nitrite.

Specific concern over the rish of N-ntorsamine formation and general concern
over the levels of preservatives in foods have led to a general reduction in nitrite
and nitrate (as a reservoir of nitrite is now often ommited from cure).

3. Sugar adds flavor, helps overcome nutrients for bacteria which reduce nitrate to
nitrite and also provides food for some lactic acid fermenting bacteria that develop
the characteristic flavor of some dried cured products. However, it can also provide
food for the spoilage microorganisms.
4. Curing adjuncts are usd for a number technological reasons. Polyphosphates are
used primarily as a means of improving water retention. This permits greater weight
gain during curing and minmizes moisture loss during cooking. Antimicrobial
properties have also been claimed for some pholyphosphates but is not clear and
variations exists among sources resulting from interactions with other factors such
as pH. Ascorbate and erthorbate (isoascorbate are permitted additivesto cured
meats in UK and USA, respectively. These are used to improve color formation and
retention by reducing nitric oxide which reacts with myoglobin to form the fixed cured
meat color, although nitrosamine is also reduced. nhibition of Clostirdium botulinum
is also claimed, although evidence is contradictory.
What is the chemistry of meat curing?
Meat Pigments and Color Changes
Understanding of meat pigments and the changes they undergo is important in meat
processing. These changes are chemically complex and are outlined in Fig. 7. The chief
muscle pigment is a protein called myoglobin. The physiological function of myoglobin is
to store oxygen in the live animal's muscle. t has a purplish color when not carrying an
oxygen molecule,but when exposed to oxygen, it becomes oxymyoglobin which has a
bright cherry red color, thus, when fresh meat is first cut, it is purple in color, but its
surface quickly becomes bright red upon exposure to air. Large cuts may be bright red
on the surface but more puplish in the interior due to less oxygen within. The desirable
bright red of oxymyoglobin is not entirely stable; on prolonged exposure to air and
excessive oxidation it can shift to metyoglobin, which has a brown color. When fresh
meat is cooked, these protein pigments are denatured and also produce a brown color.
Steak cooked to a rare conditions has less of the oxymyoglobin denatured and is more
red. Well-done meat is more denatured and is more brown. Meat cured with nitrites are
red and remain red through cooking. Nitrite combines with myoglobin to produce nitric
oxide myoglobin, which is pink in cured meat. Nitric oxide myoglobin on cooking is
converted to nitrosohemochrome, which is pink or red as in cooked ham and bacon and
quite stable. These pigment shifts, some of which are reversible are affected by oxygen,
acidity of the meat and exposure to light; and the combination determines which
pigments will dominate. Within the normal pigment shifts, the color of meat does not
indicate wholesomeness or nutritional value; however, red color is often used by
consumers to judge the freshness of meats. For this reason, packaging films are
designed to protect meat color, largely by controlling diffusion of oxygen.
n the case to fresh meat cuts, films are used that allows oxygen to penetrate and
keep myoglobin in the bright red oxymyoglobin form. However, cured meats are
affected diffirently by oxygen the pink nitric oxide myoglobin can be oxidezed to the
brown memyoglobin. Thus cured meats are genrally vacuum packed to excled air and
wrapped in films which are high barrier to oxygen. Fresh or cured meats also can
develop brown, yellow, and green discoloration from bacterial growth.

Formation of nitrosamine
Nitrite can react with secondary and tertiary amines to produce carcinogenic
nitrosamines such as N-nitorsodimethyl-amine, has led to a further reduction in the
permitted level of residual nitrite to 200ppm and to attempt to cure meat without nitrite,
although this latter possibility cannot be contemplated unless some other means of
eliminating C. Boulism can be found. The most prevailent secondary amines in raw pork
appear to be piperdine, diethylamine, pyrrolidine and dimethlamine.
t is clearly important, however , to maintain in such problem. Thus about 65% of
nitrite ingested by man is that present in the saliva, and it would be virtually impossible
to eliminate its precursor, nitrate, from the diet.

What are some of the cured products?
1. Ham is available in several forms cooked and uncooked, none in and boned, rolled
and tied or canned. Cooked hams arive in today's kitchen already cooked and
commonly come in two shapes. The pullman ham is rectangular and slices uniformly
for easy preparation. The other common canned ham is pear shaped.
The distinctive flavor in ham comes either from the curing method or from
smoking. Most hams used today are but not smoked smoked hams cost more and
are usually used only for specialty dishes. Smithfield ham. These hams are dry
cured virnia. These hams are dry cured in salt, rubbed with seasoned coating,
smoked and aged for one to two years. They must soaked from 12 to 24 hours and
scrubbed before cooking. Then they are roasted like any other raw meat.
2. Bacon are processed and available as whole slab or sliced. The cook has to slice
whole slab bacon. Sliced bacon comes by the count that is, so many slices to the
pound. Common sizes are 18 to 22 slices to pound. The larger the number the
thinner the slice.
3. Tocino
Tocino is a cured product native to the Philippines. t started as a means of
salvaging pork unsold for the day. n the early years when refrigeration units were not
easily availble.
4. Sausage
Smoked or cured sausages that originated in many different countries are now
produced domestically as well as being imported. Among the choices are
frankfurters, salami and summer sausages, branschweiger (liver), bologna,
pepperoni and thuringer. Some are smoked or cured but not bulky cooked. Make
sure you know which of these need to be cooked to safe internal temperatures.
5. Corned beef
Corned beef usually cures from the brisket smoked tongue, and dried, cured, and
smoked sliced beef are also used int eh kitchen. They should be refrigerated, but
they have a slightly longer shelf-life than fresh beef.
6. Tapa, crunchies and mara
Tapa, crunchies and mara have several characteristic in common. The three
products can all be made from beef, dried, made ready to eat and cures using the
same set of ingredients. The three meat products are popular items for cocktail
parties, for special occasions and for packed meals.
What are the factors that influence the quantity of ingredients and the quality of cured
products?
1. Weight of the meat used
2. Type of cured products
3. The length of time the meat is left in cure
4. Curing temperature
5. Condition of meat whether chilled or hot
6. Size of meat cut
7. Manner in which ingredients are applied
8. Amount of fat covering
9. Concentration of curing solution
10. pH of meat
11. muscle type
12. temperature of muscle
13. muscle fiber direction
what are the basic steps in meat curing?
1. Selection of meat for curing
2. Preparation of meat for curing
3. ngredient application
4. Curing
5. Smiking
6. Cooking
7. Packaging
What are the ways to handle Cured meats?
All cured meats should be refrigerated. The preservative processes cannot
substitute for refriferation and cooking, but they do prolong shelf-life. Canned ham must
be refrigerated like any other ham.
What is the microbiology of meat curing?
Cured meat as environment for micro-organism
Curing technology and curing ingredients used affect the intrensic microbiological
stability of cured meat. Traditional produts which are dry cure are more shelf-stable
thanthe sweet cure type which are dependent on extrinsic factors such as refrigeration
and packaging. Vacuum and gas packaging are now used for stability.

Cured meat and food poisoning
The safety of commercially cured meats is extremely good and there are no
authenticated cases of food poisoning resulting from consumption of these products.
This is feasible especially if good manufacturing practices (GMP) are followed making
the place in order to reduce the number of spoilage microorganism to its minimum and
to avoid the contamination of meat by pathogenic microorganisms. Routine microbial
analyses should also form part of the quality assurance program.

References:


Lesson V
Low moisture meat products
Curing and cured products
Learning goal:
The lesson 8 aims to impart students learning on the theories and principles behind the
low moisture meat products. This part of the instructional material will strongly
emphasize the meat preservation principles other than using the different curing
ingredients and the like.
O Heat and mass transfer
O Air dried meat products
O Freeze-dried meat products
O ntermediate meat products
O Microbilogy
O What is heat and mass transfer? How does it affect the shelf-life of meat and its
products?
O What are the different types of dried or dehydrated meats?
O How does freeze-drying affects meat deterioration?
O What is the microbial safety of freeze-dried meat products?
O What are intermediate moisture meats (MM)
O Why are MM important?
O What are the changes associated with low moisture foods?

After the end of this lesson, the student is able to:
1. Understand the meaning and principles of low moisture product processing
2. Describe the manufacturing processes as well the technology of drying and
dehydration
3. Relate the chemistry and microbiology of the meat and the process the quality of
the final products
4. dentify the different types of dried and dehydrated meat products
5. Evaluate the quality, quality control and assurance
Overview
This lesson will develop students learning insight on the principles of low
moisture product processing, drying and dehydration, chemistry and microbiology
of the meat and the processes for quality control and assurance.

Exercise/Activity
The students of this course will perform/conduct the following activities:
O Sun-drying of meat
O Freeze-drying of meat
O Air - dried meat products

Assessment:
to gain more retention of the principles being discussed by this instructional material.
Each group will be given an evaluation form to rate the output of the other group
including the group presentation according to the following points:
Peer Assessment
Selected Response
Self Assessment

s drying synonymous to dehydration?
Drying, by any means is a method by which microbial growth is arrested by
deprivation of moisture by the use of the sun and air; while dehydration refers generally
to artificial drying under controlled condition. n its strict sense, food dehydration refers
to the nearly complete removal of water from foods under controlled conditions that
causes minimum or ideally no other changers in the food properties.
What are the purposes of meat dehydration?
1. To preserve the meat
2. To decrease the weight and bulk
3. To produce convenient items
What is heat and mass transfer?
Whatever method of drying is employed, meat dehydration involves getting heat
into the product and getting out moisture. There is high interest in a maximum drying
rate, and so every effort is made to speed heat and mass transfer rates and the
following are considered important:
1. Surface area
2. Temperature
3. Air velocity
4. Humidity
5. Atmospheric pressure and vacuum
6. Evaporation and temperature
7. Time and temperature
What are the different types of dried or dehydrated meats?
1. Air - dried meat products
Meat pieces are dried by means of hot air as the vector supplying the external
exposed surface of the meat with energy and removes resulting water vapor. The iar
drying process is consequently controlled by the properties of the moist air
surrounding the meat (external process variables) so the thermal transfer are many
times faster than the mass transfers. However, air of lower relative humdity is
required at the end of drying to obtain the required low moisture content in the meat.
Factors such as case hardening and shape distortion due to shrinkage can
complicate the general situation and lead to reduction in drying rates.
Air dried products may (in industrialized countries) or may not be cooked
(traditional) before drying. Cooking is employed to imporved to improve the quality
by minimizing case hardening. The extent of precooking is important since
overcooking degrades connective tissues, giving dry granules of unsatisfactory
texture. Undercooked meat is slow to dehydrate and dehydrate and has a dry and
brittle texture.
2. Freeze-dried meat
What is freeze drying?
The meat pieces are first frozen then dried immediately from the frozen state and
so there is little deterioration. This can be used to dry solid foods such as chicken
dice, whole shrimps and sometimes food pieces as large as steaks and chops.
Figure 7 shows a schematic drawing of how a meat piece is freez-dried and a typical
freeze drying plant (fig. 8) this is quite an expensive process but can be combined
with air drying porducing high quality at lower cost than the freeze-dried meat
products.
What are the principles behind freeze-drying?
Under certain conditions of low vapor pressure, water can evaporate from ice
without the ice melting or the process called sublimation. So freeze-drying involves
two physical processes; freezing and sublimation.
What are some of the examples of freeze dried meats?
Examples of freeze fried products include some types of sausages, meat dish such
as stews freeze-dried for military and expedition purpose. n such, cases, the prime
objective is light weight and ease of preparation rather than organoleptic properties.
Muscle and fatty tissue be dried simultaneously and fat causes problems by
melting and interfering with vapor flow by blocking pores in the dried part of the
meat. For this reason lean meat is selected for freeze drying, excess fat is trimmed
off.
What is the microbial safety of freeze-dried meat products?
The microbial safety of freeze-dried foods is unique. This is because freeze-dried
is the most gentle commercial dehydration procedure with respect to the food as well
as the microbial population. The products can be stored for a long time especially if
excellent food packaging with gas atmosphere that has been changed from the
normal 20/80 O/N composition of air to some other mixture.
3. ntermediate Moisture Meat (MM)
What are intermediate moisture meats? (MM)
MM are meat products which contain moderate levels of moisutre of the order of
20-50% by weight which is less than is normally present in natural meats but more than
is left in conventionally dehydrated products. n addition, MM contains sufficient
dissolved solutes to decrease water activity (Aw) so high osmotic pressure associated
with high concentration of salutes in some, additional preservation effect is contributed
by salt, acid and other specific solutees. As a consequence, MM do not require
refrigeration to prevent microbial growth.

What is the microbiology of intermediate moisture meat?
The microbiology of MM is more complex than that of the dried meat in that
stability is dependent on a number of factors and the synergistic relationship between
them. t is essential that MM is correctly formulated and that the composition is
sufficiently homogeneous to avoid localized areas where growth of micororganisms can
occur and that preservative system should remain during storage. Bacillus spp. And
$taph. Aureus are two common food-borne micro-organisms associated with dried and
dehydrated foods especially with meat extracts powder.
Why are MM important?
Urban populations are heavily dependent on processed and preserved foods,
nutritious food that are stable during storage and often long periods and can be
safely distributed to reach consumers in good condition.
Ease in storage and distribution due to low product weight
Abstraction of water from the food reduces weight and bulk and thus offers
sustantial advantage. Dehydrated food still deteriorate due to slow chemical
changes occuring between constituents of the food
lowering of AW through additon of humectants and development of equations
and other techniques which predict AW resulting from compounding a given
composition
addition of mycostatic and bacteriostatic
incorporation of additional chemicals to improve stability and organoleptic
properties
development of methods for the production of MM,based on the diffusion of
humectants into plant or animal derived or into other food structure such as
osmotic drying simultaneous removal of water and incorporation of solutes
elucidation of mechanisms and kinesthetic of chemical, physical and biological
stability.
What are examples of MM products?
1. MM products are prepared from comminuted or similarly processed meat to
permit distribution of humectants and other ingredients such as summer
sausage.
2. MM product which however has little commercial succes, is an ambient
temperature spreadable meat product, resembling pate. n some cases this was
presented as a snack product, packaged in a sealed pastic tray together with
savory biscuits and a spreader.
3. Attempts have been made in developing meat-base snack items that would
complete with potato crisps/chips such as jerky
4. Products that have been dried with salt and sugar such as country ham
5. Meat extracts are now largely produced as a by- product of corned beef
manufacture and other meat canning operation. Roller drying was widely used
but it is now replaced by spray drying, which results in a generally superior
powder and a general absence of burnt flavor notes.
What is the chemistry of dried and MM products?
Conventional drying has relatively severe effects on meat. A consideralbe degree
of protein denaturation occurs during the combined process of heat and wter removal.
What are the changes associated with low moisture foods?
During preparation of dehydrated meat, the carbonyl groups of the carborhydrate
will combine with the amino nitrogen of amino acids non-enzymetically to form unsightly
brown compounds which are troublesome in having a bitter taste. The maillard reaction,
as it is known, may also take between the sugars and intact protein.


Lesson 7
Prefabricated or reformed or Recovered Meat Products

Objectives:
1. Understand the process and principles of non-conventional meat product
processing and raw material utilization
2. Discuss the types and examples of fabricated of reformed meats
3. Relate the raw materials to the final product quality and cost

What are mechanically recovered meat?
Mechanically recovered meat (MRM) is that recovered by machines from bones,
which have already been trimmed. t consists of meat and fat from the bones, peruse
and, in some cases, bone marrow. When bones of high marrow content are processed,
the lipid and hem concentration of the product is increased. The structure of the
myofibril is also considerably altered at both Z- an M-lines and the connective tissue
content is reduced. ts dark-colored appearance; however, limits its use especially that
the meat has high pH., together with finely-divide nature make it very liable to microbial
spoilage during storage. These different circumtanses worsen the tendency for it
undergo oxidative rancidity. However, together with adequate refrigeration and limited
storage, it is possible to produce MRM suitable for human consumption.
What is the composition of a typical MRM?
The composition of MRM recovered either mechaniclaly or manually from bones
are given in table 5. Mechanically recovered meat apparently contains more lipids less
protein and very much more ash and calcium than manually-deboned meat. However,
there appears to be no single chemical index for the accurate identification of
mechanically deboned meat.
Table 5. typical composition of meat recovered from bones.
Bones source total lipid crude protein ash
calcium
ME MA ME MA ME MA ME MA
PORK HAM 39.0 37.9 10.2 15.7 4.0 0.5 1.4 0.03
Loin 29.5 23.6 14.0 16.7 1.8 0.7 0.4 0.04
Beef rump 41.9 11.8 10.0 17.6 4.3 0.8 1.5 0.08
Mutton breast 36.5 22.5 11.6 16.4 4.3 1.0 1.5 0.01
ME = meat recovered mechanically; MA = meat recovered manually
What is high presure modified meat?
These are meat produced by the use of high pressure. t could also be employed
to produce meat of any desired pH in normal ranged including biological value of meat.
The quality the meat is affected by the severity of pressure, its duration, its rate of
change, the concomitant temperature, the extent of development of rigor mortis at time
of pressurization and the types of muscle. t has been shown that in the presence of
ATP, presure dissociated actomyosin into its constituent actin and myosin and a
pressure of ca. 100 Mpa (ca. 1000atm), when applied to pre-rigor muscle ofr 2-4 min at
room temperature had a marked tenderizing effect on the cooked meat. This could also
make the possibility of producing vacuum packed meat from hot-deboned carcass.
t was also indicated that the increased heat setting properties of the myofibrillar
proteins achieved under high pressure is due to depolymerization of the myosin
monomers whereby they reagregate in a different complex on release of presure thus
suggesting a lower quantity of salt required to solublized myofibrillar proteins and in
foods, and thus operate as a binding agent, in the production of reformed meats.
What are non-meat sources?
The severe shortage of protein of high biological value in developing countries,
and the high cost of meat in those which are not fortunate economically, has fostered
great interest in the possibility of fabricating protein rich foods from plant sources in a
plalatable form. Artificial meat-like products which have controlled texture, color and
nutritive value have been marketed which can econimically extended the bulk and help
the texture of conventional meat products and non meat foods texturization of recovered
proteins has been achieved by 1) fiber spinning; 2) thermoplastic extrusion; and 3) heat
gelatin. Among the vegetable proteins exploited in this way are the gluten of wheat and
the globulins of groundnut, cottonsee, peanut, sesame, yeast and soya bean with
comparable biological values.
How can abattoir waste upgraded?
n view of drawback (low acceptability, absence of organoleptic and high cost) in
meat like product prefabricated from vegetable of bacterial proteins, it would be highly
desirable to reassess the potential for making edible and attractive foods from the
substantial amounts of slaughterhouse proteins which are currently wasted and
because of its high potential, it is noteworthly to upgrade its recovery from the source,
by partial freeze drying or by ion exchange chromatography. Azeotropic distillation,
controlled enzymic hydrolysis and extraction by alkali or anionic detergents can now be
employed to recover protein from bovine, ovine and porcine lings and stomachs using
alkaline extraction over 8 hrs at 0 and precipitation with minumum lost.
There are advantages in spinning fibers from mixtures of offal protein and
polyssaccharides such as alignate since these can confer improved textural properties
when used as a partial substituent for lean meat in sausages. Moreover, the alginates
confer binding without the use of salt, significant decrease in the number of
microorganisms, fresh bone, virtually free from adhering meat, has become
commercially available, under hygienic conditions, through operation of new mechanical
deboning process. Fibers from these sources would approximate closely to lean meat,
not with standing their derivative from prohibited offal.

1V-ANATOMY AND PHYSOLOGY OF THE MAMMARY SYSTEM
Anatomy Of the udder
The cow's udder consist of four separate quarters containing a complex network
of various sized ducts, blood vessels and capllaries, ligaments, and secretory tessue.
Becouse milk is constantly being produced and is stored in the udder between milkings,
it must strong and well-attached to the cow. n high producing cows, 60 pounds of milk
maybe stored in udder between milkings.
The size of the udder is directly proportional to udder weight. Udder size is
dependent in on the fallowing factors:
1.size of the udder varies with breed. On the average the fresian breed has cows
with udder weight of 23 kg while jersey cows have udder weight of 17 kg.
2. udder weight increases with increasing number of lacations.
3.Udder wieght increses with increasing number of lacation.
'Udder support seystem'
The size and shape of the udder may very considerably with the age and
inheritance of the cow. Attatchment of the udder to the cow is by elastic and none lastic
suspensory ligaments (see figure 1). The median suspensory ligament is located in the
center of the udder and holds the udder up in the middle. The other inelastic set of
legaments on the outer walls of the udder are called the leteral suspensory ligaments
and also aid in udder support
'UDDER DVSON'
The udder division is divided into halves by the central supporting ligament and
each half into quarters by a fine membrane(see figure 2). While each quarter is
separate and no transfer of milk occurs between quarters, antibiotics can be transferred
from one quarter to others through the extensive blood network throughout the udder.
This is a reason that a cow treated in one quarter with antibiotc must have milk from all
quarters discarded. Antibiotc in the muscle or other areas of the body will also end up in
the milk through the blood supply seystem

HSTOLOGY OF THE MAMMARY GLAND
The mammary gland is a complex organ consisting of the aveolus, lobules, and
lobes, teats, a lymphatic system, and the circulatory system

The alveolus
The alveolus is the basic component of secretory tissue.it is composed of
epithelial, cells that surround a cavity, the lumen. Milk constituents(protein,fat, lactose)
are synthesized and secreted by the epithelial cells into the lumen of the alveolus.

The alveolus is surrounded by numerous muscle cells known qs myoepithelial
cells (see figure 3). These are activated by oxytocin and cause milk ejection from the
lumen of alveolus through the capilliary milk duct wich empties into a series of
mammary (milk) ducts that get progressively larger until eventually the milk reaches the
gland and teat cistens. Myoepithelial also are found on smaller ducts in the mammary
gland and aid milk removal.

Lobules and lobes
Group of alveoli form lobules that are drained by a common duct. One lobule
may contain 150 to 250 alveoli. Lobules join together to fprm a lobe that is drained by a
larger(see figure 4). As describe previuosly these also connect to form still larger ducts
which eventually reach a mammary gland cisterns and ultimately the cteat cisterns and
streak canal as milk exists the gland.

Teat histology
The teat wall(figure 5)cantains an abundance of elastic connective tissue and
two layers of muscle tissue (an inner layer of longitudinal muscles and outer layer of
cicular muscles). The teat skin is covered with a normal squamous cell epithelium and
is hairles. The teat of steak canal is lined by epithelium and layer of flat cornified
epithelial cells . this albuminous layer of cells is frequently referred to as keratin.
Keratin is vitally important in preventing the entrance of mastitis causing organisms into
the mammary gland.

The lymphatic sytem
Lymph is a colorless fluid drained from tissue spaces by thin-walled vessels.
These vessels have many one- wayvalves that allow lymph to move only in the direction
of the lymph node(see figure 6).The supramammary and other lymph nodes in the
cows body are responsible for disease resistance by forming lymphocytes.wich are form
of white bloodn cell involved in protection against desease.
When a mastitis infection accurs, the lymp nodes increases thier output of
lymphocytes into the lymphatic vessels, wich discharge them into the cow's blood
supply lymphocytes then travel to the udder to cobat mastitis infection.
THE CRCULATORY SYSTEM
The flow of the blood to the udder is very important for milk production since
it requires about 500 volumes of blood to produce one volume of milk. A cow producing
100 pounds of milk a day will require as much 6000 gallons of blood to the udder (as
depicted in figure 7)consist of 1)heart;2)abdominal aorta; 3)posterior vena cava
;4)etenal iliac artery and vein; 5)external pudic artery and vien; 6)internal iliac and vien;
7) perineal artery and vien; 8) sigmoid flexure of the external pudic artery and vien; 9)
subcutaneous abdominal vien; 10) subcutaneous abdomenal artery; 11)cranial
mammary artery; 12) caudal mammary a rtery; 13)internal thoracic artery and vien
14;)anterior vena cava; and 15)diaphragm.

MLKNG
To harvest all the milk from the udder, you must have the cow's cooperation.
To achieve this cooperation. Treat the cow's properly, not only during the milking
process, but also from the time to cow is moved from to the milking area.

THE MLK LETDOWN PROCESS
A cow lets down her milk if she is stimulated properly before milking. Since cow
seem to be creatures of habit, this stimulation process need not be extensive but shoud
be consistent. Stimulation can include washing or massaging the udder and
forestripping milk out of each quarter. During the stimulation nerve impulses cause the
pituitary gland to discharge the hormone oxytocin into the blood system. Oxytocin then
circulates in the blood to the udder and stimulates constraction of the myoepithelial cells
sorrounding the milk- filled alveoli. The milk is then forced into the duct system and into
the gland and teat cisterns.
f a cow becomes excited or suffers pain either before or during the milking process,
the cow's cooperation stops. This excitement or pain causes release of epinephrine
(adrenaline) from the adrenal gland into the blood stream.this reduces the blood and
excitocine supply to the udder and inhibits myoepithelial cell contraction and milk
ejection(see figure 8). n order to remove as much milk as possible from the udder, it is
very important to treat the cow in a routine and gentle manner, both before and during
the milking.

THE MLK REMOVAL PROCESS
There is a positive presure inside the cow's udder of about 0.4 pounds per square
inch(psi) before the cow stimulated ; after the stimulayion the preassure increases
about 0.8 psi. The sphincter at the end of the teat is tide enough to keep the milk
inside, but if the muscle is not strong enough, milk will leak out even the cow is
stimulated.

HAND MLKNG
The outside pressure on the teat is one atmosphere or 14.1 psi. The act of hand
pressure and internal pressure forces open the sphincter muscle and the milk is
removed.

MACHNE MLKNG
The milking machine ussually applies 12.5 to 15 inches hg (mercury) of
vacuum to the outside of the teat . this produces a pressure differential of 12.5to 15
inches hg negative vacuum pressure on the outside of the teat compaired with the 0.8
psi possitive pressure inside the teat. This pressure differential is great enough to open
the sphinter muscle and the milk is ejected even at the end of milking when the internal
pressure diminishes.
Since the vacuum applied forces milk out of the teat, it is also forces blood
and body fluids to the end of the teat. f the constant vacuum applied to the teat,
damage will accur. The pulsator and the double chambered teat cups are desined to
prevent this happening(see figure 9). The stress removed from the inner and middle
tissues of the streak canal wall.
The role of the pulsator is to alternate atmosphere air and vacuum between
the liner and shell. As already explained, the vacuum causes a pressure differential that
remove the milk from the streak canals. When the pulsator admit and below the teat ,
which in turn flatterns in the steak canal causing the milk flow to end.
The liner also applies a compressive force to the teat end during its collapsed phase,
which relieves the effects of congestion at the teat end.

MLK EJECTON
Ejection of milk is accomplished by contraction of the myoepithelial cells
sorrounding each alveolous. The ejection processs result in a rapid transfer of milk
from the lobulo aveolar spaces into larger ducts. The flow of milk due to passive
withdrawal, wich is greatly increased of fallowing ejtion , is commonly known as
letdown . in some occations , the intramamary pressure is sufficiently great to
overcome the resistance of the teat sphincter so that the milk may leak from teat. Milk
ejection is a neurohormonal reflex associated with the releasen of OXYTOCN.milk
ejection reflex has a neural (afferent) and a hormonal (efferent) component.
NEUTRAL ( AFFERENT ) COMPONENT
The greatest amount of innervation in the mammary gland of the dairy cow is in the
teats. Mechanical stimulation of the teats activates pressure-sensitive nerve receptors in
the skin of the teat. The nerve impulses travels to the brain through SPNOTHALAMC
NERVE TRACT.when the cell bodies of oxytocin-containing neurons are stimulated by
these impulses originating in the teat, an ation potential moves down the oxytocin-
containing neurons from the cell body in the hypothalamus down the axon to the neuron
ending in the posterior pituitary. This causes release of oxytocin. And neurophysin inyo
the blood. The efferent pathway starts at this point.

HORMONAL (EFFERENT)COMPONENT
The efferent pathway begins with the release of oxytocin into the blood. Oxytocin
is released into the blood in response to action potential of nerve impulses originated
in the teat. t then travels to the mammary gland and binds to protain receptor sites on
the ephithelial secretory cells. This results in contractionf the secretory cells and
expulsion of milk in mammary gland. The number of oxytocin receptors increases to
maximal during the first location , and persists for the lifetime of the secretory cell.
Epithelial secretory cells respond to very low levels of oxytocin. injection of about 10 U
(international units) causes milk let down. However, as little as 0.02 U can result in milk
ejection. Milk ejection can be stimulated by suckling and milking , washing the udder ,
pressence of the young . the timing of oxytocin release relative to milk removal is an
important factor affecting milk ejection. n cattle, the concentration of oxytocin in blood
peaks within two minutes fallowing the stimulation of teats. Concentration then rapidly
declines reaching a basal level within 10 minutes. Thus it is important to attach the
milking machine ton teat within 30-60 seconds of stimulating the teat.
An essential component of the milk ejection reflex is the binding of oxytocin,
specifically and with affinity, to protien receptor sites on the myoepithelial cells. This
results in contraction of the myoepithelial cells and expulsion of milk from the mammary
gland. The number of oxytocin rceptors increases to maximal amount during the first
location,then probably persists for the lifetime of he mtoepithelial cell.
NHBTON OF MLK EJECTON
Various stressful stimuli that inhibit milk ejection are associated with increased
activity of the sympathetic nevous system.Oxytocin action can be blocked be
catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). The hormones are usually released
in response to stressful situations and increase the tone of the smooth muscles of
theammary ducts and blood vessels. This results in the reduction of oxytocin reaching
the myoepithelial cells and partial occlusion of the mamamary ducts.Moreover
epinepherin directly blocks oxytocin from binding to myoepithelial cells.This is termed
peripheral inhibation of milk ejection.Thus exogenous oxytocin will not cause milk
ejection in animals exhibiting peripheral inhibation.

A common cause of a failure to milk ejection is associated with stress of milking
in the early postpartum period especially for primiparous cows.The stress inhibits the
release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitay gland (central inhibation of milk
ejection).Exogenous oxytocin iws usually administered in these cases causing milk
ejection,it can be stated that milk ejection occurs as a result of oxytocin release,which is
normallyb couples with inhibition of the central and peripheral inhibitory controls.

"OTHER MECHANSM OF MLK EJECTON
-Myoepithelial cells will also contract in responce to vasopressin (ADH or antidiuretic
hormone) vasopressin has about 20 persent the oxytocic activity of. oxytocin
-visual or auditory stimuli can cause milk ejection. Milk ejection is a condition responce.
-stimulation of the genital tract such as vaginal destention causes release of large
amount of oxytocin.
-The mechanical top stimulus does not involve oxytocin. t will accur anesthesia or
denervation of the udder.it is not inhibited by epinephrine. This may involve distortion of
the alveolar structure of the myoepitheial cell structure, resulting in milk ejection.

STE OF OXYTOCN SYNTHESS
Oxytocin is a polypeptide hormone containing 8 amino acids with a mulecular
weight of 1007 daltons. Oxytocin is synthesized in the hypothalamus is specific nuclei,
the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus. (a cluster of nerve cells in the
brain is often called nucleus).oxytocin is synthesized as a large mulecular weight
precursor , which also consists of the OXYTOCN-CARRER PEPTDE
NEUROPHYSN.this is the intracellular storage form of oxytocin. The oxytocin -
containing vesicles are transported from the cell body in the hypothalamus to the
neuron endings in the posterior pituitary. The oxytocinneurophysin complex stored in
neurosecretory granules called HERRNG BODES in the axon endings.
TMNG S VERYTHNG
The timing of oxytocin release relative to milk removal is an emportant
factor affecting milk ejection. Oxytocin has a short half-life in blood =0.55 to 3.6 min. Tis
means that the removal of milk by machine or by nursing must be closely timed with
stimulation of teats.the oxytocin concentration in the blood normaly increases within 1-2
minutes after udder stimulation, but the amount released declines during milking. t is
stimated that the bovine pituitary gland has about 800 g of oxytocin. This is -40 times
the blood level in resting condition.only- 1/3 of pituitary oxytocin is released at milking.
The sensitvity of the neuroendocrine reflex seems to decline as location progresses.
Peak oxytocin occurs 1 minute at 1-2 weeks of location, 2 min. At 5-6 weeks. Maximum
amount oxytocin required to cause milk ejection is about 0.o2 U. However, an
enjection of 10 U of exogeneous oxytocin is used to cause milk letdown.

ROLE OF AUTONOMC NERVOUS SYSTEM AND STRESS N MLK
EJECTON

The autonomic nervous system is part of the central nervous system. t mainly control
viseral function.the autonomic nervous system is made up two types nerves:, the
parasympathetic nerves and the sympathetic nerves.

There is no dirrect innervation of alveoli or myoepithelial. Thereb is no
parasympathetic nerves: the neurotransmitter of parasympathetic nerves is
acetychlorine . there is no para sympathetic innervation in the mammary gland. 2-
sympathetic nerves: the neuroendocrine components of sympathetic nerves are
epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine (adrenaline ) is primarily from adrenal
medulla. t is well known that fright and stress interfere with the milk ejection. Fright and
stres activate the neuroadrenal system and cause the release of epinephrine. The
inhibitory effect of epinephrine on milk ejection occurs both centrally in the brain and in
the mammary gland.

PART 1-DARY TECHNOLOGY

V-MLK PRODUCTON
Proper milking technique greatly influences milk yield, udder health and
milking time.these fdactors are important in for economic milk production. Therefore , all
milkers must adopt correct milking practices.
Good milking procedures include milking at regular intervals; fast, gentle and
complete milking and sanitation.

A. HANDMLKNG
When the hard size is small , about 10 cow's or less , hand milking is practical.
The cost of labor and equipment is small. But hygienic standards should be met.
PREPARATON BEFORE MLKNG:
1.Wash and sanitize the milk pails. f possible use seamless, stainless steel or well
trimmed pails.
2.wash the animals thoroughly with cloth wrung out of 5% of chlorine solution (200ppm).
Do not use sponge in washing udders. Washing the udder is also aids in stimulating
milk let down
3.after thoroughly wasing the animal equipment, the milker shoud wash his hands with
soap and water . the hands should be dried. The milker himself must be free from any
communicable disease or open cuts in the hands.
4. dry the udder with clean cloth. While wipping, rub th4e whole udder a the back and
front to further stimulate the animal.
5. strip the teats to determine mastitis. Forn the first three or four streams of milk from
each teat,examine in a trip cup of abnormalities in appearance and consistency. Flaky
or strigy milk and/or pressence of blood clots may indicate mastitis . any milk showing
these signs must be used for human consumtion.mlking animals having signs of
mastitis shoud be milked last.

When everything is set , start milking. Mlking shoud be through at a span
of 5 to 7 minutes only.

1. Grasp the teat then close the thumb and first finger around the teat to
prevent the milk from going back to the udder.
2.close the second finger fallowed by the third finger. Apply steady pressure.
Do not jerk the teat down . a slight upward push of the teat is advisable.
3. close the little finger and squize with the entire hand until the milk comes
out.
4. then , release the pressure on the tetat and open ur finger so that the teat
can refill again. Repeat the process with the other hand on the other teats
and continue milking alternately until very little milk comes out.When all the milk has
been apparently produced by straight forward milking slide the fingers up back of the
udder.Then with the gentle kneading motion downwards work in the fingers from the
top of the udder to the top of the teats.Five seconds of kneading may bring out
whatever little milk can be milked out by the normal straight forward milking.
5.Dip the teats in chlorine solution after milking.

B.MACHNE MLKNG(claw type)
The milking machine sucks the milk by constant vacuum and conveys it to a
suitable container or pipeline.t also squeezes the milk periodically to maintain normal
blood circulation.
The machine milking procedure as ff.
1.Follow the preparatory procedure recommended in handnilking.
2.Attachment .Attach the teat cups 1 min. After starting preparation.Attach the
machine properly.Hold the milk claw in the nearest the cows head.Push up the shut-
off valve with one finger and attach the teat cup to the farthest teat with the other hand.
Do not forget to maintain the s-bend in the milk tube so that no air is sucked into the
vacuum system.
f the has very large udder or a sagging udder,hold the teat cups gathered in
one hand so that dirt is sucked up from the floor.f the has only three teat teke the
excess teat cup turn it around once and insert it between the pulsation and milk tube
of the opposing teat cup so that it remains in a cut of position.
With bucket milking place the bucket just behind the cows foreleg so that the
tubes are properly stretched.

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